9ICRS Plenary Addresses

PLENARY ADDRESSES

1

ROLE OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS IN CORAL

REEF PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT.

Alcala, Angel C.* *Silliman University–Angelo King

Center for Research and Environmental Management,

Marine Laboratory, Bantayan, 6200 Dumaguete City,

Philippines. Email: suakcrem@fil.net

Coral reefs are now under severe stress from both natural and

human-induced environmental changes causing considerable

damage. Many of the human activities directly or indirectly

impacting coral reefs are driven by socio-economic factors.

Foremost among these factors is poverty. In developing

countries the need for sources of subsistence living, of

livelihood, and of income through tourism and exploitation of

economically important species is great. As a result, coral reefs

have been mined, blasted, poisoned, overfished or otherwise

subjected to misuse and abuse. There must be a way to utilize

socio-economic values of and benefits from coral reefs as

incentive for their protection and sustainable management. To

do this, successful approaches to conservation such as

establishment of marine protected areas, community-based

coastal resource management and integrated coastal zone

management as well as other useful management tools should

be applied to current efforts at coral reef conservation. Indeed,

experience has shown that such approaches may be our last

option to stop the degradation of coral reefs and coral reef

resources heavily impacted by man.

ECOMORPHOLOGY OF REEF FISHES:

TRANSCENDING BARRIERS IN SPACE AND TIME

Bellwood, David R.*. *Dept Of Marine Biology, James

Cook University, Townsville, Qld. 4811, Australia. Email:

david.bellwood@jcu.edu.au

Coral reefs support a staggering diversity of species and

forms. This grabs our attention but challenges our attempts to

describe the system or the biology of the component species.

We now have a workable taxonomic description for most reef

fishes and corals. Quantitative and experimental studies have

added to this knowledge to provide a picture of the factors

shaping local populations. The challenge now is to look

beyond individual species and reefs to patterns and processes

operating at larger scales. Recent descriptions of congruent

global biogeographic patterns in reef fishes and corals point to

processes that operate beyond species and population levels,

and highlight the need to consider reefs systems in a global

context. Furthermore, observations of the abilities of

individuals emphasises the critical importance of

understanding the function or role of individuals in reef

systems. Ecomorphology provides a basis for evaluating

individual abilities which transcends space and time, a method

based on a description of abilities alone. I will provide

examples from reef fishes which describe how this approach

may help us to understand the significance of abilities in

shaping assemblages and in describing the roles of reef fish

among habitats, between oceans and back through time to the

reef fish assemblages of the Eocene, Jurassic and Triassic. This

approach offers a common language as relevant to marine

parks managers as to palaeontologists where abilities, not

names or numbers, are important.

CORAL REEF CONSERVATION IN PALAU: A

SUCCESS STORY

Idechong, Noah* Palau

No abstract

HOMAGE TO STYLOPHORA PISTILLATA: AN

IMPORTANT CORAL IN CORAL REEF RESEARCH.

Loya Y., Department of Zoology, The George S. Wise

Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv

69978, Israel. Email: yosiloya@post.tau.ac.il

Stylophora pistillata (Esper 1797), one of the most

important hermatypic species on a global scale, has been used

for many years as a key species for coral research in many

fields, including Coral Biology, Ecology, Physiology,

Biochemistry, Geochemistry, Immunology, Evolution,

Paleoecology, Biogeography and others. This paper highlights

some of the major contributions made in coral reef research

using S. pistillata as a model species, from the community

level to the cellular and molecular levels. Studies concerning

regional variations at the population level include population

structure and dynamics, life history strategy, growth and

regulation of populations, regeneration, competitive networks

and reproductive strategy. The accumulated information has

served studies contributing to coral reef conservation and

restoration strategies. Major contributions have been made to

our knowledge of the physiology of corals, especially in

advancing our understanding of the symbiotic relationship

between the coral host and its symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae),

such as environmental effects (biotic and/or abiotic factors) on

photosynthesis, respiration and calcification mechanisms,

energy budgets (autotrophy vs. heterotrophy), carbon

partitioning and utilization, adaptive mechanisms of algal

regulation and causes and effects of coral bleaching. Other

studies concerning symbiotic relationships between the coral

host and animals associated with it (sponges, other cnidarians,

molluscs, crustaceans, worms echinoderms and fish) discuss

obligatory, mutualistic or parasitic relationships affecting the

life history of the coral and its symbiotic organisms. Seminal

studies have been performed on marine pollution effects (crude

oil, sewage and phosphates) at the

CORAL REEFS OF INDONESIA: PAST, PRESENT AND

FUTURE

Nontji, Anugerah., Indonesian Institute of Science,

Jakarta. Email:aanontji@indosat.net.id

The geographic setting of Indonesia, situated in the tropics

between Asia and Australia, and between the Pacific and the

Indian Ocean, has made this archipelago an ideal place for

coral reefs to grow. Coral reefs are found along the coast of

many of the islands in various formations e.g. fringing reefs,

barrier reefs, and atolls. Coral reefs have been long known to

provide various uses for the coastal community, such as for

food, building materials, trades, etc. Recent development has

confronted the reefs to an increasing threat because of the

detrimental impact of human activities, such as from

destructive fishing techniques (dynamiting, poisoning, etc),

over exploitation of resources, pollution, etc. The total area of

coral reefs in Indonesia is estimated roughly about 85,700 km 2 .

Recent surveys indicated that only about 6 % of the Indonesian

reefs is still in excellent condition, and the rest are in various

stages of destruction. There is a strong need to rehabilitate and

manage the coral reefs in proper way so as to maintain their

sustainability. A Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management

Program (COREMAP) was launched in 1998, to respond to

this issue. This multi-sectoral program is planned for 15 years

(until 2013) and will be executed in ten provinces in Indonesia.

The first phase (1998-2001) however, will be executed in four

provinces (Riau, South Sulawesi, Papua, and Nusa Tenggara

Timur) and financially supported by the World Bank, Asia

Development Bank, and AusAID..9ICRS Plenary Addresses

2

CORAL REEFS AND CORAL REEF STUDIES IN

JAPAN

Omori M.*. *Department of Aquatic Biosciences, Tokyo

University of Fisheries, 4-5-7 Konan, Minato-ku, Tokyo

108-8477, Japan Email: makomori@tokyo-u-fish.ac.jp

Japan has a long history of coral reef research. Japan was

even a leading nation in the world in this research at one time.

In June 1934, the Japanese Society for the Promotion of

Scientific Research established the Palao Tropical Biological

Station in Koror Island, Palau, which was then governed by the

Japanese Mandate of the League of Nations. The war

unfortunately stopped all studies there in 1943. In spite of the

short life span of the station, the research activities by Prof. S.

Hatai and 29 young Japanese scientists contributed

significantly to studies on coral reefs. The return of the

Ryukyu Archipelago to Japan in 1972 allowed researchers

access to coral reefs once again. The University of Ryukyus

began research at the Sesoko Marine Science Center. The

Akajima Marine Science Laboratory, which is a small non-governmental

research station, was established at Akajima

Island in 1988. Scientific research on coral reefs is being

conducted at various institutions in Japan today. Japanese

Coral Reef Society was established in 1997, and is actively

promoting exchange of information and public awareness

through research, training, and publications. The coral reefs in

the Ryukyu Archipelago will be shown by video.

AGENDA 21, INTERNATIONAL CORAL REEF

INITIATIVE AND THE NEW MILLENIUM:

PROGRESS AND PROSPECTS FOR CORAL REEFS

Salvat, B.* *EPHE, ESA CNRS 8046, Université de

Perpignan, France. Email : bsalvat@univ-perp.fr

1929 (Sir Maurice Yonge), the first International Coral Reef

Symposium - ICRS - in India, 1969 , and the launching of the

International Society for Reef Studies- ISRS - in 1980 (David

Stoddart) and the International Coral Reef Initiative - ICRI - in

1995 (USA)… these are landmarks of the increasing interest

in, and concern for, coral reefs. An analysis of what has been

done and why is presented in the general context of political,

economic and social evolution over these last decades :

research for improved knowledge and management of

resources; activities at local, national, regional and global

levels; and creation and activities of international organisations

(governmental and nongovernmental) and large international

conferences. Several decades ago, the major concern focussed

on the question of what are coral reefs and how they function.

The main concern today is how to manage human activities

affecting coral reef ecosystems. The present situation -global

view of the reef ecosystem and the effects of global economic

expansion - raises the challenge of what action must be

undertaken at the beginning of the new millenium. Can we

predict what will happen and how to react at different levels

and in different fields of activities with the willingness to

preserve coral reefs for the benefit of mankind ?

RETICULATE EVOLUTION: THE ALTERNATIVE

PARADIGM.

Veron J.E.N.*. *AIMS, PMB 3, Townsville MC 4810,

Australia. Email:

For most marine organisms, ocean currents are the vehicles

of larval dispersal and are therefore the pathways of genetic

connectivity. These paths repeatedly and continuously change

over time, creating changes to the distribution ranges and

genetic compositions of species. Geographic space and

evolutionary time interact: species break apart, then re-form

into different units. For corals, this creates ‘reticulate’ patterns

in both geographic space and evolutionary time. In geographic

space, species are typically distinct in any single region but

loose their identity as definable units over very great distances.

When these patterns are envisaged in evolutionary time,

species have no time or place of origin and there are no

distinctions between geographic (sympatric) and non-geographic

(allopatric) concepts of origination. Differences

between species and subspecies taxonomic levels and between

species and ‘hybrids’ are arbitrary and/or unrecognisable.

Importantly, reticulate evolution is driven by environmental

parameters, not biological competition. Rates of evolution and

extinction (which occurs through fusions as well as

terminations of lineages) are similar over long geological

intervals. Reticulate evolution gives the overall impression of

punctuated equilibria, as is frequently observed in fossil

records.

JOURNEY TO CENTRE OF THE CENTRE: ORIGINS

OF HIGH MARINE FAUNAL DIVERSITY IN

CENTRAL INDONESIA FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF

AN ACROPOROLOGIST.

Wallace, Carden C. Museum of Tropical Queensland,

Townsville, Australia 4810. Email: carden@mtq.qld.gov.au

The reef coral mega-genus Acropora has been shown to have

had its likely origins in Africa or Europe, far from the current

“centre of diversity” of marine life, and its own location of

greatest diversity, in the Wallacea region of Indonesia. How

did this genus come to reach its current diversity focus? The

most likely explanation involves historical tectonic and

eustatic events, including partitioning of the old Tethys

Seaway during the events of the Miocene period, as well as

extinctions of a broader Pacific fauna during the more recent

eustatic periods of the Plio-Pleistocene. The continuous

presence of an open passageway through Wallacea, even

during eustatic periods, through to the present day, has ensured

that this area has retained its deepwater fauna as well as being

open to settlement by shallow water Pacific species. The

relevance of these events is collaborated by a morphological

phylogeny of the genus: a revision of these ideas, using genetic

characters, is not far behind.9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A1: Large Scale Ecology

Session A1: Large Scale Ecology of Coral Reefs: Linking Biogeography, Meta

Communities and Local Ecological Dynamics

3

SCALING THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE

CORALLINE ALGAE HYDROLITHON ONKODES TO

THE CALCIFICATION OF TWO REEFS USING IN

SITU AND REMOTE SENSING DATA.

Andréfouët Serge * , Claude Payri, J.R.M Chisholm, J.

Jaubert, H. Ripley. *University of South Florida, Dept. of

Marine Science, 140 7 th Ave. South, Saint Petersburg, Fl.

33701, USA. Email: serge@carbon.marine.usf.edu

Hydrolithon onkodes is the dominant coralline algae on the

reef flats of atoll rims in the Tuamotu archipelago and can

occupy as much as 80% of the reef surface. Conversely, on

barrier reefs in the Society islands, H. onkodes is scarce,

accounting for less than 3% percent of the total cover.

Calcification on the reef flats of Rangiroa Atoll (Tuamotu) and

Moorea Island (Society) is estimated to average 7 kg

CaCO3.m -2 .y -1 . Acquisition of multispectral (10 bands between

425-785 nm) remote sensing data using a Compact Airborne

Spectrometer Imager in 1998, enabled the distribution of H.

onkodes on these reefs to be mapped on scales of several km 2

at a spatial resolution of 1 m 2 . The oceanic margins of the atoll

reef flats were dominated by H. onkodes, interspersed with

patchy communities of encrusting corals and turfs. At Moorea,

it was necessary to combine airborne data with ground surveys

in order to map the density of algae, as this could not be

determined directly from airborne data. Considering that H.

onkodes produces 8.5-11 g CaCO3.m -2 .d -1 , its contribution to

reef flat calcification on both reefs can be compared. However,

some precautions are necessary when comparing these

contributions to the total calcification measured along entire

reefs. We discuss the hypotheses necessary to perform such

comparisons and the limits of this multi-scale exercise.

THE LENGTH OF THE LARVAL PHASE IN CORALS:

NEW INSIGHTS INTO PATTERNS OF

CONNECTIVITY.

Baird A.*. *School of Marine Biology & Aquaculture,

James Cook University, Townsville Q. 4811, Australia.

Email: andrewbaird@ozemail.com.au

One of the major goals in marine ecology is to establish the

degree of connectivity between local populations. To test the

likelihood of localised recruitment and whether or not the

geographical range of corals is influenced by dispersal ability I

compared the larval longevity of five species of acroporid

corals of contrasting distributions. Pronounced differences

were apparent among species in the capacity to delay

metamorphosis. The larvae of Acropora valida remained

competent for 90 days, compared to 60 days for A. millepora

& A. gemmifera and 14 days for A. pulchra. Furthermore, the

larvae of wide spread species settled more rapidly with peak

settlement in A. valida & A. humilis occurring on day 4

compared to day 7 for A. millepora & A. gemmifera and day

10 for A. pulchra. Successful colonization of remote locations

seems therefore to depend on both larval longevity and on

rapid settlement to enable populations to become established.

GENETIC POPULATION STRUCTURE OF A SOFT

CORAL WITH SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL MODE OF

REPRODUCTION.

Bastidas* C., Uthicke S., Fabricius K., Benzie J.A.H.

*Australian Institute of Marine Science PMB No. 3

Townsville QLD 4810 and James Cook University

Townsville QLD 4811, AUSTRALIA. Email:

c.bastidas@aims.gov.au

Many anthozoans combine sexual and asexual reproductive

modes, with dispersal between reefs being achieved by sexual

propagules, whereas asexual division of colonies is suggested

as an important mechanism to gain space in the reef. This

study aimed to investigate the relative importance of sexual

and asexual reproduction, and gene flow, between 12 reef

populations of Sinularia flexibilis (Octocorallia, Alcyoniidae)

along the Great Barrier Reef (maximum of 1300 km apart).

This widely distributed Indo-Pacific species is a gamete

broadcaster that can achieve large aggregations in near shore

reefs in the GBR. The results of electrophoretic analyses of 9

polymorphic allozymes indicated that genotypic frequencies

for each population did not differ significantly from those

expected from Hardy-Weinberg predictions. This demonstrates

a dominant role of sexual reproduction in these populations,

i.e. clones do not extend considerably beyond the minimum

spatial sampling scale in the study (5 m). However, significant

genetic differentiation between some populations (FST),

indicates that gene flow is restricted between some reefs and

even sites within a reef. Nevertheless, there was no

relationship between geographic separation and genetic

differentiation. Analysis comparing groups of populations

showed no significant differentiation on a north-south gradient

or across the shelf (in relation to distance to the coast) in the

GBR.

LARVAL COMPETENCE PERIODS INFLUENCE IN

CORAL CONNECTIVITY AND SETTLEMENT: A

MODELLING APPROACH.

Blanco-Martín, Bernardo*. *School of Marine Biology and

Aquaculture, James Cook University, Townsville QLD.

4811, Australia. Email: Bernardo.Blanco-Martin@

jcu.edu.au

Coral ecology, recovery from disturbance, biogeography and

evolution are to a certain extent determined by the dispersive

larval phase connecting their populations on different reefs.

Various factors have been identified as driving dispersal,

including the spatial properties of reefs, hydrodynamics and

larval biology. Larval competence curves describe the relative

amount of larvae available for settling at different times from

release. A study of their influence in the connectivity and

settlement in coral populations using a spatially realistic model

is presented presented. A G.I.S. coverage of the Great Barrier

Reef was employed to create an spatial representation of the

Capricorn Bunker Group in a Cellular Automata Model. The

models were run using five different larval competence curves

(three brooders Stylophora pistillata, Pocillorpora damicornis

and Seriatopora hystrix and two spawners Acropora valida

and Acropora millepora) and two different current sets

(random and south trend). The larval outputs and inputs for the

whole system and six selected reefs were investigated. The

earlier peak in the curves presented by the brooders is

translated in a larger number of larvae settling per larvae

produced in all current conditions. The longer tail in the curves

for spawners allows them to have a higher connectivity under

random currents but not under southern flow in this reef

system. Individual reefs and coral species present very

different behaviors, particularly in their connectivity..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A1: Large Scale Ecology

4

RARITY IN COMMUNITIES OF CORAL REEF

FISHES.

Caley J.R.*, Geoffrey P. Jones, and Philip L. Munday.

*School of Marine Biology and Aquaculture, James Cook

University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia.

Patterns of rarity in biological communities reflect the

interactions of processes operating on local ecological scales

and regional and biogeographic scales. A species may be rare

either in terms of its numerical abundance or its geographic

range. Its status as rare or common has important implications

for local ecological interactions and for conservation and

management issues. The study of rarity in terrestrial species

has developed rapidly in the past two decades. In comparison,

issues of rarity for marine species are poorly understood. Here

we report on analyses of rarity in coral reef fish communities.

Our analyses confirm that some patterns of rarity in these

communities are consistent with patterns previously identified

for terrestrial species while inconsistent with others. These

analyses have also highlighted the generally poor availability

of data for marine organisms with which to do such analyses.

TURBIDITY AND SEDIMENTATION EFFECTS ON

LARGE-SCALE PATTERNS OF OCTOCORAL

BIODIVERSITY.

Fabricius K.* and Glenn De’ath. *CRC for the Great

Barrier Reef World Heritage Area, Australian Institute of

Marine Science, PMB No. 3, Townsville MC, Qld 4810,

Australia. Email: k.fabricius@aims.gov.au

Patterns of octocoral biodiversity were determined from

extensive reef surveys along and across the whole GBR.

Species inventories and estimates of octocoral abundances

were assessed on 361 sites (161 reefs), each covering 1000 to

4000 m 2 between 0 and 18 m depth. Mid-shelf reefs north of

Latitude 16_ are the centre of octocoral biodiversity on the

GBR. Overlapping distribution ranges of near-shore and off-shore

taxa maximise richness on mid-shelf reefs. Taxonomic

richness decreases with increasing latitude, and is low and

relatively even across the shelf south of 21__lat. Richness is

strongly affected by water clarity, and to some extent by

sediment deposits: at any given position across and along the

shelf, the generic richness is greatest in areas of low turbidity

and high sediment deposits. Percent cover of hard corals and

octocorals are poorly explained by physical and spatial

variables. There are two major management implications of

these findings: (1) Turbidity and sedimentation, which increase

with run-off from disturbed soils, affect the generic richness of

octocorals. The reefs with highest octocoral richness are < 20

km off the coasts, and thus well within the range of terrestrial

run-off, indicating potential loss of diversity through

expanding land use. (2) Taxonomic composition is more

strongly related to environmental conditions than are total hard

and soft coral cover; taxonomic inventories are thus better

indicators of human impacts than is assessment of total cover.

THE ROLE OF ENDEMISM IN CORAL SPECIES

DIVERSITY.

Douglas Fenner.* *Australian Institute of Marine Science,

Townsville, Australia. Email: d.fenner@aims.gov.au

Endemic species have been proposed to contribute to high-diversity

coral communities. Endemic species are those with

restricted biogeographic distributions. However, in lists of

endemic corals in areas such as Indonesia, most of the endemic

species listed were described quite recently. A list of all

Acropora species described in the past 30 years shows that

most were known from one area when first described, but are

now known from several areas. In this report, new records of

coral species are given for the Philippines, Indonesia, and

Australia, some of which were previously considered endemic

to another country. Additional newly published records

indicate very low numbers of endemic species, such as only

two endemic corals now known from the Philippines,

representing only about 0.5% of the coral species known there.

A comparison of different areas around the globe indicates that

the number of endemic coral species in most areas is about 0-6

species, and that the number of endemic species does not vary

with the total species diversity in an area, over a range of two

orders of magnitude of total species diversity. Thus,

endemism does not contribute to the high coral species

diversity seen on some coral reefs.

SOURCE/SINK POPULATION STRUCTURE OF

CORAL REEF FISH: THE IMPORTANCE OF PATCH

QUALITY VERSUS PATCH LOCATION AND

IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT.

Figueira W.F.*. *Duke University Marine Lab, 135 Duke

Marine Lab Rd., Beaufort, NC 28516. Email:

wff@duke.edu

Populations of fish on individual patches of coral reef are

typically thought of as open sub-populations, dynamically

coupled via larval dispersal to a larger network of patches. In

such systems, successful management using spatial closures

requires identification of areas that contribute

disproportionately to the overall metapopulation. The coral

reef literature generally considers the spatial location of a

patch to be most important, with the term “source” applied to

upstream patches due to their ability to seed downstream

(“sink”) patches with larval recruits. There is, however,

considerable evidence that factors of habitat quality within a

patch can significantly impact the demographic rates of

resident fish. In this study I use a spatially explicit computer

simulation model of a generalized reef fish to evaluate how

patch contribution to the metapopulation is affected by these

two patch characteristics: 1) relative location; and, 2)

demographic rates. Previous modeling suggests that

understanding the relative contribution of both factors can be

central to designing successful reserves, and that uninformed

placement of reserves has the potential to negatively affect the

population by displacing fishing effort onto source areas.

Conditions such as the magnitude and direction of currents,

spatial geometry of the metapopulation, and relative

differences in demography that may cause one or the other

patch characteristic to dominate are discussed with special

attention paid to the extent of local recruitment..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A1: Large Scale Ecology

5

POPULATION DYNAMICS OF REEF FISHES AT

LARGE SCALES: USING COMPUTER SIMULATIONS

TO MAKE LARGE-SCALE INFERENCES FROM

SMALL-SCALE DATA.

Forrester G.E.*, Richard R. Vance and Mark A. Steele.

*Dept. of Biological Sciences, University of Rhode Island,

Kingston, RI 02881-0816, USA. Email address:

gforrester@uri.edu

Field demographic data collected from fish occupying small

patch reefs (a few m 2 in area) were used to parameterize a

model that describes fish abundance on a collection of several

hundred such patches of reef (which we call a

mesopopulation). Small-scale spatial density dependence

causes the relationship between settlement and mesopopulation

abundance to become nonlinear. Under many conditions

simulated, however, the nonlinearity is very slight, suggesting

that abundance measured at large scales in the field will often

be strongly correlated with settlement rates. Overall, though,

the model establishes that density dependent interactions on

small patches of reef strongly influence population dynamics

at larger spatial scales. In all cases considered, demographic

rates that are density dependent on individual reefs also prove

density dependent on the scale of the entire reef array, and

demographic rates that are independent of density at small

scales remain so at large scales. Furthermore, observed

mesopopulation-level demographic rate functions strongly

resemble approximations generated by “scaling up” the rate

functions that apply to individual reefs. Changes in between-reef

migration rate alter the magnitude but not the qualitative

nature of these mesopopulation properties.

SPATIAL PATTERNS IN THE AGE STRUCTURE,

DEMOGRAPHY AND ABUNDANCE OF A CORAL

REEF FISH, Acanthurus triostegus.

Halford, A. R.* and Meekan, M. G. *The Australian

Institute of Marine Science, P.O. Box 264, Dampier, WA,

6713, Australia. Email: a.halford@aims.gov.au

Few studies have examined spatial patterns in the

demography of coral reef fishes at scales from 10’s to 100’s of

km. Information that is currently available is either derived

from a single locality or from localities spread across large

spatial scales (>100km). In the latter case, such studies focus

on species that are the targets of fisheries and as a result,

demographic parameters are confounded by differences in

fishing effort among localities. Here, we examine variation in

the demography, age structure and abundance of a common

surgeonfish at localities spread 200km along the length of

Ningaloo Reef, WA. As this species is not fished, demographic

patterns can be compared without confounding effects of

fishing effort. Abundances were estimated using underwater

visual census while collections of adult fish provided otoliths

for age analysis. Abundances, age structures and growth and

mortality rates were compared among localities. In addition,

we attempted to identify peaks in age structures corresponding

to successful year-classes and examined the spatial coherency

of these events.

LOCAL AND REGIONAL PATTERNS IN THE

COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF CORALS.

Hughes, T.P*., H.V. Cornell, M.J. Caley, R.H. Karlson,

C.C. Wallace, J. Wolstenholme. *Department of Marine

Biology, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811,

Australia. Email: terry.hughes@jcu.edu.au

Community ecologists now recognize that to understand

patterns of biodiversity, there is an urgent need to synthesize

large-scale phenomena with local processes. This demands a

multi-scale or hierarchical approach. We have begun a multi-scale

study of the composition and relative abundances of

corals along the pacific diversity gradient, from indonesia to

french polynesia. Our goals are to examine how local diversity

responds to variation in the size of the regional species pool,

and to quantify the relative variation in community

composition at different scales (ie. Among adjaSchleyer cent

zones, sites, islands and regions). So far, we have sampled 52

sites on 14 islands within four regions (png, the solomon

islands, samoa, and french polynesia), a total of 1,560 x 10m

transects. Most variation in diversity and community structure

occurs at the smallest and largest scales - among depth zones

(the reef flat, crest and slope) and among geographic regions -compared

to adjacent sites and islands that are much more

homogeneous. Surveys of juvenile corals reveal major

differences in the underlying dynamics of different regions.

For example, over half of the coral recruits in png and the

solomon islands belong to genera that are absent entirely in

samoa and french polynesia. Widespread species typically vary

in abundance among regions by an order of magnitude or

more, highlighting the need to quantify biogeographical

patterns using ecological as well as taxonomic data.

BENTHIC HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS OF REEF

FISHES IN THE FLORIDA KEYS: COUPLING OF

HABITATS AND FISH DISTRIBUTIONS VIA GIS

TECHNOLOGY.

Jeffrey, C.F.G.*, C. Pattengill-Semmens, K. Buja, J.D.

Christensen, M. Coyne, M. E. Monaco, and S. Gittings.

*National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,

National Ocean Service, 1305 East-West Highway, SSMC-IV,

N/SCI-1 Room 9222, Silver Spring MD, 20910. Email:

chris.jeffrey@noaa.gov

The spatial trends in the distribution of fish assemblages

within the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary were

examined as part of a collaboration between the Biogeography

Program and Marine Sanctuaries Division of the National

Ocean Service and the Reef Environmental Education

Foundation (REEF). The objectives were to map and model

the abundance and large-scale distribution patterns of reef

fishes among benthic habitats, examine correlations between

habitat diversity and fish community structure, and test

hypotheses of non-uniform fish distribution patterns among

benthic habitats. The Shannon-Weaver Diversity function, _pi

ln pi, where pi is the proportion of each benthic habitat, was

calculated from digitized (Arc View GIS) habitat data. GIS

maps showing the distribution patterns and benthic habitat

associations of fishes were developed from presence-absence

fish data. Fish species richness was non-uniform among

benthic habitats. Fish distribution and abundance varied among

benthic habitats, and fish-habitat associations differed among

several reef fish taxa. Probability maps and spatially-explicit

GIS prediction models of fish-habitat associations across large

spatial scales show that benthic habitat may determine reef fish

assemblage structure and large-scale patterns of reef fish

distribution..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A1: Large Scale Ecology

6

CHANGES IN FISH AND CORAL COMMUNITIES

ACROSS AN OCEANOGRAPHIC BOUNDARY IN THE

GULF OF ADEN.

Kemp, Jeremy*. *Department of Biology, University of

York, York YO1 5DD, UK. Email: jmk100@york.ac.uk

The seas of the Arabian peninsula are characterised by high

levels of endemism in coral reef associated taxa such as

shorefishes, and by highly varied ecological communities in

the shallow sublittoral. These patterns have been attributed in

part to the presence of one of the worlds five great coastal

upwellings, occurring seasonally along the Arabian Sea coast

of the peninsula. A study of fish and coral communities on the

Gulf of Aden coast of the Republic of Yemen, at the western

boundary of the upwelling, reveals that this boundary

coincides with changes in fish assemblages and coral

communities, and with a hybrid zone in angelfish. This

supports the hypothesis that the upwelling is of central

importance to the marine biogeography of Arabia.

CONCEPTUAL CHALLENGES OF HURRICANE

ECOLOGY.

Kerr, Alexander M.*. *Osborn Memorial Laboratories,

Yale University, PO Box 208106, New Haven CT 06520-

8106 USA. Email: alexander.kerr@yale.edu

Cyclones, typhoons, and hurricanes are ecologically

instantaneous terawatt events and the most acute form of

disturbance to coral reefs likely to be observed in a human

lifetime. Still, they can occur over twice a year on some

western pacific reefs. Early empirical studies of cyclone effects

assisted in shifting the focus from equilibrium-based models of

community structure to those incorporating stochastic events.

Conclusions from most later studies, though, have been

speculative or, when qualitatively robust, rather obvious. This

history has had two results: 1) continued ignorance about how

cyclones affect variation in community structure at all but the

smallest spatial and temporal scales and 2) a widely held belief

that cyclones are unimportant ecologically because they are

infrequently observed and their effects are locally

unpredictable. The latter impression is based on a surprisingly

limited sample of opportunistic and geographically biased

studies. Still, the few large-scale observations to date suggest

increasing predictability with increasing scale. Moreover, a

considerable body of theory from fluid mechanics exists to

guide hypothesis testing. Here, i demonstrate a mean-field

approach based on linear wave theory for studying the

ecological effects of cyclone waves at local to global scales.

Shallow-water significant wave characteristics are produced

for any given reef, incorporating the effects of shoaling and

refraction on deepwater waves estimated from archived

meteorological data. I find an unanticipated wave climate that

may be useful for isolating the long-term effects of cyclones

on coral-reef community structure.

MULTI-SCALE VARIATION IN THE SIZE

STRUCTURE OF CORALS IN THE WESTERN-CENTRAL

PACIFIC.

Kospartov, Marie C. * and Terence P. Hughes. *Dept.

Marine Biology, James Cook University, Townsville,

Queensland 4811, Australia. Email:

Marie.Kospartov@jcu.edu.au

The size structure of a population is a product of its rates of

recruitment, growth, mortality, and in the case of modular

organisms, partial mortality, fission and fusion. Spatial

variation in the size structure of populations of a taxon can

therefore indicate the spatial scales at which the rates of these

demographic processes differ. We examined spatial variation

in the size structure of five coral taxa, at scales ranging from

tens of metres to thousands of kilometres. For each taxon

(Galaxea fascicularis, Montastrea curta, Pocillopora

meandrina, P. verrucosa and massive Porites spp.), variation

was greatest between depths, with populations on reef crests

having a greater proportion of small colonies and smaller

maximum sizes than reef slope populations. Regional-scale

differences (between Papua New Guinea, east Australia and

French Polynesia) also accounted for substantial amounts of

variation in size structure, whilst there was very little variation

among neighbouring sites or reefs nested within regions.

Demographic modelling indicates that these patterns are

created by modest differences in rates of recruitment and

survival. The results of this study suggest that small-scale

variation in demographic processes often exceed differences

among regions, but both can have an important influence on

population dynamics.

COLONY SIZE FREQUENCIES, MORTALITY, AND

RECRUITMENT OF ACROPORA PALMATA AND

MONTASTRAEA ANNULARIS, ANDROS ISLAND,

BAHAMAS.

Kramer, Patricia R.*, Kramer, P.A., Ginsburg, R.N.

*Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science,

University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway,

Miami, FL, 33149. Email: pkramer@rsmas.miami.edu

The population dynamics of two reef building corals,

Acropora palmata (n=2052) and Montastraea annularis

complex (n=1445) were investigated at 60 sites along the semi-isolated,

extensive (>150km) reef system of Andros Island,

Bahamas. Aerial photographs and Landsat TM imagery were

used to stratify and map reef distribution and select appropriate

spatial scales (150km and <10km) to compare the variability of

population parameters. Population data analyzed included

colony size frequencies, the amount of partial mortality (recent

and old), and the number of coral recruits. On shallow reefs

Acropora palmata comprised 65% of the adult population, 9%

of the recruits, and averaged 120-140 cm in diameter. On deep

fore reefs, M. annularis complex comprised 70% of adults, 6%

of recruits and averaged 40-50 cm. Average old mortality for

A. palmata was 38%, 27% for M. annularis and for both

species, mortality increased with size up to the mode of the

population. The variation of these parameters between local

populations is influenced by local and large-scale processes

such as wave energy, presence of coastal creeks, grazing

pressure, habitat availability and macroalgal competition.

Consequences of two recent disturbance events (bleaching and

disease) that resulted in significantly depressed local

populations are discussed. We hypothesize the Andros system

is fairly isolated from other large populations, but is well

connected between local populations..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A1: Large Scale Ecology

7

SPATIAL VARIATION IN ADULT DEMOGRAPHY

AND REEF FISH POPULATION DYNAMICS: A

SIMULATION STUDY.

Kritzer J.P.*, C.R. Davies. *CRC Reef Research Centre,

James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia.

Email: Jacob.Kritzer@jcu.edu.au

An important debate in the history of reef fish ecology has

focused on the relative importance of recruitment intensity and

its modification by post-settlement events in structuring

populations. The role of adult populations in generating

recruitment events, and therefore in structuring future states,

has been largely overlooked. This study explored the

implications of spatial variation in adult demography for

population dynamics by simulation of hypothetical reef fish

metapopulations. We considered the baseline case of a

metapopulation with homogeneous demographic traits, then

introduced progressively larger subpopulations with lower

mortality or higher asymptotic sizes based upon empirical data

for a tropical lutjanid. Exact results varied with underlying

assumptions, but in general relatively small areas with lower

mortality or larger body sizes had a pronounced effect on the

stability of the system. However, the magnitude of the effect

was strongly reliant upon the degree of stochasticity in the

reproduction function, R. For example, the frequency with

which the overall population collapsed was negligible under

more static conditions (C.V. of R = 0.5) irrespective of spatial

structure. Yet, under greater stochasticity (C.V. of R = 0.8),

the baseline population collapsed in, on average, 44% of

simulation years in contrast with 19% when 25% of reefs

enabled fish to grow 10% larger.

THE PERCEPTION OF TROPHIC STRUCTURE OF

REEF FISH ASSEMBLAGES AT DIFFERENT SCALES.

Kulbicki, Michel*, Ferraris, Jocelyne. *IRD - BP. A5 -Noumea

- New Caledonia. Email: kulbicki@noumea.ird.nc

The trophic structure of reef fish assemblages is dependant

of local and large scale factors. Among local factors one may

cite reef type, substrate, coral or algae cover and among large

scale factors are island type, island size and biogeographical

region. The question is to know what dictates similarities or

differences among reef fish assemblages. In the present study

the species composition and the trophic structure of several

reef types submitted to a range of factors were analysed. Reefs

were selected from a very large data set (FISHEYE data bank).

As a first step different reef types (fringing and inner barrier

reefs) were selected within the same area (New Caledonia) and

their fish assemblages considered for similarities in species

composition and trophic structure. Then fish assemblages of

inner barrier reefs from different island types (high island and

atolls), island sizes (small, medium and large) and

biogeographical regions (West and Central Pacific) were

considered. Linear analyses (nested MANOVAs) were

performed to test if trophic structure changed within reef type,

within island or within region. Multiple factorial analysis were

then made to compare simultaneously the grouping of these

fish assemblages according to species composition and trophic

structure. The aim was to detect which factors were the most

significant in structuring these assemblages. In particular, we

wanted to test if there was a convergence in the factors

determining species composition and trophic structure. For

each reef the same number of transects was selected, based on

the relationship between species number and sampling effort.

LINKING BIOTIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL

INFLUENCES ON REEF COMMUNITIES AT

DIFFERENT SPATIAL SCALES IN BELIZE.

McField, Melanie D.* *Department of Marine Science,

Univ. of South Florida, 140 Seventh Ave South, St.

Petersburg, FL, 33701, USA, Email:

melanie@marine.usf.edu

A stratified, random (haphazard) video-based monitoring

scheme has been established at 17 windward fore-reef sites

throughout Belize's 250 km barrier reef and three off-shelf

atolls. The sites were chosen to provide the greatest

geographical coverage and to represent the widest possible

assortment of ranked environmental influences on community

structure on various spatial scales. Sites were classified by five

different environmental and management-linked influences

(fishing pressure, scuba diving pressure, proximate coastal

development, fluvial influence and wave exposure).

Multivariate analysis techniques, including non-metric multi-dimensional

scaling (MDS) plots, were then used to discern

the relative importance of various environmental influences on

reef community structure by determining the optimal set of

environmental influences which “best explain” the biotic

community structure. These comparisons can be made on sub-sets

of sites with varying spatial resolution, determining which

spatial scale is most relevant to particular environmental

influences. Understanding the interaction of different

environmental and biotic influences on varying spatial and

temporal scales represents a challenge to reef managers with

limited jurisdictional authority and illustrates the need for

more regional coordination of management efforts.

MODELING THE RECOVERY PROCESS AFTER

MASS BLEACHING.

Muko, Soyoka*, Kazuhiko Sakai, and Yoh Iwasa.

*Department of Biology, Kyushu University, JAPAN.

Email: muko@bio-math10. biology.kyushu-u.ac.jp

In coral communities, the composition of morphological

types is very different in each habitat. In Okinawa, Japan,

"branching Acropora spp." dominated the protected site, whilst

"tabular Acropora spp." were abundant at the exposed site

before mass bleaching occurred in 1998. The study of recovery

process provides us an opportunity to understand the

demographic processes, i.e., larval settlement, growth, and

death, which form the observed patterns. We formulate a

simple model incorporated the space-limited recruitment and

growth for the dynamics of coverage of the two morphotypes.

The result shows that recovery process after catastrophic event

has three phases. [1] In the beginning, the relative abundance

of the two types is controlled by the ratio of larval settlement.

[2] When vacant space becomes occupied, both settlement of

larvae and growth of settled colonies affect the dynamics of

coverage. [3] After free space is depleted, both larval

settlement and growth become very small. Now the slow

process of colony death comes to have an influence and causes

the final convergence to the equilibrium composition. The

dominance of table-like corals at the exposed site is often

regarded as the morphological adaptation for the severe wave

action. However the same pattern can be explained by larger

recruitment rate of table-like corals, if the total amount of

recruitment is large. In order to distinguish the two hypothesis,

we are investigating the demographic processes of the two

morphotypes at three different sites in Sesoko Island,

Okinawa..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A1: Large Scale Ecology

8

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL SCALING OF PROCESSES

ON CORAL REEFS.

Mumby, Peter J* *Centre for Tropical Coastal

Management Studies, Ridley Building, The University,

Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK. Email:

p.j.mumby@ncl.ac.uk

Coral reefs are hugely complex environments governed by

physical and biological processes which act over a wide range

of spatial and temporal scales. Attempts to model reef

processes, such as productivity or larval connectivity, are

hindered by this complexity because the scales at which many

processes occur are poorly understood, and it is neither

computationally tractable nor biologically realistic to simulate

many processes, acting at different scales, in the same model.

Consider, for example, the problem of modelling

metapopulation dynamics of corals among reefs. A spatial

model of larval transport may need to represent mesoscale

oceanic circulation of 100s km whereas the processes

determining larval settlement space (e.g. herbivory, exposure)

may act at scales of 0.001 km - 1 km. Clearly, metre-scale

processes cannot be incorporated easily into a model that

represents millions of metres. However, a better understanding

of the scale-dependency of physical and biological processes

will not only improve the modelling of such processes, but it

may provide a hierarchical framework in which multiple

models can be nested according to scale. Here, I discuss how

geostatistics, cartographic models, field survey, and remote

sensing might be integrated to create a hierarchical model of

reef structure and associated physical environments.

A FUNCTIONAL-GROUP APPROACH TO THE

DIVERSITY OF CORALS ON MULTIPLE SCALES.

Murdoch, Thaddeus J. T.* and Richard B. Aronson.

*Dauphin Island Sea Lab, 101 Bienville Blvd., Dauphin

Island, AL 36528, USA. Email: tmurdoch@disl.org

Phylogenetic classifications do not reflect the ecological

functions of benthic marine organisms. An alternative is to

classify benthic organisms by adaptive strategy. This approach

has been successfully used by plant ecologists in addressing

issues of biodiversity and ecosystem function. Coral reefs are

exposed to environmental processes that covary over a wide

range of spatial and temporal scales. Coral taxa that share

morphologies and reproductive strategies should respond to the

physical and biotic environment in similar, predictable ways.

Two studies in the Western Atlantic demonstrate how

functional groups of corals differ in distribution and adaptive

strategy. First, in a survey of the Florida reef tract, we

detected high variability in coral cover from reef to reef, but

very low variability between sites within each reef. Only one

functional group was responsible for this pattern. The

differences in distribution were a direct result of differences in

morphology and reproductive mode. Second, the recent

demise of Acropora cervicornis in Belize from white-band

disease indicates that not all corals respond to environmental

change in the same manner. When A. cervicornis was

eliminated, only one functional group increased

opportunistically in abundance in response to the relaxation of

competition. These results can be used to predict what coral

reefs of the Caribbean will look like in the next millenium.

THE INTEGRATED GROWTH RESPONSE OF CORAL

REEFS TO MONSOON FORCING: MORPHOMETRIC

ANALYSIS OF REEFS IN MALDIVES.

Naseer, Abdulla* and Bruce G Hatcher, *Dept of Biology,

Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 4J1,

Canada, Email: anaseer@is2.dal.ca

Reefs of Maldives display asymmetric geomorphologies in

their arrangement on the atoll rims and within atoll lagoons. In

this study we seek empirical relationships among patterns of

coral reef growth, morphology and environmental forcing in

Maldives. Reefs on the oceanward rims of atolls have wider

and more continuous reef flats than those lining the rims facing

the sea between lines of atolls. These characteristics reflect

broad-scale spatial variation in time-averaged, physical-biological

control of reef growth, but have not been quantified.

We hypothesize that monsoon forcing interacts with

antecedent reef platform arrangements to produce

characteristic growth configurations and predictable reef

morphologies. The hypothesis is tested by the classification of

LANDSAT-7 ETM+ imagery to measure hundreds of reefs

along the N-S and E-W axis of the archipelago, and to

calculate morphometric indices (e.g. ratio of reef flat to lagoon

area). Well-defined gradients in monsoon forcing (i.e. swell

and wind wave fields, surface currents, upwelling and

precipitation) and antecedent platform structure are quantified

along the same dimensions, and related to the morphometrics

with multivariate techniques. Preliminary results determine the

scales of similarity between asymmetries in reef

geomorphology and monsoon forcing. The relationships can be

used to infer patterns of reef development during the

Quaternary, and to predict reef growth responses to global

climate change in a sensitive atoll nation.

THE BENTHIC COMMUNITIES OF THE GREAT

BARRIER REEF: A LANSCAPE ECOLOGY

APPROACH.

Ninio R. * *Australian Institute Of Marine Science, Pmb

3, Townsville, Qld 4810 Australia.

R.NINIO@AIMS.GOV.AU

At a large spatial scale, the Great Barrier Reef is a mosaic of

patches formed by clusters of reefs with comparable histories

of disturbance. Within each patch, reefs display similar

temporal trends in cover of hard coral, soft coral and algae.

The overall dynamics of this ‘patchwork mosaic’ will depend

on the size and frequency of disturbance and resultant rates of

recovery. We use data collected by the Australian Institute of

Marine Science as part of the Long Term Monitoring Program

to examine the effects of three different types of disturbance

(cyclones and storms, Crown of Thorns Starfish and bleaching

of hard corals) and the composition of benthic communities on

the dynamics of this mosaic. We investigate the spatial scales

at which each of these disturbances operates and how

community composition influences the outcomes of these

disturbance events..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A1: Large Scale Ecology

9

PERSISTENCE IN CARIBBEAN CORAL

COMMUNITIES OVER BROAD SPATIAL AND

TEMPORAL SCALES.

Pandolfi, John M.*. *Department of Paleobiology, National

Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution,

Washington D.C. 20560-0121, USA. Email:

pandolfi.john@nmnh.si.edu

The degree to which coral reef communities are largely open,

with com-position depending upon the regional species pool,

or are partially closed, with limited species membership, is a

key component in understanding their ecological dynamics. I

examined the structure of Pleistocene Caribbean coral

communities using a hierarchical sampling design at broad

spatial and temporal scales. Significant differences in the

composition of coral communities from the leeward reef crest

among three islands (San Andrés, Curaçao, and Barbados)

during the last interglacial, 125 ka (thousand years) ago, were

driven by variability in the relative abundance of the same 4 or

5 abundant taxa. At Barbados, coral composition remained

constant from 220-125 ka, but differed during the 104 ka reef-building

episode. However, the 104-ka community was closer

in composition to older coral communities from Barbados than

it was to communities from San Andrés or Curaçao.

Remarkably, separate analyses on the composition of the rare

taxa (data compiled using 1 hr searches) and those of the

common taxa (data compiled using 40-m transects) gave

highly concordant results, suggesting the composition of the

rare taxa is correlated with that of the common, structurally

dominant corals. These Pleistocene data point to a high degree

of order in coral communities over broad spatial and temporal

scales and support the importance of local influences in

determining reef coral community structure.

ECOLOGICAL VERSUS EVOLUTIONARY LIMITS TO

DIVERSITY: SPECIES PACKING ON CORAL REEFS.

Roberts, Callum M.* *Environment Department,

University of York, York, YO10 5DD, UK. Email:

cr10@york.ac.uk

Studies of coral reef diversity in the 1970s and 1980s

focussed on mechanisms promoting co-existence of species

within habitats. Much of this research examined ecological

constraints on species packing, such as the degree to which

species were specialized in resource use. While such studies

were conducted in many parts of the world, one interesting

pattern that most overlooked was the considerable regional

variation in species richness throughout the tropics. Some

regions have much larger species pools than others, offering

fertile material with which to explore constraints to species’

coexistence. I explore differences in species-packing (within-habitat,

or alpha diversity) among reefs in the Caribbean (Saba,

Bonaire, Belize), Red Sea (Egypt) and Pacific Ocean (Palau).

These reefs differed widely in the size of their species’ pools

(gamma diversity). At each site, fish were censused from the

same habitat (outer slope at 15m deep), by the same observer

using the same method (stationary point counts). Alpha

diversity increased linearly with the size of the species pool

suggesting that, on outer slope habitats, levels of species

packing increase directly with the number of species present.

Evolution and biogeography trump local ecological effects.

These results contrast markedly with findings in the literature

that similar-sized patch reefs in the Caribbean and on the Great

Barrier Reef had similar levels of species packing despite

widely different species’ pools. Possible reasons for these

differences will be explored.

LARGE SCALE ECOLOGY AND IMPROVED REEF

MANAGEMENT

Sale, Peter F.* *Great Lakes Institute for Environmental

Research & Dept. of Biological Sciences, University of

Windsor, Windsor ON Canada N9B3P4. Email:

sale@uwindsor.ca

There is growing awareness that coral reef communities may

be interconnected at quite large spatial scales, and that their

management should take account of this fact. Their inter-connection

arises both from transport of nutrients and

pollutants, and from that of propagules, however, the

propagules of many taxa are proving to be far more than

passive particles and this complicates the story. Current

ecological research onrecruitment dynamics of fish, and to a

lesser extent, corals, is beginning to provide evidence of the

correct spatial scale at which to view coral reefs as inter-connected

by larval dispersal. New techniques are being

proposed that may facilitate estimates of the extent of this

inter-connection. I will briefly review what is known about the

large scale ecology of coral reef community dynamics, and

then outline an approach to bring studies of recruitment

dynamics into the baseline-building process when

implementing sustainable management at regional scales.

Examples from the Caribbean and from the Great Barrier Reef

will be considered.

SPATIAL VARIATION AND PATTERNS IN BENTHIC

COMMUNITY STRUCTURE IN THE FLORIDA KEYS

Swanson, D.W. M. Chiappone and S.L. Miller*. *The

National Undersea Research Center, University of North

Carolina at Wilmington, 515 Caribbean Drive, Key Largo,

Florida, 33037, USA. Email: dwswanson@hotmail.com

To better understand how communities are structured at

multiple spatial scales in the Florida Keys National Marine

Sanctuary (FKNMS), a two-stage stratified, random sampling

design was initiated in 1999. Design features include sampling

multiple sites within no-take zones or reserves and reference

areas, and comparison of sites within and among benthic

habitat types, and among regions. One-hundred and four sites

were surveyed, spanning over 200 km. The number of sites

sampled within each habitat type was optimized based the

existing benthic habitat map of the FKNMS, and pilot studies

that used sample design statistics to assess spatial variation in

measured parameters. Rapid assessment surveys included

measurements of cover and species richness of sessile marine

organisms, stony coral (adult and juvenile) and octocoral

abundance, and stony coral size and condition. Significant

regional, habitat, and reef differences were apparent. For

example, scleractinian coral and octocoral abundance, species

richness of cnidarians and sponges, and the frequency of algal

overgrowth of live coral tissue causing lesions varied

significantly among regional sectors within the 8-12 m habitat

type. Juvenile coral density and coral cover, however, were

similar among regions. Many reserves differed significantly

from reference areas, due mostly to bias in original siting of

the reserves. Data from the program establish a baseline to

monitor community structure at multiple spatial scales..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A1: Large Scale Ecology

10

SPATIAL VARIATION IN CORAL BIODIVERSITY AT

INTERMEDIATE SCALES: EXAMPLES FROM

OCEANIC ISLANDS.

Spalding, Mark D.*. *Cambridge Coastal Research Unit,

Department of Geography, Downing St, Cambridge, UK

Email: mark.spalding@wcmc.org.uk

Patterns of biodiversity on coral reefs are increasingly well

understood at the fine resolution of the reef profile. At the

other extreme, increasing amounts of information are

becoming available describing biodiversity patterns, at global

and regional levels. Between these two extremes, an

understanding of patterns in reef diversity is more limited. In

this paper the existing knowledge of spatial variation over

scales of 1 to 100km is examined in more detail. New data are

presented for coralline and high-island reef systems in the

central Indian Ocean which show considerable variation in

spatial patterns of reef fish communities between different reef

systems. Communities in the Chagos Archipelago show

considerable homogeneity between locations and between

atolls, by contrast the low island reefs of the southern

Seychelles show considerable variation both across and

between atolls and other reef structures. Fringing reefs in the

high islands of the northern Seychelles reveal event greater

spatial variation in reef fish community structures. A

theoretical framework to explain these patterns is presented.

Finally the implications of these patterns for the design of

protected areas systems are considered

THE CORAL REEFS OF BALI, BEFORE THE 1998-

BLEACHING EVENT: A PHASE SHIFT CAUSED BY

EUTROPHICATION OR REGIONAL UPWELLING.

van Woesik, Robert*. *Department of Chemistry, Biology

and Marine Science, The University of the Ryukyus,

Senbaru 1, Nishihara, Okinawa 903-0213, Japan. Email:

b984138@sci.u-ryukyu.ac.jp

There was a major change to the coral reefs of southeastern

Bali, Indonesia, between September 1992 and September

1997. The coral reefs changed from being dominated by corals

to being dominated by macroalgae, sponges and other filter

feeders. In 1992, the upper reef slopes of Sanur and Nusa Dua

supported >30% coral cover and a high coral diversity. The

average diameter of Acropora spp. and Seriatopora spp.

colonies, the dominant corals in terms of abundance, was 17 to

42 cm. The same reefs in 1997 supported 2-3 cm colonies and

approximately 15% coral cover, dominated largely by

encrusting Montipora, Porites spp., faviids, macroalgae,

sponges and zoanthids. Such a change immediately evokes a

response of 'local eutrophication'. Although local

eutrophication is not discounted as a contributing factor, a

regional upwelling may have exacerbated the effect through

the provision of nutrients. Evidence of a regional upwelling

was found along the southeast coast of Bali at the time of the

survey using SEAWIFS satellite imagery and proxy cues in

Porites samples (i.e., elevated Ba/Ca ratios). This upwelling

and regional phase shift occurred one year prior to, and

possibly not independent of, the 1998 ENSO.

THE EFFECT OF EL NINO ON THE DISTRIBUTION

OF REEF-ASSOCIATED LABRID FISHES IN THE

EASTERN PACIFIC OCEAN.

Victor, Benjamin* Gerard Wellington, D. Ross Robertson.

*GSM, University of California, Irvine, CA 92604 Email:

ben@coralreeffish.com

We surveyed the labrid reef fishes at multiple sites in the

eastern Pacific Ocean before, during, and after the recent El

Nino-Southern Oscillation event (ENSO). The only prominent

changes in labrid biogeography noted were the extension of

two tropical eastern Pacific species into Baja California

(Thalassoma virens and Stethojulis bandanensis) and a

massive ENSO-associated settlement of S. bandanensis onto

the Galapagos Islands where the species was previously rare.

Analysis of daily otolith increments revealed that the pelagic

larval duration of the new arrivals of S. bandanensis was

relatively short (about one month) and no different from the

pelagic larval duration for the species recorded at other

locations in the eastern Pacific Ocean before and during ENSO

as well as from the western Pacific Ocean at Palau and the

Cook Islands. The results suggest that a one month pelagic

larval duration was sufficient for spread among isolated island

groups in this region. Adults of this species were present at

some of their new locations during the subsequent cold La

Nina period.

REJUVENATION OR RUN-DOWN? THE LONG-TERM

RESPONSE TO DISTURBANCE OF FIVE CORAL

COMMUNITIES AT LIZARD ISLAND, GBR.

Wakeford, M. * and T.J. Done. *Australian Institute of

Marine Science, PMB 3, Townsville MC, Townsville,

Queensland, 4810, Australia. Email:

m.wakeford@aims.gov.au

Following disturbance to corals (eg crown-of-thorns starfish

outbreaks, coral bleaching and cyclones) there is potential for

fundamental changes in the benthic community, such as phase

shifts and alternate states. Large-scale and long-term shifts

from reef building to non-reef building communities are of

particular concern. We investigated a long-term photographic

record (1981 – 1999) of coral communities at Lizard Island for

evidence of such changes. Stereo-photographs taken of five

permanent sites were analysed to gauge fine-scale community

dynamics over time. During the study period, Lizard Island

was affected by a cyclone, coral bleaching and two outbreaks

of crown-of-thorns starfish. Diversity, species composition

and age/size frequency distribution were monitored at each site

and used to assess changes in the structural extent and

complexity of the reef. The trajectories of the coral

communities were characterised by varying degrees of

rejuvenation and run-down following disturbance. At one

extreme, there was no tendency for changes in the coral

composition and cover. However, a reduction in the maximum

colony size reached by Acropora plates reflected a decrease in

the interval between disturbances. This suggests that colony

size of plate Acropora may be a useful indicator of site

resilience. At the other extreme, one site had been transformed

into bare pavement supporting very little coral due to poor

recruitment and survival..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A1: Large Scale Ecology

11

EARLY LIFE HISTORY TRAITS, ADULT BODY SIZE,

AND EXTENT OF GEOGRAPHIC RANGE IN GULF OF

CALIFORNIA REEF FISHES.

Zapata, Fernando A.*. *Department of Biology,

Universidad del Valle, Apartado Aéreo 25360, Cali,

Colombia. Email: fazr@biologia.univalle.edu.co

Because adult reef fishes are sedentary and reef

environments are patchily distributed, reef fishes are dispersed

mostly by currents during their early life history (ELH). ELH

traits are thus considered to be determinants of dispersal

capability and extent of geographic distribution. This view,

however, has not been adequately demonstrated. To examine

whether egg type (P = pelagic, NP = non-pelagic) and

presence/absence of a pelagic prejuvenile stage (PPS) affect

extent of geographic distribution, I classified Gulf of

California reef fishes (N = 196) into four categories with

combinations of the above traits. Species endemic to the

Mexican Pacific had a greater proportion of species with NP

eggs than non-endemic species. Whereas 50% of the species

with NP eggs and no PPS were endemic, < 1% of the

remaining species were geographically restricted. On average,

fishes with NP eggs and no PPS also had smaller geographic

ranges than other species. Because species with NP eggs and

no PPS are smaller than other species, the effects of ELH traits

are confounded with those of adult body size. Large species

should have greater dispersal potential because fecundity is

positively correlated with adult body size. In fact, size of

geographic range was positively correlated with maximum

adult length, but only in species with NP eggs and no PPS.

Partitioning of the confounding effects of ELH traits and adult

body size by a two-way ANOVA confirmed that species with

NP eggs and no PPS were the most geographically restricted,

and that there was neither a significant effect of body size nor

a significant interaction between the two factors. This study

thus provides evidence that ELH traits influence extent of

geographic distribution in marine reef fishes..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A2: Planktonic Food Webs

Session A2: Planktonic Food Webs in Coral Reef Waters: trophic Structure,

Functioning and Interactions with Benthic and Pelagic Communities

12

PARTICULATE ORGANIC CARBON BUDGET AND

POC FLUX IN A FRINGING CORAL REEF AT

MIYAKO ISLAND, JAPAN.

Casareto B.E.* K. Yoshida and Y. Suzuki. *Laboratory of

Aquatic Science Consultant Co., LTD, Meishin BLDG.,

Kamiikedai 1-14-1, Ota-ku, Tokyo 145-0064, Japan. Email:

CASARETOBE@aol.com

The composition and the concentration of particulate organic

matter were comprehensively investigated on a fringing coral

reef area at Bora Bay of Miyako Island, Japan. Particulate

organic carbon and nitrogen (POC, PON), plankton

abundance, specific composition and its daily variation were

studied for seven size classes (0.8 to 8 µm, 8 to 22 µm, 22 to

53µm, 53 µm to 0.106 mm, 0.106 mm to 0.5 mm, 0.5 to 1 mm

and > 1mm) within the bay and in an outer influenced area.

Based on the species composition, plankton was classified as

“reef-lagoon” and “open ocean” plankton with the purpose to

evaluate POC fluxes towards the open ocean. Main POC

contribution within the bay was due to larval stages of benthic

fauna (120 µgC.l -1 ), nanoplankton composed by epiphytic

microalgae (pseudoplankton) and filamentous cyanobacteria

(124 µgC.l -1 ), and picoplankton flagellates (65 µgC.l -1 ). Faecal

pellets and detritus were also very abundant reaching 82 µgC.l -1

. The organic carbon budget within Bora bay (477 µgC.l -1 )

was slightly higher than that of the outer influenced area (437

µgC.l -1 ). Plankton originating from the bay influenced the

outer area, being also significantly transported to deep layers.

All these features showed that there is a net flux of organic

matter from bay towards the open ocean. The amount of this

flux as net organic carbon was estimated to be 8 to 17 kgC day -1

. A degradation experiment carried out during 150 days

indicated that 1 to 5 kgC day -1 of the exported amount of

organic carbon are of refractory nature.

IMPORTANCE OF PICOCYANOBACTERIA IN

CORAL REEF AREAS: A REVIEW

Charpy Loïc*, Blanchot Jean IRD, COM, rue de Batterie

des Lions 13007 Marseille, France Email:

lcharpy@com.univ-mrs.fr

Picocyanobacteria contribution to phytoplankton biomass

and production was studied during the last decade in Pacific

coral reef areas. Compiled data from literature show that

Synechococcus were mostly dominant in coral reef waters,

even when nitrogen is totally depleted like in Tuamotu atoll

lagoons. The switch in dominance from Prochlorococcus in

open ocean to Synechococcus in coral reef lagoons does not

seem to be related to N availability. Interpretation of such

results relies probably on differences in top-down control by

benthic and planktonic grazers and/or on the ability of some

strains of Synechococcus to fix N2.

THE NEED FOR TAXONOMIC EXPERTISE IN

FUNCTIONAL ECOLOGY OF CORAL REEF

PHYTOPLANKTON

Delesalle B*. EPHE - ESA CNRS 8046, 52 Av. de

Villeneuve, F-66860 Perpignan Cedex. Email: bd@univ-perp.

fr

It is a cliché to state that taxonomy was not favoured during

the past 20 years. This situation especially applies to

phytoplankton ecology in coral reef waters. In fact, taxonomy

requires an extensive background knowledge and is often

deterrently time consuming. Consequently, phytoplankton

studies were often restricted to the 'easy' and rapid

measurement of the chlorophyll a concentration, roughly

considered as a good estimate of the phytoplankton biomass. A

better insight in the phytoplankton composition was gained

with the development of advanced techniques such as size

fractionation, epifluorescence microscopy or flow cytometry.

However, these techniques were mainly applied to

picophytoplankton whereas the nanophytoflagellates remained

understudied. Several recent studies conducted in French

Polynesian atolls has proven the functional importance of this

compartment. Firtsly, the selective feeding of the pearl oyster

Pinctada margaritifera was demonstrated using an elegant

approach combining optical microscopy and HPLC pigment

analysis. Secondly, taxonomic surveys undertaken within the

frame of studies on harmful algal blooms showed the presence

of several unknown species, some of them belonging to

potentially toxic genera, e.g. the Haptophyte

Chrysochromulina or the diatom Pseudonitzschia. Obviously,

the identification of the phytoplankton species will be needed

in future ecological studies of the planktonic foodwebs in coral

reefs, using advanced techniques such as SEM, TEM and

molecular biology.

LINKAGE BETWEEN BACTERIOPLANKTON AND

CORAL REEF BENTHOS: SMALL SCALE SPATIAL

VARIATION IN DOC, INORGANIC NUTRIENTS AND

BACTERIOPLANKTON GROWTH.

van Duyl F.C.*, G.J. Gast. *Netherlands Institute for Sea

Research, P.O. Box 59, 1790 AB Den Burg, The

Netherlands. Email: duyl@nioz.nl

This study focuses on the links between coral reef contact

water characteristics with respect to dissolved organic carbon

(DOC) and inorganic nutrients (DIN, DIP) and

bacterioplankton growth. At 5 reef stations along the SW coast

of Curaçao (Netherlands Antilles) 6 different water types were

sampled and analyzed for DOC, DIN, DIP, bacterial

production and abundance: 4 reef water types (live coral

surface contact water (CS), reef crevice water (RC), reef

bottom water (RB), reef overlying water (RO)) and 2 reference

water types collected offshore from each station at 2 and 8 m

depth. Within stations consistent patterns in the different

variables were found. DOC distribution suggests that live

stony corals are the major source for the enhanced DOC

concentrations over reefs. DIN was highest in RC water

suggesting that crevices and not the sandy sediments between

corals are the major net N regenerating spaces. Enhanced DIP

concentrations suggest net P regeneration in RC and CS water.

Highest specific growth rates of bacterioplankton were

established in the CS water. Growth in crevices was also

significantly enhanced compared to growth in reference water.

Significant coupling between bacterioplankton growth and

DIN suggests N-limitation of bacterial growth in CS and RO

water. In RC and RB water, available DOC might be the

growth limiting factor..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A2: Planktonic Food Webs

13

IMPORT AND EXPORT OF NET-ZOOPLANKTON TO

AND FROM CORAL REEFS.

Hamner, William M.* and Colin, Patrick L. *University of

California Los Angeles, Dept. Organismal Biology, Ecology

& Evolution, Box 951606, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1606,

USA, E-mail: hamner@biology.ucla.edu

The so-called “coral reef paradox” contrasts coral reefs as

oases of high biomass and diversity surrounded by oceanic

waters supposedly devoid of nutrients and plankton. We

review the literature on zooplankton near the windward reef

face and conclude that there is probably sufficient input across

the windward reef from net-zooplankton alone, irrespective of

net input from micro-zooplankton, phytoplankton and bacteria,

to account for the high biomass and diversity of coral reefs.

We then present new data from Palau where enormous

quantities of fish eggs and invertebrate larvae are exported

seaward from windward reefs on falling tides. Surprisingly,

although exported larvae are advected rapidly seaward, many

exported larvae do not disperse into oceanic currents but

instead they are retained in an island boundary layer separated

from oceanic currents by coastal shelf fronts. On rising tides,

boundary layer water and previously exported larvae return to

and reenter the reef complex. Flux between oceanic, boundary

layer and lagoon waters near coral reefs must be reevaluated.

ORGANIC INPUTS TO REEF ECOSYSTEMS

CONTRIBUTE TO NEW PRODUCTION. – HOW

MUCH? – SO WHAT?.

Hatcher B.G.* *Department of Biology, Dalhousie

University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, B3N 1G8. Email:

Bhatcher@is.dal.ca

The new production of an ecosystem is that proportion of its

net primary production during an ecological cycle that utilizes

allochthonous nutrients in the synthesis of organic material.

The remainder is recycled production that utilizes

autochthonous nutrients. The ratio of new to recycled

production (i.e. the f-ratio) reflects the relative importance of

nutrient inputs from outside the ecosystem, and is a function of

the degree of system closure. Large discrepancies between the

theoretical and operational definitions of new production

challenge the application of the theory to coral reef

ecosystems. The conceptual model of production for coral

reefs portrays them as relatively closed ecosystems with

efficient recycling, and low levels of dependence on external

nutrient inputs for primary production. Net ecosystem (i.e.

excess) production as defined by inorganic carbon and nutrient

fluxes has been estimated to approximate zero, suggesting that

reefs have little capacity for sustained export of organics. This

model is compromised if new nutrients supplied through the

capture and remineralization in situ of advected particulates

are recognized as contributing to new production. Calculations

based on a growing body of measurements of organic inputs to

reefs indicate that the new production of reef ecosystems in

hydrodynamically open and nearshore environments exceeds

excess production by 100% to 1000% (corresponding f-ratios

may exceed 0.2). The high export production implied by these

parameter values can reconcile large losses of detrital material

from reefs, but do not necessarily inform the estimation of

extractable yields from reef fisheries.

PLANKTON-BENTHOS COUPLING ON A

CARIBBEAN FRINGING REEF.

Land L.S.*, R.A. Eustice, J.C. Lang and S.A. Macko. *P.O.

Box 539, Ophelia, VA 22530, USA. Email: JandL@rivnet.net

Trophodynamic processes on coral reefs are complex and

poorly understood in detail. Near Discovery Bay, Jamaica,

particulate organic matter (POM–a mixture of phytoplankton

and other suspended organic particles), net zooplankton, some

planktivorous benthic invertebrates, and most benthic algae,

are more depleted in 13 C than most zooxanthellate cnidarians

(Millepora, octocorals, scleractinians, corallimorphs,

zoanthids), other reef animals, cyanobacteria and the seagrass

Thalassia (å N = 290 ¶

13 C analyses). Organic matter released

by the zooxanthellate cnidarians, probably as mucus and

dissolved organic exudates, may constitute a significant source

of carbon for many (especially non-planktivorous) reef

animals. In contrast, POM and net zooplankton, along with

most reef invertebrates and reef-associated fishes, are

generally more enriched in 15 N than benthic photosynthesizers,

such as cyanobacteria, algae, Thalassia, and the zooxanthellate

cnidarians (å N = 190 ¶

15 N analyses). Hence, much of the

nitrogen present in the tissues of zooxanthellate cnidarians on

this reef system probably originates as dissolved inorganic

nitrogen that is initially utilized by their symbiotic microaglae,

and which overwhelms the nitrogen derived from POM and

zooplankton ingested by the animal hosts.

PICOPHYTOPLANKTON AND HETEROTROPHIC

PROTISTS CONTRIBUTION TO THE DIET OF THE

PEARL OYSTER PINCTADA MARGARITIFERA IN THE

TAKAPOTO ATOLL (TUAMOTU ARCHIPELAGO,

FRENCH POLYNESIA).

Loret, P. Blanchot L.P.* J, Delesalle B, Le Gall S,

Jonquières G, Pastoureaud A, Dupuy C, Caisey X. Antenne

*IRD Station Biologique de Roscoff, BP 74, F-29682

Roscoff, France Email: blanchot@sb-roscoff.fr

The pearl oyster Pinctada margaritifera is principally reared

in atoll lagoons where picophytoplanktonic biomass and

production is dominant. It was shown that under in situ

conditions, P. margaritifera do not efficiently retain these

picoparticles. The retention efficiency was negligible for

Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus and only 30%.

Pico/nanoeukaryotes were retained. Grazing experiments

showed that pearl oyster retain efficiently ciliates (>90%) and

dinoflagellates (99%). The ciliate Protocruzia was isolated

from the lagoon. The maximal growth was obtained with the

Synechococcus isolated from the lagoon. This ciliate was used

as a picoplantonivorous model. The hypothesis of a trophic

link between picoplanktonic communities and bivalves was

tested. After being biolabelled with the autofluorescent

Synechococcus isolated from the lagoon, the ciliate

Protocruzia was offered as a prey to the pearl oyster. The high

densities of ciliates observed in the stomach contents

demonstrated that it was ingested by the bivalve. As a

consequence, heterotrophic protists significantly contribute to

the diet of the pearl oyster whereas picocyanobacteria play a

minor role in the diet of this bivalve. From our experiments we

concluded that heterotrophic protists play a significant role in

the diet of the pearl oysters and can be considered as a

valuable trophic link between picophytoplankton and the

bivalves..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A2: Planktonic Food Webs

14

FEEDING AND MOVEMENT IN NOCTURNAL

PLANKTIVORES:

IMPLICATIONS FOR THE TROPHO-DYNAMICS OF

CORAL REEFS.

Marnane M.J.* Department of Marine Biology, James

Cook University, Townsville, Qld. 4811. Australia. Email:

Michael.Marnane@jcu.edu.au

Cardinalfishes (Family Apogonidae) form the major

component of nocturnal planktivore assemblages on Indo-Pacific

reefs. Their high abundances coupled with fast

population turnover rates suggest that cardinalfishes are likely

to play an important role in reef tropho-dynamics. To

investigate this role, feeding and foraging movements were

quantified in seven common species of cardinalfishes from the

One Tree Reef lagoon, Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Of fish

collected at dusk, 5% to 36% had identifiable material in their

stomachs compared with 64% to 93% of fish collected at

dawn, suggesting predominantly nocturnal feeding in all

species. Stomach content analysis revealed generalised,

overlapping diets in most species, consisting largely of benthic

prey and emergent plankton. At night cardinalfishes moved

into a range of habitats to feed and displayed a striking degree

of spatial segregation between species. During the day species

shared restricted resting sites on the reef. Fish displayed a

strong fidelity to diurnal resting sites, with tagged individuals

returning to within an average of 35 to 67 cm of resting

positions daily over periods of up to 18 months. These results

suggest that cardinalfishes play a functionally different role to

that of diurnal planktivores, concentrating energy and nutrients

from a range of reef habitats into restricted sites on the reef.

This accrual of resources, in the form of fish biomass and

faeces is likely to have important consequences for predator

and detritivore communities.

PHYTOPLANKTON PRODUCTIVITY AND

HYDROLOGY OF ROCAS ATOLL (BRAZIL).

Nascimento Feitosa, Fernando Antônio do, de Oliveira

Passavante J.Z.* *Departament of Oceanography UFPE

Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil. Email: zanon@npd.ufpe.br

The Rocas Atoll a Biological Brazilian Reserve is located at

the South Atlantic Ocean at 3º51’30’’S and 33º49’29’’W,

around 265km offshore from Natal City Rio Grande do Norte

State. This Atoll ocupies a 3km 2 area being an arid and of

calcareous formation free of anthropic influence. This study

was carried out in order know the area hydrology and the

phytoplankton community production. In January/99 diurnal

sampling were made at surface at low tide in three natural

pools inside the Atoll( Tartarugas, Âncoras and Barretão) and

one collection out side to measure the in situ productivity by

the 14 C method and the biomass by the spectrophotometric

method. Concurrent hydrological data(salinity, temperature,

pH, dissolved oxygen, nitrite, nitrate, phosphate and silicate)

were obtaind for comparation with the phytoplankton. The

results showed that the area is free of pollution with oxygen

saturation over 100%, the pH is alcaline and salinity of

35,29‰, the silicate varied from 8,91 to 16,51µmol.l -1 , nitrate

from 0,66 to 1,34µmol.l -1 , nitrito from 0,04 to 0,06µmol.l -1 e

phosphate from 0,01 to 0,02µmol.l -1 and the chlorophyll a

concentration varied from 0,64 to 1,10mg.m -3 .

FIELD AND NUMERICAL STUDY OF THE

PLANKTONIC FOOD WEB IN TAKAPOTO ATOLL

LAGOON (FRENCH POLYNESIA): IMPLICATIONS

FOR THE FARMING OF PEARL OYSTERS.

Niquil N.*, Stéphane Pouvreau, Asma Sakka, Louis

Legendre, Bruno Delesalle. *Univ. La Rochelle, F-17042 La

Rochelle Cedex 1. & EPHE-ESA CNRS 8046, F-66860

Perpignan Cedex. Email: nniquil@univ-lr.fr

The structure and functioning of the planktonic food web of

the lagoon of Takapoto Atoll (French Polynesia) is described

in order to assess the impact of farmed pearl oysters. Field data

provided a quantification of the plankton carbon stocks and of

some of the flows: net particulate primary production, DOC

exudation, bacterial production, grazing by protozoa on

different compartments, sinking rate of particles. The grazing

of farmed pearl oysters on the different size classes of plankton

was also quantified. All these data were combined in a carbon

food-web model. The missing flows were estimated by inverse

analysis. This combination of field and numerical approaches

highlighted several characteristics of the functioning of the

plankton community in the lagoon. As expected, primary

production which is the single entry of carbon in the food-web,

is mainly achieved by picophytoplankton. The overall flows

were dominated by a high production of non-living matter,

especially as dissolved organic carbon, and the trophic flows

were dominated by protozoa. The plankton consumption of

farmed bivalves was very low compared to the plankton flows

and the effects of bivalves on the planktonic food-web can be

considered as insignificant, at the scale of the whole lagoon.

PEARL-OYSTER GROWTH RATE IN

OLIGOTROPHIC WATERS. PRELIMINARY

RESULTS.

Pagès J.* & V. Prasil . *Centre I.R.D. de Tahiti. B.P. 529.

Papeete (French Pölynesia). Email: pages@ird.pf

Pearl oysters ( Pinctada margaritifera ) are being farmed in

increasing numbers in several lagoons of French Polynesia.

The location of a farm in a given lagoon could determine

growth performances through water renewal rate and trophic

level. To explore this, we installed a number of oysters in 32

sites among 13 lagoons. On two successive years, we

monitored gross shell weight (P) and shell height (H) during

12-15 months. In parallel, we monitored dissolved organic

matter (as assessed by U.-V. light absorption, A254) and

planktonic chlorophyll (Btot). We find that A254 (site average; n

= 32) is negatively correlated with growth rate, either in shell

weight (YP ; r_ = 0.42) or in shell height (YH ; r_ = 0.54). The

scarcer Btot data (n = 17) exhibit the same negative trend

against YP (r_ = 0.51) and YH (r_ = 0.54). This counter-intuitive

result can be interpreted on the basis of previous data gathered

in comparable atoll lagoons. We had found that oligotrophic,

well flushed environments showed a higher proportion of i)

particulate organic phosphorus in "large" (10 - 60 µm),

chlorophyll-less particles, ii) meso-zooplankton (>35 µm), and

iii) heterotrophic flagellates. It would then appear that confined

waters offer a qualitatively poorer diet despite high total

particulate (phytoplanktonic) content. Further data are still

being gathered. If the present results are confirmed, they mean

that oyster growth, at least for pearl production, is not limited

by carrying capacity as determined by bulk parameters. The

qualitative (i.e. taxonomic) set-up of the whole trophic web

should be considered..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A2: Planktonic Food Webs

15

ADVECTION AND CONSUMPTION OF

ZOOPLANKTON IN A RED SEA CORAL REEF.

Richter, Claudio *, Mohammad I. Badran, Alexander E.

Voigt and Riyad Manasreh. *Center for Tropical Marine

Ecology, Fahrenheitstrasse 1, D-28359 Bremen, Germany.

Email: crichter@uni-bremen.de

A six-week investigation was carried out to assess the lateral

influx and consumption of zooplankton into a fringing coral

reef in the Jordanian sector of the Gulf of Aqaba (Red Sea). A

current meter deployed near the coral reef at 10 m depth over

70 m bottom, revealed a net shoreward transport of water, with

a stronger onshore component during the cold than during the

warm hours of the day (1.16±0.08 versus 0.54±0.08cm s -1 ,

respectively; mean±SE). Shoreward advection was driven

mainly by the cross-shore component of the wind, and by the

added effect of nearshore cooling during the night.

Zooplankton collected every second day near the reef showed

high densities (1389±171 ind m -3 ) and biomass (266±37 mg

wet mass m -3 ) during periods of onshore flow. Offshore

flowing water, by contrast, was depleted by 34% in terms of

zooplankton abundance and by 61% in terms of biomass,

indicating selective feeding on large-sized zooplankton by the

reef biota. We calculate a net zooplankton uptake by the reef

community of ~1 g C m -2 d -1 , equivalent to 25% of the gross

community metabolism of the fringing reef system.

LINKS BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL

COMPONENTS IN SMALL CAVITIES ON A CORAL

REEF SLOPE.

Scheffers S.R.*, F.C. van Duyl, R.P.M. Bak, J. de Goeij.

*Carmabi Ecological Institute, P.O. Box 2090, Willemstad,

Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles. Email: corals@cura.net

Hard substratum surface of crevices and cavities constitutes a

major habitat in coral reefs (up to 90% of the total surface

area), but there are few studies on their biological and physical

characteristics. We studied these cryptic habitats on the reef

slope (12-15 m) in Curaçao. Spatial characteristics of cavities

were explored with a new method, “the cave–explorer”.

Cavities (n=12) had a volume of 100-200 l, were

approximately 1 m wide, 0.5 m high, 1 m deep. They have a

sandy bottom, a highly irregular inner structure with small

openings in the side and back of the cavity. We used a cave-cam

(video) to study the macrofauna distribution in the front,

middle, and back compartments of cavities related to light-intensity

and water movement. Approx. 80% of total surface

area was covered: demosponges 39-53%, bryozoans 10-12%,

ascidians 7%, polychaetes 2-8%, coralline algae 17-27%.

Demosponge cover and species increased towards the back,

while ascidians only shifted in species composition. Highest

bryozoan cover occurred in the front and highest polychaete

cover in the middle compartment. This highly heterogenic

macrofauna composition is also reflected in a-biotic

parameters. Light intensity decreased with a factor 10 from

front to back. Water motion is highest in front of the cavity,

decreasing towards the middle, slightly increasing in the back

again. Video-tracking of suspended particles showed water to

enter the cavity via the “back-openings”, leaving through the

front opening of the cavity. Links between the distribution of

biological components and physical characteristics are studied.

A COMPARISON OF THE ROLE OF

APPENDICULARIANS AND SMALL COPEPODS IN

THE CYCLING OF CARBON THROUGH A COASTAL

SUBTROPICAL FOOD WEB.

Scheinberg R.D. * , Albert Calbet and Michael R. Landry.

University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1000 Pope Road, Honolulu,

HI 96822, USA, Email: rebeccas@soest.hawaii.edu

The role of appendicularians and small copepods in the

cycling of carbon through a coastal food web was investigated

in Kaneohe Bay, an oligotrophic subtropical embayment

located on the northeastern coast of O'ahu. The

appendicularians Oikopleura fusiformis and O. longicauda and

the small copepods Acrocalanus inermis, Parvocalanus

crassirostris, Oithona nana and O. simplex are associated with

patch reefs in Kaneohe Bay and potentially serve as a direct

link between the dominant bacteria-sized primary producers

and higher trophic levels in these waters. To evaluate the role

of these organisms in the cycling of carbon, grazing rates were

measured in situ using flow cytometric and epifluorescence

microscopic analysis of cell decline during feeding. Weekly

net tows and water collection were performed in the bay to

distinguish the temporal and spatial variability of the plankton

community. Results indicated that the mean transfer of carbon

through both food webs was relatively inefficient (3-13%).

However, the inefficiency of the appendicularian-mediated

food web was due in large part to the loss of carbon to the

environment in the form of particulates (82%). Therefore, the

most significant impact of appendicularians or copepods in this

system appears to be the contribution of appendicularians to

particulate carbon flux rather than the ability to efficiently

transfer carbon through the food web.

210 Po AND 210 Po BALANCE ASSOCIATED WITH

PARTICULATE MATTER BEHAVIOR IN CORAL

REEFS.

Tateda Y.* K. Kurosawa, Y. Suzuki, K. Iwao, M. Ouya. K.

Shimoike, H. Taniguchi, and K. Yamada. *Abiko

Laboratory CRIEPI, 1646 Abiko Chiba 270-1194 Japan.

Email: tateda@criepi.denken.or.jp

210 Po concentrations in oligotrophic water are controlled by

zooplankton density, which has high 210 Po affinity and removal

from surface water by downward transport of 210 Po rich fecal

pellet originated to zooplankton defecation. Contrary, the 210 Po

is released from organic matter under decomposition process

of biogenic debris in mid water. Therefore the 210 Po

concentration in water column can be proxy of organic matter

removal from surface water and degradation in deeper layer of

ocean. In coral reefs, 210 Po is expected to be removed from

water column by suspended organic matter consumption and

released from degradation of organic matter by reef

heterotrophic community. Thus imbalance between residence

times of 210 Po in reef water and surrounding coastal waters are

expected to be good information of organic particle inflow to

reef from open water and consumption by reef habitat. We

analyzed the 210 Po and POC/N concentrations in coral reef

waters at Bora Bay in Miyako Island and Akajima in Kerama

Islands. By box model calculation we estimate the 210 Po

residence times in the water column in and around the coral

reef, and calculate the balance of 210 Po to evaluate the POC

and PON behavior in coral reefs. The result suggested that

210 Po in water is positively correlated with particle matter in

reef water, however it also increased during degradation phase

of organic matter in reef..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A2: Planktonic Food Webs

16

ROLE OF BACTERIOPLANKTON IN REEF

ENVIRONMENTS.

Torréton, Jean-Pascal. IRD-Université Montpellier II,

UMR-CNRS 5556, Case 093, Montpellier Cedex 05,

France. Email: torreton@mpl.ird.fr

Detrital fluxes are known to be important in reef ecosystems

and the heterotrophic bacterial production is a key process

integrating the various pathways of detritus decomposition.

This literature based review investigates the importance of

bacterioplankton biomass, production and carbon demand, the

coupling between possible sources and bacterial growth, and

the fate of bacterial production. Bacterioplankton represents

the dominant C, N and P biomass in reef waters as in other

oligotrophic marine waters. Hence bacterioplankton represents

an important standing stock capable to reduce the nutrient

limitation of benthic organisms in these nutrient-poor

environments. This trophic potential is supported by in situ

studies. Indeed, over the reefs, bacterioplankton turnover rates,

and exoenzymatic activities are higher than in lagoon and

oceanic waters. Bacterioplankton production can reach values

in the range of planktonic primary production. These

characteristics suggest that bacterioplankton growth is fuelled

by organic matter released by benthic communities. On the

other hand, bacterioplankton abundance is lower over the reefs

than in surrounding waters. This latter phenomenon, the

elevated bacterioplankton turnover rates, and the short resident

time of waters show that bacterioplankton is very actively

consumed by benthic organisms. This trophic coupling has

been actually repeatedly assessed in laboratory experiments.

Establishing more quantitatively the trophic coupling between

bacterioplankton and other – either planktonic or benthic –

communities, using the study of temporal and spatial variations

of bacterioplankton parameters, in conjunction with

hydrodynamics, will require the use of new tools with high

acquisition rates in order to reach an acceptable resolution.

TROPHIC SUBSIDIES IN THE TWILIGHT ZONE:

ZOOPLANKTON COMMUNITY PATTERNS AND

FOOD WEB STRUCTURE OF DEEP REEF FISHES IN

THE NORTHEASTERN GULF OF MEXICO.

Weaver D.C.* U.S. Geological Survey, Biological

Resources Division, Gainesville, FL, USA. Email:

doug_weaver@usgs.gov

The food web structure of deep (50-110m) reef fishes in the

northeastern Gulf of Mexico was examined. Fish communities

on high-profile topographic features are numerically

dominated by two species of streamer basses (Serranidae:

Anthiinae): the roughtongue bass, Pronotogrammus

martinicensis, and the red barbier, Hemanthias vivanus.

Stomach content analysis revealed that calanoid copepods,

pteropods, pelagic tunicates, and invertebrate larvae dominate

the diets of both species, and that these small planktivores

serve as primary prey for many larger reef predators. To

compare diets of reef fishes with prey availability and

encounter rates, stationary plankton tows (0.5m, 335_ nets)

were made in the water column at surface (2m), midwater

(35m) and near-reef (60-70m) depths. Preliminary results

indicate high flow rates (3-24cm/sec) and high prey

availability (0.2 to 3.0 zooplankters/m 3 ) in the vicinity of deep

reef features. Estimates of the relative abundance indicate that

99% by number and 90% of the biomass of resident reef fishes

are small, planktivorous taxa, and 65-90% of their diets are

comprised of calanoid copepods, forming the main link to

water column productivity and the primary source of prey for

the reef fish community..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A3: Molecular Phylogeny

Session A3: Molecular Phylogeny and Population Genetics in Coral Reefs

17

GENETIC MARKERS AS ESSENTIAL TOOLS IN THE

REGIONAL MANAGEMENT OF CORAL REEFS: AN

INITIATIVE IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA.

Ablan, M.C.A.*, McManus, J.W., Tsao, K.S., Chen,

C.A.,Bell, J.D., Cabanban, A.S.,Tuan, V.S., and Arthana,

I.W. *ICLARM, No.10 LL6 Equatorial Hotel Office Block

1 Jalan Bukit Jambul Penang, Malaysia 11900. Email:

m.ablan@cgiar.org

Coastal water systems depend on a fluid medium to transport

recruits for replenishment of populations. In coral reefs,

currents may carry propagules of many species over large

distances. The resulting connectivity among reef systems leads

to situations where different groups harvest the same stock.

Thus, management regimes in one area may be ineffective if

there are no restrictions on harvests, or safeguarding of

habitats, elsewhere. We report the use of genetic markers to

evaluate connectivity among populations from selected coral

reefs in Malaysia, Indonesia, Taiwan, the Philippines, Vietnam

and Solomon Islands. This initiative, also known as Population

Interdependencies in the South China Sea (PISCES), aims to

determine the extent of unit stocks in the South China Sea

region, to indicate the need for joint management of reef

fisheries. The project uses a model based on 15-24

polymorphic loci in 13-15 isozyme markers of four coral reef

species. Data were interpreted with information from current

patterns, life-history characteristics and some macroecological

correlates. Concordant results were obtained between this

study and another on VNTR in the mtDNA and isozymes of

the same D. trimaculatus individuals. The project is the result

of collaboration between ICLARM and several national

research institutions and is expected to facilitate the

formulation of recommendations for the regional management

of coral reef fisheries.

LEARNING FROM THE PAST: PERSISTANCE OF

HISTORICAL GENETIC BOUNDARIES INDICATE

LIMITS OF CONTEMPORARY LARVAL DISPERSAL.

Barber, P.H.* and Palumbi, Stephen R. *Dept.

Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University,

Cambridge MA 02138, Email: pbarber@oeb.harvard.edu

Many coral reef organisms have pelagic larval phases that

are believed to facilitate dispersal. It is commonly assumed

that duration of larval period is an important predictor of

dispersal potential and that realized dispersal can be estimated

through combining larval period duration with ocean current

data. To examine the relationship between larval period, ocean

currents, and realized dispersal, we examined patterns of

population genetic structure for three species of mantis shrimp

with 4-6 week larval periods from populations throughout

Indonesia. Although strong oceanographic currents predict

extensive dispersal, striking patterns of regional genetic

differentiation were observed in all taxa. Phylogeographic

patterns among taxa were largely concordant and mirrored

ocean basins that were more isolated during periods of lowered

sea levels. Although the observed patterns likely have

Pleistocene origins, the failure of dispersal to disrupt these

historical associations during 10,000 years of modern

oceanographic conditions forces us to conclude that

contemporary dispersal is much more limited that predicted.

The recovery of concordant regional patterns of genetic

structure suggests that our understanding of larval dispersal

behaviors and/or ocean currents may be over simplistic and

highlights the need for fine scale population genetic studies in

marine systems.

THE GENETIC STRUCTURE OF THREE WIDELY

SEPARATED POPULATIONS OF Chlorurus sordidus.

Bay L.*, Christine Dudgeon and Prof. J Howard Choat,

*School Marine Biology and Aquaculture, James Cook

University Townsville Qld. 4811, Australia. Email:

line.bay@jcu.edu.au

The effective management of coral reef fisheries depends on

the identification of local populations and levels of

connectivity amongst these. Recent advances in molecular

techniques have provided reef fish biologists with the tools to

examine the genetic structure of geographically separated

populations and levels of gene flow amongst these. The

majority of reef fishes have a bipartite life history where larvae

spend some time in the pelagic environment before returning

to the reef environment. During this phase larvae may disperse

away or return to the natal reef. Recent studies have failed to

find conclusive evidence of a relationship between genetic

subdivision of geographically separated populations and length

of larval life. It is possible that not only the duration of the

larval phase but also behavioural capability of larvae may

affect the dispersal ability and hence the level of genetic

subdivision amongst geographically separated adult

populations. We examine the genetic structure of the common

reef fish Chlorurus sordidus. C. sordidus larvae spend ~30

days in the pelagic zone but are undeveloped compared to

larvae of other reef fish species. We compare mitochondrial

DNA sequence data amongst three widely separated

geographic populations. Samples from the northern Great

Barrier Reef are compared with samples taken ~ 3000 km to

the west (Abrolhos Islands, WA) and those sampled ~1000 km

to the north (Kavieng, PNG). Results are interpreted with

respect to larval attributes and the geological history of the

region.

CORALLIMORPHARIA (CNIDARIA, ANTHOZOA):

AN ORDER, A CORAL, OR A SEA ANEMONE?

Cappola V.A. and D.G. Fautin*. *University of Kansas,

Division of Biological Sciences, Haworth Hall, Lawrence,

KS 66047. Email: fautin@ukans.edu

The anthozoan order Corallimorpharia is currently

considered equivalent in rank to the Scleractinia (hard corals)

and Actiniaria (sea anemones). Does Corallimorpharia merit

ordinal status and, if not, does it belong in the scleractinians or

actiniarians? This study is the first cladistic analysis of these

anthozoan orders based on both morphology and molecules.

Morphological and anatomical evidence (nematocysts,

structure of mesenterial filaments, structure of the mesoglea,

absence of siphonoglyphs, sphincter muscle feeble or absent,

acrospheres) support the Corallimorpharia and Scleractinia

being closely related, but the form of this relationship is

unresolved. The corallimorpharians have variously been

hypothesized to be corals without skeletons, representatives of

the ancestral anemones from which skeleton-producing polyps

diverged, the sister group to Scleractinia, and a suborder of

Scleractinia. Published molecular data of 16S mitochondrial

DNA and 18S ribosomal DNA support the corallimorpharians

within the scleractinian clade, but data from 28S ribosomal

DNA support corallimorpharians being more closely related to

actiniarians. Monophyly of the corallimopharians has not been

established by these molecular studies. We use morphological

and molecular evidence both independently and combined to

present a complete picture of the phylogenetic status of

Corallimorpharia..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A3: Molecular Phylogeny

18

EVIDENCES FOR HIGHER RATE OF CYTOCHROME

B EVOLUTION IN THE SCLERACTINIAN CORAL

GENUS ACROPORA IN THE FAMILY ACROPORIDAE.

Chen C.A. * and Carden C. Wallace. *Institute of Zoology,

Academia Sinica, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan. Email:

cac@gate.sinica.edu.tw

The fundamental discipline of molecular evolution is to

estimate the divergence rates of molecules (DNA sequences or

proteins), and apply the rate to infer absolute divergence times

between species. The latter relies on well-preserved fossil

records and evolutionary rate of the molecules which are

approximately constant over time in all evolutionary lineages

(i. e., molecular clock hypothesis). Recent advances in

characterizing the mitochondrial genome of Acropora and

phylogenetic relationships in the family provide an opportunity

to examine the molecular evolution of mitochondrial genome

in scleractinian corals. In this study, we apply the likelihood

ratio test (LRT) and relative rate test (RRT) to examine the

patterns of rate heterogeneity in the family Acroporidae at two

mitochondrial genes, cytochrome b (cyt b) and ATPase 6.

Based on both LRT and RRT, we find significant evidence of

rate heterogeneity among evolutionary lineages of the family

Acroporidae at cyt b gene, but not at ATPase 6. The effects of

rate heterogeneity at Acropora cyt b gene in inferring the

divergence time and phylogenetic relationships of the family

Acroporidae are discussed.

DEMOGRAPHIC AND LIFE-HISTORY DIFFERENCES

IN REEF FISHES IN THE GREAT BARRIER REEF

LACK A GENETIC BASIS.

Dudgeon C.*, Nicholas Gust and David Blair. *James

Cook University, Dept. of Zoology, Townsville, QLD,

Australia, 4811. Email: Christine.Dudgeon@jcu.edu.au

Two species of parrot fish, Chlorurus sordidus and Scarus

frenatus are known to exhibit demographic and life history

differences across the continental shelf of the northern Great

Barrier Reef (GBR). Mitochondrial control region sequences

were analysed to test whether there was a genetic basis to the

observed ecological differences. Analysis of molecular

variance (AMOVA) revealed high levels of gene exchange for

both species at a local scale between reefs on mid and outer

continental shelf positions (20 km apart) and at a broader scale

along the length of the GBR province (>1000 km apart),

indicating that local differences in life history characteristics

on the northern GBR do not have a genetic basis. Rather it

appears more likely that phenotypically plastic responses to

prevailing social and environmental conditions explain

differences in the life history characteristics of both taxa.

However, analysis of genetic variability and historical

demography revealed striking differences between the two

species suggesting S. frenatus has undergone a population

expansion between 20 000 to 80 000 years ago whilst C.

sordidus has maintained equilibrium over this time. These

patterns could also reflect differences in the metapopulation

sizes or generation times between taxa. This study illustrates

contrasting ecological and genetic information which may

have implications for fisheries management.

REEF CONNECTIVITY IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA

AND SULU SEA, PHILIPPINES, INFERRED FROM

ALLOZYME ANALYSIS OF TWO REEF FISH

SPECIES.

Endriga M.A.* Mamauag S.S, Menez M.A.J., Alino P.M. .

*Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines,

Diliman, 1101 Quezon City, Philippines. Email:

marla@upmsi.ph

Allelic variation in 4 populations of Pterocaesio tile and 12

populations of Chromis margaritifer at 12 to 14 polymorphic

loci was analyzed to compare levels of genetic structuring and

determine the extent of gene flow in the South China Sea

(SCS) and Sulu Sea. Fish were collected from the Kalayaan

Island Group (KIG) and Western Luzon (WL) coast in the SCS

and reefs in the Sulu Sea. Average heterozygosity was highest

in P. tile (H = 0.421) compared with 1998 (H = 0.391) and

1999 (H = 0.362) populations of chromis. It was highest in

Sulu Sea populations of both species, lowest at the NE

Investigator Shoal of the KIG among chromis, and lowest in

WL among caesionids. Overall Fst was significant in both

species (Fst = 0.1473 for P. tile; 0.1732 for C. margaritifer),

suggesting that these are highly structured populations.

Effective number of migrants per generation (Nem) are 1.4 for

P. tile and 1.2 for chromis. Genetic affinities were closest

between KIG and Sulu Sea populations of P. tile (D = 0.112)

which differed significantly from the WL population (D =

0.158). Cluster analysis on chromis populations yielded two

major clusters: the KIG and WL-Sulu Sea clades. Pair-wise

comparisons showed that each chromis population was

significantly different from the rest (D = 0.069-0.127) included

in the study. In general, proximate sites had higher affinities

with one another, with some exceptions.

GENETIC STRUCTURE OF LINCKIA LAEVIGATA

AND TRIDACNA CROCEA POPULATIONS IN THE

PALAWAN SHELF AND SHOAL REEFS.

Juinio-Meñez, Marie Antonette*, Richard Magsino,

Eizadora T. Yu. *Marine Science Institute, College of

Science University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon

City 1101 Philippines. Email:

meneza@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

Allozyme variation of 10 populations of Linckia laevigata at

8 polymorphic loci, and 12 populations of Tridacna crocea at

6 polymorphic loci were analyzed to compare genetic

variability and determine genetic affinities among shoal and

shelf reefs of Palawan, Philippines. Heterozygosity was

highest in populations from the shelf of Palawan and lowest in

the shoal reefs of KIG in the South China Sea for both species.

There were highly significant variations between populations

in 3 loci of L. laevigata and 5 loci of T. crocea. Overall Fst for

both species (L. laevigata, 0.049 and T. crocea, 0.1403) were

significant indicating genetic structuring among shelf and

shoal reef populations in Palawan. The estimated average

number of effective migrants per generation (Nem) between the

reef populations was 1.5 individuals for T. crocea and 5

migrants for L. laevigata. Nei’s unbiased distance for L.

laevigata was smaller than that for T. crocea. Cluster

analysis based on genetic distance generally showed groupings

of reefs that were geographically close to each other with a few

exceptions. Highly significant pairwise comparisons (Fst) of

the different reef groups indicate genetic substructuring of

these reef invertebrates between and within the four

geographic areas in Palawan..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A3: Molecular Phylogeny

19

PCR AMPLIFICATION OF 16S MITOCHONDRIAL

GENE OF ZOANTHUS SOCIATUS (ZOANTHIDEA,

ANTHOZOA) USING HETEROLOGOUS PRIMERS

Longo, L. L. * ; M. C. Arias & E. Schlenz *Departamento

de Zoologia Instituto de Biociências Universidade de São

Paulo São Paulo, SP, Brazil Caixa Postal 11461 CEP:

05422-970 Email – lllongo@ib.usp.br

The Zoanthidea order (class Anthozoa) is comprised mainly

of colonial cnidarians that do not secrete a skeleton, but some

of them have an assimilation mechanism of sediments within

their tissues. Most of the species have zooxanthellae

endosymbionts. The morphological identification of

Zoanthidea species has been very difficult due to the plasticity

of polipo and colony morphology. Although this group of

Cnidaria is very abundant, studies involving its biology and

taxonomy are rare. Histological sectioning has been used in an

attempt to determine characters that can be useful for

taxonomic purpose. Allozime analysis has been the only

molecular tool applied so far to Zoanthidea taxonomy.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis has been used

successfully in taxonomic and evolutionary studies of several

organisms. The main goal of our study is to test primers for

mtDNA regions derived from different organisms in Zoanthus

sociatus. As this species presents zooxanthellae

endosymbionts, it is crucial to have DNA extractions free of

this contaminant and also primers showing high specificity to

Cnidarians. Primers for the 16S mtDNA gene, described for

Hydra vulgaris, were inittially tested. The PCR product

obtained was a unique fragment of 1022 pb. This fragment was

cloned and sequenced.

GENETIC RELATIONSHIP OF COLOR ECOMORPHS

OF THE REEF STARFISH LINCKIA LAEVIGATA

(LINNEAUS) IN THE KALAYAAN ISLANDS GROUP

(KIG), WEST PALAWAN, PHILIPPINES.

Magsino, Richard M. *, Rachel G. Ravago, Marie

Antonette J. Meñez. *Marine Science Institute University

of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City 1101 Philippines.

Email: rickym@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

The coral reef starfish Linckia laevigata is an organism with

a high potential for dispersal due to its 28d planktonic larvae.

In the Kalayaan Island Group (KIG), Philippines, color morphs

of blue, orange and combinations of both colors exist

sympatrically. Genetic variation at 8 polymorphic loci for 3

reef populations in the KIG based on allozyme markers was

examined. Data for 163 individuals (85 blue and 78 orange)

showed highly significant genetic grouping for all populations

(Fst=0.086) of L. laevigata. Pairwise comparisons between

blue and orange ecomorphs of the species (Fst=0.079) revealed

lower but significant genetic variation. In two reefs where both

blue and orange L. laevigata occurred, significant Fst suggests

genetic differentiation of color ecomorphs within sites. Cluster

analysis revealed two genetically different groups of blue and

orange populations. Comparison of DNA sequences of the COI

segment of the mitochondrial DNA of the different color

morphs show considerable variation among individuals.

Results obtained were consistent with a previous allozyme

study on the population genetics of L. laevigata color morphs

in Pacific and Indian Ocean populations. Phenotypic and

genetic structuring of color variants of L. laevigata within the

KIG may reflect effects of the very variable and complex

hydrographic regimes and habitats in the shoal reefs that

affects recruitment dynamics of Linckia populations.

POPULATION GENETICS OF THE SEA URCHIN

TRIPNEUSTES GRATILLA ALONG THE WESTERN

COAST OF LUZON ISLAND, THE PHILIPPINES.

Malay, Maria Celia D. *, Marie Antonette Juinio-Meñez,

and Cesar Villanoy. Marine Science Institute, University

of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City 1101 Philippines.

Email: machel@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

The sea urchin Tripneustes gratilla is a fishery resource of

high commercial value and is intensively harvested throughout

much of Northwestern Luzon. However, the fishery is

primarily unregulated, which has led to the steep decline of

spawning stocks in many areas, notably in Bolinao,

Pangasinan. Preliminary hydrographic larval dispersal models

indicate that larval exchange within this region is influenced

by monsoonal shifts in circulation patterns. The genetic

structure of T. gratilla in Western Luzon, the Philippines is

being investigated using allozyme electrophoresis to provide

the basis for the formulation of coherent management plans for

regional sea urchin resources. Samples of T. gratilla intestines

were obtained from one batch of cultured sea urchins from the

UP-MSI Bolinao Marine Laboratory and 4 “wild” populations

in Western Luzon: Sta. Maria, Ilocos Sur; Bolinao,

Pangasinan; Masinloc, Zambales; and Lian, Batangas. Seven

polymorphic enzyme loci (MDH-1, MDH-2, SOD, GPI, MPI,

PGM, and LT) and 2 monomorphic loci (IDHP and LP) are

being screened to determine genetic variations between

populations and estimate larval dispersal and gene flow

between the different localities sampled. Baseline information

on population genetic structure will also be useful in

monitoring the impacts of enhancement efforts using cultured

sea urchins on the genetic structure of natural populations of T.

gratilla.

RETICULATE EVOLUTION IN THE ACROPORA

HYACINTHUS GROUP: RESULTS FROM

MITOCHONDRIAL AND NUCLEAR MARKERS.

Marquez L.M.*, M.J.H. van Oppen, B.L. Willis and

D.J.Miller. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, *James

Cook University, Townsville 4811, Australia. Email:

Luis.Marquez@jcu.edu.au

Two species in the Acropora hyacinthus group, A.

hyacinthus and A. cytherea, hybridise in vitro with up to 100%

fertilisation success, however, it is unclear whether this

potential for hybridisation has led to introgression and

reticulate evolution. Here, we present DNA sequence data for

three independent markers: rDNA ITS and 5.8S, the Pax-C

46/47 intron and the putative mtDNA control region for these

two species and for A. tenuis. The latter species was used as

an outgroup in phylogenetic analyses, as it appears to be

reproductively isolated from the former two through a

difference in spawning time. We found high levels of

variability in rDNA regions, with up to 55% variability for

ITS1. ITS sequences were shared between the two species in

the A. hyacinthus group suggesting that introgression occurs.

No ITS sequences were shared with A. tenuis. Phylogenetic

analyses of molecular data for samples of A. cytherea and A.

hyacinthus from sites along the length of the Great Barrier

Reef and from the Ningaloo Reefs in Western Australia

indicate that these two species do not constitute monophyletic

groupings. Moreover, phylogenies showed no clear

biogeographic patterns. Comparisons of phylogenies based on

the three different markers will be discussed..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A3: Molecular Phylogeny

20

ECOLOGICAL AND GENETIC DIFFERENCES

BETWEEN EASTERN PACIFIC PANAMANIAN

CORALS. AGARICIIDAE (Pavona varians, P. frondifera

AND Pavona sp. a)

Maté JL*. University of Miami, RSMAS-MBF, 4600

Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149, USA; and

Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Unit 0948, APO

AA 34002, USA. Email: matej@naos.si.edu

Pavona is a common and conspicuous coral genus with a

distribution that ranges from the Red Sea and western Indian

Ocean to the far eastern Pacific. Three of six species reported

for the Panamanian Pacific (Pavona varians, P. frondifera and

Pavona sp. a) show strong development of colines that set

them apart from the others. I studied the ecological and

genetical differences among these three species to determine

their boundaries. Ecological information consisted on species

distribution, habitat preferences, tissue coloration, reproductive

ecology, and tolerance to bleaching. Genetical information

consisted on the analysis of the 10 allozyme loci. Pavona

varians and Pavona sp. a are sibbling species. Pavona varians

is the most widely distributed of the three species, found in

both reef and non-reef environments in the Gulf of Chiriquí

and the Gulf of Panamá.

COMPARING MITOCHONDRIAL AND NUCLEAR

GENE SEQUENCES : CRITICAL TOOLS TO DETECT

NATURAL SELECTION, CRYPTIC SPECIES

BOUNDARIES, AND RETICULATE EVOLUTION IN

REEF SPECIES.

Palumbi, Stephen R. *, Paul Barber, Laura Geyer, Shane

Lavery, and Steve Vollmer, *Dept. Organismic and

Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge MA

02138, Email: spalumbi@oeb.harvard.edu

Collection of gene sequence data to measure population

structure can now make use of information from multiple

independent loci to test hypotheses about the origin and

maintenance of genetic variation within closely related species.

The signature of selection on gene frequencies, typically

ignored in studies of single loci, can be tested by comparing

genetic structure of several loci. In the Indo-West Pacific sea

urchins in the genus Echinometra, allele frequencies of at the

locus responsible for egg-sperm recognition, the gene bindin,

differ strongly among localities even though neutral intron

variation does not. These patterns suggest selection driven by

mate recognition acts within populations. In addition,

comparison of phylogenetic patterns from multiple loci can 1)

test for genetic barriers between sympatric, cryptic species,

such as in comparisons of Indonesian stomatopods, 2) show

the history of population exchanges, such as in Indo-West

Pacific Penaeid shrimp, 3) and provide a robust framework for

evaluation of patterns of reticulate evolution in corals.

(GACA)n SIMPLE SEQUENCE REPEATS IN THE

NUCLEAR GENOME OF SEA ANEMONES

(CNIDARIA: ACTINIARIA AND

CORALLIMORPHARIA): ANALYSIS OF

POPULATION STRUCTURE AND SPECIES

DIVERSITY

Pinto, S.M.*, F.M.C. Fernandes-Matioli and E. Schlenz.

*Depto. de Zoologia, IB, Universidade de São Paulo, CP

11461, 05422-970. São Paulo, SP, Brazil. Email:

suzanamp@ib.usp.br.

DNA microsatellites molecular markers could be useful for

addressing evolutionary questions in sea anemones, and may

clarify the phylogenetic relationships among genera and

species, which do not differ throughout the morphological

characters. In this study, we show that PCR (polymerase Chain

Reaction) amplification using primers based on microsatellite

sequences are effective to address the genetic variability in 12

species of sea anemones. A total of 150 individuals belonging

to 11 species of sea anemones, Aiptasia pallida, Anthothoe

chilensis, Anthopleura krebsi, Bellactis ilkalyseae, Carcinactis

dolosa, Calliactis tricolor, Diadumene sp, Haliplanella

lineata, Paratelmatactis roseni, Telmatactis rufa, Tricnidactis

errans, and one species of corallimorpharian, Discosoma

carlgreni were examined. All species were collected from the

Brazilian coast. Specimens were collected during low tide

periods and SCUBA diving at depths bet ween 1 and 16 m . Total

genomic DNA was extracted from living, and 100% ethanol-preserved

sea anemones. DNA extracted from samples was

used as a template in PCR amplifications with the SPAR

technique using (GACA)4 as primers.

PHYLLOGEOGRAPHY OF CORAL REEF FISHES

THROUGHOUT THE PACIFIC OCEAN INFERRED

FROM GENETIC SURVEYS

Planes S.* *EPHE - ESA CNRS 8046 University of

Perpignan, 66860 Perpignan cedex - France. Email :

planes@univ-perp.fr

The geographic range of a species is mostly determined by a

succession of historical accidents. Althrough the idea is

simple, the combination can be infinite because species are

formed at different times, barriers to migration appear and

disappear through time. The Indo-Pacific area has been

recognised as the most diverse biogeographic area among

marine ecosystems. This diversity shows gradient with higher

diversity in the Indonesia-Philippines area and decrease of

species richness going East in the Pacific islands. Three major

theories (center of origins, center of accumulation, and center

of overlap) have proposed mechanisms that lead to higher

diversity in the Indonesian-Philippines area. We investigate

genetic approach as a new tool that could give evolutionary

perspective in biogeography. The rationale of such an

approach is that genetic diversity has been found to be

correlated to species richness. Three species (Acanthurus

triostegus, Forcipiger flavissimus and Zanclus cornuttus) that

are found althrough the Indo-Pacific area from Baja California

to South Africa were surveyed..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A3: Molecular Phylogeny

21

ASSESSMENT OF CRYPTIC REEF FISH SPECIES IN

BRAZIL USING MOLECULAR MARKERS

Rocha, Luiz A. and Brian W. Bowen. *University of

Florida, Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences,

7922 NW 71 st Street, Gainesville, FL 32653 USA. Email:

rocha@gnv.ifas.ufl.edu

In the last few years the growth of interest in reef fish

systematics among Brazilian ichthyologists has generated a

growing number of faunal surveys and, consequently, species

descriptions. Many of the unknown species being found can be

described based solely on morphology, but others seem to

differ from Caribbean sister taxa in just a few characters such

as color or size, what usually is not enough for establishing a

species identity. Examples of those so called “cryptic” species

are several grunts (Haemulidae), wrasses (Labridae) and

damselfishes (Pomacentridae). One of the first species

accessed during this study is the puddingwife Halichoeres

radiatus. It has a green-yellow body with four white spots

along the dorsum in the Caribbean, and a blue-orange body

without white spots in Brazil, but no significant difference was

found when comparing their morphology. In an attempt to

solve long debated questions about the identity of such

Brazilian taxa we are now applying molecular genetic

techniques and testing hypothesis of gene flow and population

structure between Brazilian and Caribbean reefs, which are

separated by freshwater discharges of big rivers such as the

Amazon and Orinoco in northeastern South America.

Preliminary data on sequences of Halichoeres radiatus

mitochondrial DNA indicate deep separations between

locations on the Brazilian coastline, offshore islands, and the

Caribbean.

MOLECULAR TOOLS FOR ASSESSING GENETIC

VARIATION WITHIN SCLERACTINIAN CORAL

SPECIES.

Romano, S.L.* and R.H. Richmond. *Marine Laboratory,

Univ. of Guam, UOG Station, Mangilao, Guam 96923 USA.

Email: sromano@uog9.uog.edu

Developments in molecular techniques have made it feasible

to use genotypic characters for analyses of relationships among

coral species, genera, and families. However, gene regions that

are useful for detecting genetic differences within and among

closely related species of many different organisms do not

demonstrate genetic differentiation on a similar scale for coral

species. Recent work has shown those molecular methods that

sample throughout the genome, such as RAPDs, AFLPs and

ISSRs, may provide the necessary resolution for analyzing

intraspecific variation in corals. Randomly amplified

polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers have been used as a

means of relatively easily, rapidly, efficiently and

inexpensively assaying genetic variation, from the level of the

individual to the species, in a wide variety of plants and

animals. While RAPD markers successfully differentiate

species within the genus Acropora, preliminary data indicate

that they may not be useful for assessing genetic variation

within scleractinian coral species. DNA extracted from

azooxanthellate coral sperm from 45 colonies of Acropora

surculosa was amplified with four different RAPD primers.

Analysis of 27 loci generated from these primers demonstrates

no population differentiation among four populations separated

by as much as 50 km. Mean genetic distances within

populations are 25-32% and between populations are 26-31%.

Continuing research is being conducted to determine whether

this result is due to lack of genetic variation within A.

surculosa or to lack of variability in coral RAPD markers.

LOW LEVELS OF MITOCHONDRIAL SEQUENCE

VARIATION IN SCLERACTINIAN CORALS.

Snell, Tonya L.*. *University at Buffalo, Dept. of

Biological Sciences, Buffalo, NY 14260 USA, Email:

tlsnell@buffalo.edu.

Mitochondrial 16S ribosomal RNA and cytochrome b gene

sequences often exhibit unexpectedly low sequence divergence

among some scleractinian corals. In this study, sequence

variation of another mitochondrial gene, cytochrome c oxidase

subunit 1 (COI), was investigated to determine whether this

trend was exhibited throughout this region of the

mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Approximately 700 base pairs

of the COI gene from Caribbean coral species in several

scleractinian families were sequenced and analyzed for intra-and

interspecific nucleotide and amino acid variability. Levels

of variability were extremely small (or zero) among colonies

within a species, even when samples were collected from

distant geographic locations (>3000 km). Among some

species, nucleotide divergence and amino acid divergence

were also very low. Phylogenetic relationships based on this

COI region support the placement of genera within families,

and the relationships among families were generally

concordant with those hypothesized using 16S mitochondrial

sequence data. Although mtDNA sequences are commonly

used to assess population structure and estimate divergence of

closely related species, low levels of mitochondrial nucleotide

substitution rates in scleractinian corals inhibit the use of these

markers for such purposes.

THE SCLERACTINIAN CORAL PAVONA CACTUS

EXHIBITS HIGH LEVELS OF GENETIC

POLYMORPHISM: A NEW GENETIC MARKER FOR

CLONAL POPULATION STUDIES.

Smith,C.R.*, Willis, B.L., Miller, D.J. and Chen, C.A.

*Australian Institute of Marine Science PMB No. 3

Townsville MC QLD 4810 Australia. Email:

c.smith@aims.gov.au

The prevalence of asexual reproduction in the life history of

scleractinian corals highlights the need for good genetic

markers to assess clonal population structure. In order for

genetic markers to be useful they must be easily assayed and

exhibit sufficient polymorphism to address the question at

hand. The ribosomal intergenic spacer region (IGS) is a region

with considerable potential for use as a genetic marker in

population level studies of scleractinian corals. A rapid, cost

effective method of assaying variation within the ribosomal

IGS region was developed for the agariciid coral Pavona

cactus. Possible contamination from symbiotic zooxanthellae

was avoided by the development of an assay which

preferentially amplifies host coral DNA rather than

zooxanthellae DNA through the use of the polymerase chain

reaction (PCR). This PCR based technique was able to rapidly

distinguish 17 distinct genotypes within a clonal population of

P.cactus at Eclipse Island, Great Barrier Reef, Australia.

Allozyme electrophoresis, the more traditional genetic assay

for hard corals, resolved only 12 genotypes within the same

sample set. The high level of polymorphism observed within

the IGS region of P.cactus (as compared with that observed in

a clonal marine gorgonian, Junceella fragilis) may be

explained by the presence of internally repeated DNA

elements (subrepeats) in the P.cactus genome..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A3: Molecular Phylogeny

22

REPRODUCTIVE AND MORPHOMETRIC

CHARACTERS OF CARIBBEAN CORALS IN THE

GENUS ACROPORA ARE CONSISTENT WITH A

HYBRID ORIGIN FOR A. PROLIFERA

Stockwell, B., B. Willis.* and A. Morse. *Department of

Marine Biology, James Cook University, Townsville,

Qld.4811, Australia. Email: Bette.Willis@jcu.edu.au

Caribbean species in the coral genus, Acropora, comprise

two common species, A. palmata and A. cervicornis, and a

rarer species, A. prolifera, whose intermediate colony

morphology and lack of genetic distinctness have lead to

speculation that it may be of hybrid origin. We present

evidence that, in addition to colony morphology, both corallite

morphology and reproductive characters of A. prolifera are

intermediate between those of the other two species. Mean

egg volume and polyp fecundity are both distinct and

intermediate for A. prolifera, with A. cervicornis being

significantly more fecund and A. palmata having significantly

larger eggs. Multivariate analyses of corallite characteristics

(maximum calice diameter, calice roundness, corallite length,

and corallite wall thickness) clearly separated all three species

and indicated that corallite dimensions of A. prolifera are

intermediate between those of A. palmata and A. cervicornis .

Evidence that A. palmata and A. cervicornis may spawn

concurrently, coupled with congruence in the intermediacy of

A. prolifera for both reproductive and morphometric characters

is consistent with suggestions that A. prolifera may have

originated as a hybrid between A. palmata and A. cervicornis.

GENETIC CONNECTIVITY OF CORALS AMONG

WESTERN PACIFIC REEFS.

Takabayashi, M. * , Carter, D.A., Hoegh-Guldberg, O.

*Centre for Marine Studies, The University of Queensland

QLD 4072 Australia. Email: misaki@bio.usyd.edu.au

Genetic connectivity over large distances (thousands of

kilometres) is poorly described despite the widespread

distributions of Scleractinian corals and the importance of the

information for areas like conservation biology. Molecular

methods offer powerful opportunities to investigate this area of

coral reef biology. Variability in the DNA sequence of the

internal transcribed spacer-1 (ITS-1) of ribosomal genes was

investigated to analyse intra-specific genetic diversity of a

common coral, Stylophora pistillata, across the western Pacific

Ocean. Populations from Japan, Malaysia, northern and

southern Great Barrier Reef (GBR) were studied. The resulting

consensus dendrograms (maximum likelihood and neighbour

joining analyses) revealed that the genetic and geographic

distances were clearly correlated in these coral populations.

Despite this, statistical analyses (AMOVA) of genetic

distances revealed that ITS-1 sequence variability was greater

within populations (78.37%) than among populations

(12.06%). These results suggest significant connectivity

among reef systems that may be separated by as much as

several thousand miles. These results have important

implications for the local and global management of coral reefs

throughout the tropical Pacific.

EXAMINATION OF SPECIES BOUNDARIES IN THE

ACROPORA CERVICORNIS GROUP (SCLERACTINIA,

CNIDARIA) USING NUCLEAR DNA SEQUENCE

ANALYSES.

van Oppen, MJH*, BL Willis, HWJA van Vugt, DJ Miller.

*Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, James Cook

University, Townsville 4811, Australia. Email:

Madeleine.vanOppen@jcu.edu.au

While Acropora is the most species rich genus of the

scleractinian corals, only three species occur in the Caribbean:

Acropora cervicornis, A. palmata and A. prolifera . Based on

overall coral morphology, abundance and distribution patterns,

it has been suggested that A. prolifera may be a hybrid

between A. cervicornis and A. palmata. We have examined

species boundaries among these three morphospecies using

DNA sequence analyses of the nuclear Pax-C 46/47 intron and

the ribosomal DNA ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 regions. Up to 5.2 %

overall sequence divergence was observed in the ITS and 5.8S

sequences, but variability within species was as large as

between species and all three species carried similar

sequences. Since this is unlikely to represent a shared

ancestral polymorphism, the data suggest that introgressive

hybridisation occurs among the three species. For the Pax-C

intron, A. cervicornis and A. palmata had very distinct allele

frequencies and A. cervicornis carried a unique allele at a

frequency of 0.769. All A. prolifera colonies examined were

heterozygous for the Pax-C intron, while heterozygosity was

only 0.286 and 0.333 for A. cervicornis and A. palmata,

respectively. This suggest that A. prolifera is the product of

hybridisation between two species that have a different allelic

composition for the Pax-C intron, i.e. A. cervicornis and A.

palmata. We therefore suggest that A. prolifera is a hybrid

between A. cervicornis and A. palmata, which backcrosses

with the parental species at low frequency.

POPULATION GENETIC ANALYSES OF THE

RIBOSOMAL INTERNAL TRANSCRIBED SPACER 2

IN ACROPORA (CNIDARIA; SCLERACTINIA):

EFFECT OF ANCESTRAL POLYMORPHISM IN

EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY OF ACROPORA.

Wei, Nuwei Vivian*, Wallace, Carden C. Chang-Feng Dai,

Shan-In Vanson Liu, Chaolun Allen Chen. *Institute of

Oceanography, National Taiwan University, Taiwan.

Email: teresa@gate.sinica.edu.tw

Reticulate evolutionary history enforced by synchronous

spawning of Acropora has recently been suggested based on

fertilization trials and molecular markers. Under this scenario,

success of natural hybridization among morphologically

distinct Acropora may reinforce the exchange of genetic

background of species which spawn simultaneously in the

populations, but create genetic difference among species with

variations in spawning times, or of the same species at

geographically-distant populations. In this study, population

parameters were estimated for the ribosomal internal

transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) of several Acropora species

obtained from diverse geographic localities. The ITS2 of A.

humilis, containing a set of microsatellites, showed the highest

genetic divergence ( > 30%) in comparison to three dominant

species, A. muricata, A. hyacinthus, A. valida, in the Penghu

(Taiwan) population..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A3: Molecular Phylogeny

23

USING A MULTI-LOCUS APPROACH TO EXAMINE

SPECIES-LEVEL RELATIONSHIPS IN THE

SCLERACTINIAN CORALS.

Vollmer, Steven V.* and Stephen R. Palumbi. *Dept. of

Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University,

Cambridge, MA 02138, Email: svollmer@oeb.harvard.edu

Efforts to construct molecular phylogenies within the

scleractinian corals have been hampered by surprisingly low

levels of genetic variability at loci commonly used in other

taxa. While there has been limited success with the higher-level

systematics of the corals, few loci have been identified

that are capable of resolving species-level relationships, and

those loci with sufficient variation often lack fixed differences

between species. As a result, the ability to address questions

about species relationships in corals, including whether

reticulate evolution may be common to some mass-spawning

species, have been limited by a lack of appropriate markers.

We examined patterns of genetic variability in Acropora

palmata and A. cervicornis from the Caribbean using

mitochondrial and nuclear loci. Sequence data from the

putative control region and cytochrome oxidase III of the

mitochondrion and nuclear intron data from 3 independent loci

show that these 2 species are genetically distinct. Levels of

genetic variability at these loci are suitable for inter- and intra-specific

phylogenetic comparisons, and the comparison of

mitochondrial versus nuclear loci may be useful for detecting

introgression.

POPULATION PHYLOGENETICS OF THE COMMON

CORAL REEF SPONGES LEUCETTA SPP. AND

PERICHARAX SPP. (PORIFERA: CALCAREA) FROM

THE GREAT BARRIER REEF AND VANUATU.

Woerheide, G.*; Degnan, B. M.; Hooper, J.N.A..

*Queensland Museum, P.O. Box 3300, South Brisbane, Q

4101, Australia & Molecular Zoology Lab., Dept. of

Zoology and Entomology, University of Queensland, St.

Lucia, Q 4072, Australia. Email: GertW@qm.qld.gov.au

Molecular data show that calcareous sponges (Porifera:

Calcarea) might be the link between sponges and

Ctenophora/Cnidaria. However, present knowledge of this

group of sponges from Indo-Pacific coral reefs is deficient -this

class of sponges remains fundamentally problematic at all

levels. The aim of the present study is to investigate for the

first time the phylogenetic relationships of populations of the

common (and allegedly 'cosmopolitan') calcareous sponges

Leucetta spp. and Pericharax spp. from the Great Barrier Reef

and Vanuatu, using mitochondrial (COII) and nuclear (ITS)

gene sequence analysis. Species of Leucetta and Pericharax

are particularly well-suited for this study as they are found on

nearly every Indo-Pacific coral reef; identification at species

level is difficult using traditional morphological characters;

and nothing is known about gene flow and larval dispersal

capabilities between Indo-Pacific populations. We test the

hypothesis that 'widely distributed' species of these taxa occur

in the western Indo-Pacific (H0), against the possibility that the

populations of these allegedly ‘widely distributed’ species

represent distinct cryptic sibling species (H1). We will also

compare different rates of evolution of investigated

mitochondrial and nuclear genes in Porifera and indicate

patterns of gene flow between populations – of high

significance also to other marine invertebrate groups.

SPECIES BOUNDARIES IN SCLERACTINIAN

CORALS.

Wolstenholme, Jackie*. *Dept of Marine Biology and

Aquaculture, James Cook University, Townsville Qld 4811

Australia. Email: jackie.wolstenholme@jcu.edu.au

Accurate definition of species and species boundaries is

critical for correctly interpreting evolutionary processes.

However, definition of boundaries between many species of

scleractinian corals remains unresolved because of merging or

overlapping skeletal characters between morphologically

similar species. Molecular evidence suggests that this apparent

morphological continuum between some species of corals is

due to hybridisation, and may be indicative of a reticulate

rather than divergent evolutionary history. Detailed

morphological analysis, using both descriptive and

morphometric characters of all morphs of the Acropora

humilis species complex, indicates that the five species present

in American Samoa correspond with seven field-recognisable

morphs. Three of the morphs have overlapping morphological

boundaries while the other four morphs have distinct

boundaries. Two of the distinct morphs are from a single

species, A. monticulosa. One morph with indistinct boundaries

and one morph with distinct boundaries are from the species A.

gemmifera. Molecular data, for the same colonies used in the

morphological analysis, compare the occurrence and frequency

of interbreeding between morphs with overlapping and distinct

morphological boundaries. Techniques established in this

project will be used to analyse samples collected from the

same species complex from six other Pacific locations to

assess biogeographic variation. The combined results will be

used to reconstruct the phylogenetic history, including zones of

hybridisation, of this species complex..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A4: Zooxanthellae

Session A4: Zooxanthellae in Animal Hosts: Honoring Len Muscatine and Bob

Trench

24

USE OF 13 C TO STUDY THE CORAL SYMBIOSIS

SYNERGY.

Amat A*, Juillet-Leclerc , Ruiz-Pino. LSCE, Domaine du

CNRS, Gif-sur-Yvette, FRANCE. Email:

amat@ccr.jussieu.fr

Zooxanthellate Scleractinian corals have not to be regarded

as separate mineral and organic units. In order to investigate

interactions between photosynthesis and calcification, it is

therefore necessary to study simultaneously organic and

inorganic parts. Stable isotopic carbon ratio ( 13 C/12 C) has been

chosen here to allow this concomittant study. This proxy has

been measured in zooxanthellae, coral tissues and skeletons

from 4 species corresponding to 3 genus of Scleractinian

corals, adapted successively to different pCO2 and light

conditions. Stable isotopic composition (d 13 C) variations

versus light and CO2 are similar for animal and zooxanthellae

organic matter. The animal metabolism is therefore highly

coupled to the photosynthetic activity of its symbionts.

Organic matter and skeleton d

13 C variations are not correlated.

This result suggests that carbon sources for photosynthesis and

calcification have different origins and not a common one as

previously supposed by the common carbon pool hypothesis.

Whatever the genus considered, a light decrease implies an

organic matter d

13 C depletion; the CO2 influence is less

obvious. The impact of calcification on the aragonitedd 13 C is

highly species dependent. The light influence as well as the

pCO2 impact through photosynthesis and calcification on

13 C/12 C ratio is not straightforward.

THE EFFECT OF SYMBIOSIS ON SKELETAL

CHEMISTRY OF HERMATYPIC CORALS:

IMPLICATIONS FOR INTERPRETING CORAL

CLIMATE RECORDS

Cohen A.L.*, Gladfelter, Elizabeth H. and Layne, Graham

D.; Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole,

MA 02543, USA; Email: acohen@whoi.edu

The skeletal chemistry of massive hermatypic corals

correlates with sea temperature and other environmental

variables and is an important tool for reconstructing past

climate change. However, our confidence in interpreting coral

proxy data purely as a climate signal is limited by lack of

knowledge of how biological processes, specifically algal

photosynthesis, influence skeletal chemistry. We examined the

link between photosynthesis and skeletal Sr/Ca (a temperature

proxy) in a Porites lutea colony stained in-situ for age-control

and for which we have contemporaneous, logged hourly SSTs.

Examination of skeletal ultra-structure with SEM and in thin-section

yielded two different crystal morphologies whose

existence is likely connected with symbiont-induced diurnal

changes in pH of the extra-cellular calcifying fluid,

encouraging equant crystals to form at night and acicular

crystals during the day. We constructed Sr/Ca time-series

separately for each crystal type at daily resolution over a

growth period of one year using SIMS 1 ion microprobe.

Biweekly Sr/Ca cycles track tidally-induced, biweekly SST

cycles but the sensitivity of Sr/Ca to SST is five times greater

during the day than it is at night. Furthermore, the temperature-dependence

of daytime Sr/Ca is non-linear over the annual

cycle, changing between the winter and summer seasons. We

propose that algal symbiosis exerts a significant influence on

this important temperature proxy by enhancing skeletal

calcification rate. However, since the relationship appears

neither simple nor non-linear, accurate interpretation of coral-based

climate records will depend on our recognition and

understanding of this complex interaction.

DIFFERENT FORMS OF CELL DEATH ACTIVITY

DURING BLEACHING OF THE SYMBIOTIC SEA

ANEMONE AIPTASIA SP.

, Simon*, Dr.J.C.Bythell, Dr.M.D.A.Le Tissier and

Dr.J.C.Thomason. *Department of Marine Sciences and

Coastal management, University of Newcastle upon Tyne,

UK. Email: S.R.DUNN@NCL.AC.UK

The mechanisms of cell death, degradation and loss of host

tissues and symbionts during bleaching in symbiotic cnidarians

has remained equivocal. There is little evidence to indicate

whether host or symbiont is the first to show the affects of an

environmental stress. A critical issue that remains is whether

bleaching is the outcome of an adaptive stress response or

simply the degenerative effects of environmental perturbation.

In this study, cell death pathways were investigated in

response to hyperthermic treatment which induced bleaching

in the sea anemone Aiptasia sp.. Using a suite of techniques,

different forms of cell death activity were indicated. After a

treatment period of 3-4 days the host gastrodermis tissues

underwent necrotic cell death releasing zooxanthellae with a

normal, healthy appearance into the coelenteron. Longer

periods of hyperthermic treatment (7 days) were correlated

with the in-situ degradation of zooxanthellae remaining within

the degenerated host gastrodermis. Zooxanthellae degradation

was characterised by cell shrinkage, condensation of the

cytoplasm, formation of accumulation bodies at the periphery

of the cell wall and DNA fragmentation, which was indicative

of a form of programmed cell death. The existence of a

programmed cell death pathway within zooxanthellae is

important to the understanding of bleaching events and raises

interesting questions regarding the evolution of this process

which has previously been linked mainly with multicellular

organisms.

NOVEL STABLE ISOTOPE APPROACH TO STUDY

CARBON AND OXYGEN CYCLING BETWEEN

CORALS AND THEIR SYMBIOTIC ALGAE.

Erez, J.*, Schneider, K. and Luz, B.. *Institute of Earth

Sciences, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel, 91904.

Email: Erez@vms.huji.ac.il

The metabolic fractionations of 13 C / 12 C and 17 O/ 16 O, and

18 O/16 O in dissolved inorganic carbon (CT ) and oxygen (O2),

respectively, were used to study their cycling in Acropora sp.

from Eilat, Red Sea. The d

13 C of CT taken-up during

photosynthesis was very low (Av.= -8 ‰), and negatively

correlated with CO2(aq). These very low fractionations correlate

well with high calcification rates, suggesting that at low CO2(aq)

and high pH, photosynthesis may be supported by 13 C enriched

CO2(aq) produced from HCO3 - which combines with protons

generated by calcification. During respiration the d

13 C released

is more negative (-16 to -18 ‰) indicating that roughly 50% of

the respiratory carbon is of planktonic origin. d

13 C of isolated

symbionts show average values of –14‰ suggesting that up to

60% of the CO2 utilized by the symbionts may be of host

respiratory origin. Oxygen produced during photosynthesis is

depleted in 18 O relative to atmospheric dissolved O2. This

depletion (corrected for respiration based on 17 O) allows for

direct estimate of gross photosynthesis (GP). GP of the

symbiotic algae determined by this method, suggest that light

respiration was roughly twice the dark respiration. In addition

these data showed that during photosynthesis, significant

amount of oxygen (and probably also carbon) must be cycled

internally in accord with the carbon isotope data. Excess light

respiration and CO2(aq) production rates from calcification

match the internal recycling needed to explain the observed

oxygen isotopic data..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A4: Zooxanthellae

25

ZOOXANTHELLAL RESPONSE OF TRIDACNA GIGAS

MANTLE TO ELEVATED TEMPERATURES

Estacion, J. S. *, J. S. Lucas and J. H. Norton. *Silliman

University Marine Laboratory, Dumaguete City 6200,

Philippines. Email: mlsucrm@mozcom.com

The response of zooxanthellae within the giant clam

(Tridacna gigas) mantle to elevated temperatures (30-31°C)

was investigated under the laboratory conditions using

zooxanthellae density, chlorophyll a content per zooxanthella

and histological appearance of the mantle. Results showed that

mean zooxanthellae density increased with prolonged exposure

to elevated water temperatures. After 21 days, density of clams

in elevated water temperatures (1.41 x 10 7 cells/g fresh mantle)

was almost ten times lower than the control clams (13.4 x 10 7

cells/g fresh mantle) but chrolophyll a per cell was

significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the former. Histological

examination confirmed the decrease in zooxanthellae density

in the mantle. Compared to the controls, there was also an

increase in the number of zooxanthellae that were transparent.

These zooxanthellae seem to degenerating and losing their

cytoplasm.

COMPARISONS OF TISSUE BIOMASS AND

ZOOXANTHELLAE POPULATIONS OF FIVE REEF-BUILDING

CORALS LIVING IN THE BAHAMAS AND

ON THE FLORIDA REEF TRACT AND

RELATIONSHIP TO BLEACHING.

Fitt*,W.K., M.E. Warner, G.C. Chilcoat. University of

Georgia, Athens GA 30602 Email:

fitt@sparrow.ecology.uga.edu

Tissue biomass and zooxanthellae densities of five species of

Caribbean reef corals tend to decrease with depth and vary

with season, with highest values occurring during the coolest

season and the lowest at the end of the warmest season. Same

species, same depth comparisons between sites in the Bahamas

with those in the Florida Keys show that corals at the latter site

exhibit physiological parameters indicative of corals that

would normally live deeper on reefs compared to their

Bahamian counterparts. We suggest that the data illustrate the

importance of light penetration and influence of water quality

on the physiology and health of reef corals.

HOST-MEDIATED CO2 SUPPLY FOR

ENDOSYMBIONT PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN SEA

ANEMONE

Furla, Paola* & Denis Allemand *Observatoire

Océanologique Européen, Centre Scientifique de Monaco,

Avenue Saint-Martin, MC-98000 MONACO (Principality

of Monaco) Email:: Denis.Allemand@unice.fr

Within symbiotic Cnidarians, respiratory CO 2 is not enough

to supply photosynthesis of intracellular dinoflagellates,

Symbiodinium sp. Furthermore it has been shown recently that

the Rubisco of these Dinoflagellates is a form II which has

previously been reported to have a relatively low

discrimination ratio between CO2 and O2, raising the question

of how zooxanthellae fix inorganic carbon so efficiently?

To determine the mechanism of inorganic carbon supply, we

used isolated tentacles of the Mediterranean sea anemone,

Anemonia viridis. We demonstrated that the major source of

inorganic carbon is the HCO3 - present in the external medium

surrounding the animal. The absorption of HCO3 - from the

external seawater induces a polarization of the oral epithelium,

revealed by the generation of a pH gradient between sea water

and the coelenteric cavity of about 0.8 pH units. To further

study this mechanism, we used plasma membrane vesicles of

ectodermal cells from tentacles. We found that HCO3 - uptake

results from a H + secretion by an H + -ATPase which, in

addition to a membrane-bound carbonic anhydrase, induces the

dehydration of HCO3 - into CO2.

THE GROWTH AND SURVIVORSHIP OF REEF-BUILDING

CORALS EXPOSED TO ELEVATED

NUTRIENTS IN A LONG-TERM MANIPULATIVE

FIELD STUDY.

Hoegh-Guldberg Ove*, *Centre For Marine Studies,

University Of Queensland, StLucia, 4072. Qld, Australia.

Email: oveh@uq.edu.au <mailto:oveh@uq.edu.au>

Two species of reef-building corals (pocillopora damicornis

and acropora longicyathus) were exposed to increased

concentrations of inorganic n (ammonium, nh4cl) and p

(phosphate, nah2po4) in naturally ponding micro-atolls for 9

months as part of the encore (enrichment of nutrient on coral

reefs) project at one tree island reef (southern great barrier

reef). Growth rates were reduced to 57.7% and 71.1% of

control rates in two morphotypes ("pink" and "brown"

respectively) of p. Damicornis (p < 0.05) when exposed to

elevated ammonium concentrations for 9 months. Adding

phosphate resulted in similar yet not statistically significant (p

> 0.05) trends and treatment with both ammonium and

phosphate resulted in the lowest growth rates (59.4% and

75.7% of control growth rates) for the brown and pink

morphotypes respectively. Rates of mortality in ammonium

treated microatolls were 271% and 211% of control rates for

pink and brown morphotypes respectively (p = 0.0077) and

were highest in microatolls receiving both ammonium and

phosphate. Similar though not statistically significant trends (p

> 0.05) were seen with a. Longicyathus. The differences

between the two species seen in the present study highlight the

importance of multi-species studies. The results of this study

also demonstrate experimentally (and for the first time) that

increased concentrations of ammonium and phosphate under

field conditions over ecologically relevant time scales can

specifically decrease the growth and survivorship of reef-building

coral associations..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A4: Zooxanthellae

26

EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF ZOOXANTHELLA-CONTAINING

EGGS OF SCLERACTINIAN CORALS:

DOES THE PRESENCE OF ZOOXANTHELLAE

AFFECT THE DEVELOPMENT?

Hirose, M.* and M. Hidaka. Dept. of Chemistry, Biology

and Marine Science, Univ. of the Ryukyus, Nishihara,

Okinawa, 903-0213 Japan. Email: k988551@sci.u-ryukyu.

ac.jp

Early development of zooxanthella-containing eggs of

scleractinian corals was studied to understand how the

presence of zooxanthellae influences early development of

corals and how zooxanthellae become restricted to the

gastrodermis of planulae during the course of development.

Zooxanthellae distributed mainly in a hemisphere of spawned

eggs of Pocillopora verrucosa and P. eydouxi. The first

cleavage furrow started at the hemisphere that was rich in

zooxanthellae, dividing the zooxanthellae almost equally into

two blastomeres. The second cleavage divided the blastomere

into a zooxanthella-rich blastomere and a blastomere with few

zooxanthellae. The uneven distribution of zooxanthellae

persisted until the zygotes developed into gastrulae. If

blastomeres were isolated by pipetting at two- or four-cell

stages, the next cleavage started at the zooxanthella-rich

hemisphere as in the first normal cleavage, dividing the

zooxanthellae almost equally. Blastomeres isolated even at 8-

cell stage could develop into planulae suggesting that eggs of

the corals underwent indeterminate cleavage.

THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS: INTEGRATING

CLIMATE MODEL PROJECTIONS AND THE RECENT

BEHAVIOUR OF CORALS AND THEIR

DINOFLAGELLATES.

Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove*, *Centre for Marine Studies,

University of Queensland, St Lucia, 4072. QLD, Australia.

Email: oveh@uq.edu.au

Concern is increasing as to how coral reefs will fare under

climate change. All major climate models concur that current

rates of temperature change in the world’s oceans (1-2 o C per

century) will continue over the next 100 years if atmospheric

greenhouse gases increase. This scenario, together with the

explicit link between coral bleaching, mortality and sea

temperature, leads to the prediction that coral bleaching is

likely to become an annual feature of coral reef environments

in the 21 st century. This paper reviews the rationale behind

these predictions and explores how coral reefs might respond

to an increased frequency and intensity of coral bleaching.

While some workers suggest that corals-dinoflagellates will

adapt fast enough to the changes in sea temperature, the data to

support these opinions is scant or non-existent. Most evidence

suggests that corals and their symbiotic dinoflagellates will not

change fast enough to prevent major changes in coral reef

ecosystem distribution and function. Simple ecological

surveys done after a bleaching event reveal little about the

long-term decadal trends and may even serve to confuse

managers and policy makers who seek guidance in this

important debate. Two issues are central to a better

understanding of how reefs will respond to climate change.

These are: (a) the rates of genetic change (adaptation) under

extreme selection regimes and (b) the source of genetic

variability on coral reefs. The latter also suggests that a

greater knowledge of gene flow and connectivity between

reefs is crucial. Work on these issues is surprisingly limited

and must be a priority over the next few years.

PHOSPHORUS UPTAKE & ALLOCATION IN

AIPTASIA PALLIDA.

Kelty, R.*, Lipschultz. National Oceanographic &

Atmospheric Administration, National Centers for Coastal

Ocean Science, 1305 East-West Highway SSMC4, Rm.

9224, Silver Spring, MD 20910. Email:

ruth.kelty@noaa.gov

The physiology of phosphorus uptake and incorporation by

the anemone Aiptasia pallida was investigated by using

radiolabeled orthophosphate to trace the movement of

phosphate from seawater into the symbiotic associate and then

its redistribution within the anemone. The animal host is

capable of both actively transporting and assimilating

phosphate. In symbiotic anemones and corals, zooxanthellae

typically provide the energy for phosphate transport, and

uptake by symbiotic anemones is light enhanced. Regardless

of its source, the oxidation of carbon and concurrent

phosphorylation of ADP provide the ATP to drive active

phosphate uptake by the animal. Once phosphate is

transported across the plasma membrane, it is immediately

incorporated into ATP and other metabolic intermediates, then

slowly assimilated into macromolecular compounds. The

algae compete with the animal for phosphate in the host

cytoplasm and can also assimilate organic phosphorus

compounds, including phosphorus released by the host. No

evidence was found for phosphate recycling between the host

and algae, but there is a unidirectional flow of phosphate from

the animal to the algae. Furthermore, release of newly

incorporated phosphate into the incubation water suggests that

phosphorus is not tightly recycled.

THE MORPHOLOGY, BIOCHEMISTRY,

PHYSIOLOGY AND GENETICS OF SYMBIODINIUM:

A REVIEW AND SYNTHESIS OF

CHARACTERIZATIONS MADE ON CULTURED

SYMBIOTIC DINOFLAGELLATES.

LaJeunesse, Todd C.* and Robert K. Trench. Department

of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology University of

California Santa Barbara, CA 93106 Email:

lajeunes@lifesci.ucsb.edu

The symbiosis between dinoflagellates of the genus

Symbiodinium and numerous carbonate-producing

invertebrates is unarguably the most important ecological

interaction on present day coral reefs. Our knowledge of these

endosymbiotic algae has improved remarkably since culturing

techniques were developed to permit the isolation and

manipulation of symbionts outside the host and to conduct

comparative studies to distinguish attributes that are inherently

genetic and those which are affected by growth under different

environmental conditions. Over the last 25 years, examinations

of morphology, biochemistry, physiology and genetics have

identified high diversity among cultured isolates. However,

most of these studies were conducted without knowledge of

phylogenetic relatedness and thus prevented genealogical

comparisons. The genetic analysis on those same isolates is

now complete. We present a review of the various biological

attributes measured and arrange this information in a

phylogenetic context to determine how distinct lineages

correlate with function. For certain attributes, genetic

differences correlate with differences in morphology,

physiology and biochemistry, while for other characters they

do not..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A4: Zooxanthellae

27

SOURCES OF CAROTENOIDS IN THE ANEMONE,

Aiptasia pallida, AND THEIR ROLE IN ULTRAVIOLET

RADIATION PHOTOPROTECTION.

Mobley, K.B.* and D.F. Gleason. Georgia Southern

University, Department of Biology, Statesboro, GA 30460-

8042, USA. Email: kenyon_b_mobley@gasou.edu.

Using the common Caribbean anemone, Aiptasia pallida, as

a model for coral/algal symbiosis, laboratory experiments were

conducted to investigate the following: 1) the effects of

enhanced ultraviolet radiation (UVR), zooxanthellae density

and heterotrophic feeding (Artemia sp.) on carotenoid

composition and concentration and 2) the role of carotenoid

pigmentation in UVR photoprotection. Fed and unfed,

zooxanthellate and apozooxanthellate A. pallida were exposed

to the following light treatments: UVR (290 - 400nm) and

PAR (Photosynthetically Active Radiation 400-700nm); PAR

only; and no light. Chlorophyll a and c, as well as the

carotenoids b-carotene, peridinin, diatoxanthin and

diadinoxanthin, were analyzed by HPLC from anemone tissue

collected during the course of the 40-day experiment. After a

14 day exposure to UVR, significant decreases in chlorophyll

a, c and peridinin were observed in the UVR/ zooxanthellate/

unfed treatment. However there was no significant decrease in

the diadinoxanthin/ diatoxanthin pool indicating the presence

of the photoprotective xanthophyll cycle. This cycle is

hypothesized to protect the light harvesting photosynthetic

apparatus from excess excitation energy via non-photochemical

quenching suggesting a primary role for

carotenoids in UVR photoprotection in this species.

COMPARISON OF THE PHOTOSYNTHETIC

FEATURES OF ZOOXANTHELLAE EXPELLED AND

RETAINED BY STRESSED CORALS.

Muller-Parker, Gisele *. *Dept. of Biology & Shannon

Point Marine Center, Western Washington University,

Bellingham, WA 98225-9160, USA. Email:

gisele@biol.wwu.edu

The SEARUN project team compared the photosynthetic

parameters of expelled zooxanthellae with those retained by

the host coral Montastraea faveolata after exposure to elevated

(+2°C) temperature and enhanced PAR and UV-B irradiance.

Zooxanthellae were obtained from coral plugs collected near

Lee Stocking Island in the Bahamas (15 m depth; July 1998

and 1999) and subjected to different experimental treatments,

including seawater ammonium enrichment (2 or 10 uM).

Photosynthesis-irradiance curves were used to derive

photosynthetic capacity (Pmax) and photosynthetic efficiency

(alpha) of zooxanthellae. Photosynthetic parameters indicate

that zooxanthellae in the host are protected from moderate UV-B

stress and do not respond to increased seawater ammonium

availability. In contrast, expelled zooxanthellae are damaged

by UV-B exposure and utilize ammonium enrichments to

increase both alpha and Pmax. Increased temperature

decreases Pmax and alpha of both populations of

zooxanthellae; detrimental effects are more pronounced under

high PAR and UV-B. Our results show that the host provides

adequate photoprotection for resident zooxanthellae under

normal seawater temperatures. Although expelled

zooxanthellae lose this advantage, they gain the ability to

utilize seawater nutrient enrichments. However, there is no

escape from high temperature; Pmax and alpha of both

populations of zooxanthellae are reduced upon exposure to

+2°C..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A4: Zooxanthellae

28

LIGHT UTILIZATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN

PORITES BRANERII.

Pérez-Vivar, T.L., S, Enríquez, R Iglesias-Prieto*. Unidad

Académica Puerto Morelos ICML-UNAM Apartado Postal

1152, Cancún Q.R. 77500 México. Email:

iglesias@mar.icmyl.unam.mx

The spectroscopic characteristics and photosynthetic

responses of the Caribbean stony coral Porites branerii were

analyzed. Comparison of the absorption spectra of small

fragments of P. branerii with those obtained from the freshly

isolated symbiotic algae allowed us to quantify the effect of

multiple scattering by the coral skeleton on the chlorophyll a

specific absorption coefficient. Absorption spectra of colonies

obtained during a natural bleaching event indicate the presence

of a non-linear behavior of the coral absorptance (percentage

of light absorbed) as a function of chlorophyll content. At high

pigment concentrations, a two fold reduction in chlorophyll

resulted in minor variations in absorptance, whereas at low

pigment concentrations similar reductions in chlorophyll

content resulted in dramatic reductions in the absorptance of

the coral. Simultaneous determinations of photosynthetic

activity by polarographic and pulse amplitude chlorophyll a

fluorescence techniques indicate that oxygen evolution and

electron transport rates measurements show a linear behavior

at sub-saturating irradiances, but at high irradiances there is

disproportional increase in the electron transport rate relative

to oxygen evolution. Employing the spectroscopic data in

conjunction with in situ modulated pulse amplitude

fluorescence determinations we followed, the diurnal

variations in the photosynthetic activity of a naturally

occurring colony of P. branerii.

SYMBIOSIS GENES IN CNIDARIAN-ALGAL

ASSOCIATIONS: A HOST GENE, SYM32, ENCODES A

CELL ADHESION PROTEIN THAT IS UPREGULATED

AS A FUNCTION OF SYMBIOSIS

Schwarz, J.A. * and Weis, V.M.. *Department of Zoology,

Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA.

schwarzj@bcc.orst.edu

The symbiotic association between cnidarians and

dinoflagellates is ultimately regulated by the interacting

genomes of the partners. By identifying cnidarian genes that

are expressed as a function of symbiotic state, we are

beginning to gain insights into how these partnerships are

regulated. Comparative protein profiles of the sea anemone

Anthopleura elegantissima reveal that symbiotic individuals

produce a variety of proteins that are absent, or nearly so, in

individuals that lack symbiotic algae (=aposymbiotic). The

most abundantly produced of these symbiosis proteins is a

32kD protein, sym32. Characterization of the cDNA sequence

suggests that this protein is a member of the Fas I family of

cell adhesion proteins, and possibly plays a role in cell

signaling. This gene is not specific to A. elegantissima; it also

exists in other symbiotic cnidarians that we have examined, a

scleractinian coral, an octocoral, and a jellyfish.

Immunolocalization studies in A. elegantissima have revealed

1) that the sym32 protein is not restricted to host cells which

contain algae (ie., both endoderm and ectoderm contain

sym32) and 2) that symbiotic individuals upregulate sym32

synthesis in both alga-containing and alga-free tissues. Sym32

levels are related to symbiont abundance; as the population of

algae increases, so do levels of sym32 in host tissues. In the

coral Fungia scutaria, the sym32 gene begins to be expressed

during embryonic development, prior to the host acquiring

algae, suggesting that this protein functions in early

development as well as in the symbiosis with algae.

THE ROLE OF CARBON IN RELATIONSHIP

BETWEEN ZOOXANTHELLAE AND CORALS ,

Stambler, Noga*, *Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan

University. Ramat Gan 52900, Israel. Email:

Stambln@mail.biu.ac.il

The population density of zooxanthellae is controlled by

nitrogen and carbon limitation. The coral host keeps the algal

growth rates far below their potential maximum. Under

increasing densities of algae, like those obtained as a result of

nutrient enrichment, the algae may become CO2 limited, and

may even compete with the animal for carbon for calcification.

Photosynthetic rates, on a per cell basis, were inversely

correlated with algal densities, indicating possible competition

among the algae for CO2. The relation between CO2 and Ca 2+

exchange and photosynthesis by corals was studied with

microelectrodes for Ca 2+ , O2, pH and CO2. It seems that Ca 2+

uptake is directly regulated by photosynthesis.

HOMOGENIZED TISSUE FROM APOSYMBIOTIC

Plesiastrea versipora STIMULATES THE RELEASE OF

ALGAL PHOTOSYNTHATE.

Starke-Peterkovic, T.*, A.J. Grant and R. Hinde. *School

of Biological Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney,

Australia, 2006 Email: tomo77@hotmail.com

Stimulation of photosynthate release from isolated

symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) is believed to be due to the

activity of a compound present in host homogenate referred to

as host release factor (HRF). It has been proposed that HRF is

only present in tissues from symbiotic animals. However, we

observed HRF activity in two rare, naturally aposymbiotic

samples of the temperate coral Plesiastrea versipora collected

in 1992 and in 1994. To confirm these findings, aposymbiotic

corals were produced by chilling at 4 o C for 4 h in the dark then

maintaining them in seawater in the dark at 20 o C. After twelve

weeks all algae had been expelled and corals were then fed

fortnightly with fish food (Liquifry, diluted 2 x 10 -7 ) and used

in experiments 8-11 weeks later. Homogenized tissue from

aposymbiotic corals was incubated with freshly isolated algae

from symbiotic corals for 2 h in the light. In three experiments,

release of algal photosynthate was stimulated up to four fold

by incubation in host homogenate (from symbiotic corals) and

up to three fold by incubation in aposymbiotic homogenate

when compared with algae incubated in seawater. Range

expressed as nmol carbon released/10 5 cells: 1.15 + 0.09 to 1.6

+ 0.16 in seawater; 2.91 + 0.14 to 6.19 + 0.048 in host

homogenate; 2.48 + 0.16 to 5.29 + 0.57 in aposymbiotic

homogenate (mean + SD, n = 3 or 4). These results using

aposymbiotic corals suggest that HRF is constitutively

produced by P. versipora..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A4: Zooxanthellae

29

CARBON ISOTOPIC RECORDS IN CORAL

SKELETONS: WHAT DO THEY MEAN?

Swart*, P.K., *Marine Geology and Geophysics,

Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences,

University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami

Fl 33149 Email: Pswart@srmas.miami.edu

There have been numerous attempts to understand the

meaning of carbon isotopic variation in zooxanthellate and

non-zooxanthellate coral skeletons. The model that is

currently acclaimed is that the carbon isotopic composition is a

function of the amount of insolation, with more positive _ 13 C

values occurring during periods of higher light intensity. We

present data on temporal and spatial variation in the carbon

isotopic composition of the zooxanthellae and coral tissue,

which casts further information on the cycling of carbon in

zooxanthellate corals. Our data, collected from Montastraea

faveolata growing on the Florida reef tract over a period of two

years, indicates a cycling in the carbon isotopic composition of

the coral tissue over approximately 2 per mille and a variation

of the difference between the carbon isotopic composition of

the zooxanthellae and the coral tissue. Although these

difference can be explained in a number of different ways, but

one possible explanation is that during the summer (periods of

high light intensity and long photoperiod), the corals are CO2

limited causing a reduction in the amount of fractionation

between the CO2 and the photosynthethate. Other explanations

involve seasonal change in the amount of heterotrophy and

autotrophy, changes in the isotopic composition of the DIC,

changes in the isotopic composition of the food source, or

changes in amount of lipids in the organism.

VISUALIZATION AND ISOLATION OF THE

CNIDARIAN SYMBIOSOME.

Trautman, Donelle* and Hinde, Rosalind. *School of

Biological Sciences, University of Sydney, NSW 2006,

Australia Email: rhinde@bio.usyd.edu.au

In cnidarian-algal symbioses, the alga is surrounded by a

host-derived membrane which forms a symbiosome. This

symbiosome membrane may have important roles in the

physiology of the symbiosis, but until now its roles have not

been investigated because it could only be seen using electron

microscopy. We have developed a simple method to extract

intact gastrodermal cells containing symbiotic algae, from the

anthozoan Zoanthus robustus, and to visualize the symbiosome

membrane using fluorescence microscopy. Large numbers of

motile gastrodermal cells were squeezed out through a small

slit made in the side of the zoanthid. The fluorescent probe

MDY-64 (yeast vacuole membrane marker) was used to

visualize the symbiosome membrane, and amino-chloromethyl-

coumarin was used to stain the cytoplasm of the

host cell. Intact symbiosomes, containing algae, were obtained

by ‘shearing’ off the host plasma membrane and cytoplasm by

dragging a suspension of the host cells through a needle and

syringe. Clean algal cells were obtained by further use of the

same method. Neither cleaned algae nor cultured algae

showed any trace of staining by MDY-64. These fluorescent

probes were also used successfully on host cells and symbionts

from the coral Plesiastrea versipora and the anemone Aiptasia

pulchella.

FISHING FOR SYMBIOSIS GENES IN CNIDARIAN-ALGAL

MUTUALISMS.

Weis, Virginia M.*. *Department of Zoology, Oregon

State University, Corvallis, OR, 97333, USA. Email:

weisv@bcc.orst.edu

Mutualistic symbioses between cnidarians and their

dinoflagellate symbionts form both the trophic and structural

foundation of coral reef ecosystems. Despite the profound

ecological significance of these symbioses, there have been

few studies that examine the underlying genetic interactions

between the animal host and algal symbiont. Genes and gene

products governing the onset, regulation, and maintenance of

these symbioses remain largely undescribed. We have been

investigating the molecular interactions that drive cnidarian-algal

symbioses in two associations; the temperate sea

anemone Anthopleura elegantissima and its dinoflagellate

Symbiodinium californium, and the tropical scleractinian

Fungia scutaria and its symbiont Symbiodinium spp. We have

identified several genes in A. elegantissima that are expressed

specifically as a function of the symbiotic state. These include

1) carbonic anhydrase, known to be important in inorganic

carbon transport, 2) sym32, a member of the fasciclin I family

of cell adhesion proteins, 3) glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

dehydrogenase, a glycolytic and Calvin cycle enzyme and 4) a

homologue to a calmodulin-binding protein. In addition to

investigating the roles of these “symbiosis genes” in the

regulation of the symbiosis, we are examining when these

genes are first expressed during symbiosis onset in the larval

stage of F. scutaria. In this way, we seek to identify the initial

cascade of events surrounding symbiosis onset in cnidarians

and their symbiotic algae.

PHOTOINHIBITION IN CORALS: IN THE EYE OF

THE BEHOLDER?

Winters, G.*, Y. Loya and S. Beer. *Department of Plant

Sciences and Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel.

Email: gidw@post.tau.ac.il

The methods used to investigate light responses of

zooxanthellae, and the different definitions of photoinhibition,

make it unclear whether this phenomenon is common in

shallow water corals. We used an underwater pulse amplitude

modulated (PAM) fluorometer (Diving-PAM) to investigate

the occurrence of photoinhibition in two Red Sea corals. In situ

photosynthesis rates were measured under ambient light at half

hourly intervals during 24hrs for Stylophora pistillata (2.15m)

and Favia favus (1.9m) using PAM fluorescence point

measurements. Measurements show diurnal variations in the

relative electron transport rates (ETRs), but no decreases in

ETRs as a result of high ambient irradiances were found.

Optimal quantum yields of PSII (variable fluorescence, Fv,

divided by maximal fluorescence, Fm) were measured for S.

pistillata using in situ dark-adaptation, at different times of the

day. After 30-60 min dark-adaptation, optimal yields did not

change throughout the day. Thus, neither a decrease in Fv/Fm,

nor in photosynthetic ETRs was detected during maximal

natural mid-day irradiances on cloudless days and in clear

shallow waters. "Photoinhibition" (defined as a decrease in

photosynthetic rates at high irradiances) could be detected only

under unnaturally high irradiances caused by the Diving-PAM's

halogen light source during the generation of "rapid

light curves". These results do not support the notion of

photoinhibition in corals under natural high light conditions.

Because of the variety of definitions of photoinhibition, we

conclude that the presence of this phenomenon in corals is

largely "in the eye of the beholder"..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A4: Zooxanthellae

30

ALGAL ACQUISITION BY SEXUAL OFFSPRING OF A

SOFT CORAL: DYNAMICS AND TEMPORAL

ASPECTS.

Yacobovitch T.* Benayahu Y. and Weis V. *Department of

Zoology, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel; Department

of Zoology, Oregon State University, OR 97331, USA.

Email: taliya@post.tau.ac.il

Acquisition of symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) from the

ambient environment by cnidarian sexual offspring occurs in

both scleractinians and octocorals, and is far more common

than maternal inheritance. We have been examining symbiosis

onset in the soft coral Heteroxenia fuscescens which acquires

its symbionts from the seawater as an aposymbiotic primary

polyps. Freshly isolated algae, added to laboratory grown

primary polyps, were seen swimming toward the polyp mouth

opening and after 4-12 hours, symbionts were present in the

primary polyps. Seven-day-old polyps contained an average of

45±18 algal cells (n=10), increasing in 60-day-old animals to

2128±713 cells (n=10). The location of the symbionts changed

with time. Whereas in three-day-old polyps, symbionts were

limited to the tentacle gastrodermis, in 7-day-old animals,

symbionts were also present in the upper portions of the stalk,

and in 30-day-old polyps, symbionts were present throughout

the host gastrodermis. Our findings indicate that primary

polyps are capable of acquiring symbiotic algae over a 2-3

month period. Finally, in the laboratory, algal swarmers had a

diurnal rhythmic motility induced by light. This activity

peaked once a day during the morning for 2-3 hours, when the

swarmers aggregated in large numbers around the polyp

mouth.

THE ACQUISITION AND FIXATION OF INORGANIC

CARBON BY THE TRIDACNA GIGAS -SYMBIODINIUM

SP. SYMBIOSIS.

Yellowlees, D.*, Leggat, W.. *Biochemistry and Molecular

Biology, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland,

Australia 4811. Email: david.yellowlees@jcu.edu.au

The supply of inorganic carbon (C i) to zooxanthellae is an

essential component in the symbiotic relationship of Tridacna

gigas. It is required for photosynthetic CO2-fixation by the

dinoflagellates, a process which is intimately coupled to light

harvesting in all photosynthetic organisms. In symbioses such

as the giant clam and corals, the Ci is sourced from both host

respiration and sea water. The host supply system must meet

zooxanthellae demands otherwise the algae will be carbon-limited

and photosynthesis cannot operate at peak efficiency.

To source Ci from sea water, uptake into the haemolymph of

giant clams must occur through the gills before being made

available to the zooxanthellae in the Z-tubules of the host

mantle. This Ci gradient is contrary to most other marine

organisms where Ci is removed through the gills. The Ci

supply system in clams involves at least two carbonic

anhydrase isoforms which occur in both the gills and mantle.

These facilitate the movement of CO2 through the host tissue.

The zooxanthellae in turn possess an external carbonic

anhydrase and possibly a bicarbonate transporter to aid uptake

into the algae. However the kinetic properties of the Form II

Rubisco found in zooxanthellae requires the presence of a

CO2-concentrating mechanism in the chloroplast to ensure

productive carbon fixation and the resulting export of

photosynthate (glucose) to the host for respiratory purposes.

UV-RESISTANCE MECHANISMS OF A SOFT CORAL

AND THE INVOLVEMENT OF THEIR SYMBIOTIC

ZOOXANTHELLAE.

Zeevi Ben-Yosef D.*, Y. Kashman, Y. Benayahu.

*Department of Zoology, Goerge S. Wise, Faculty of Life

Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel-Aviv 69978, Israel.

Email: dafnaz@post.tau.ac.il

Along with photosynthetically active radiation that

zooxanthellate corals require for photosynthesis, they are also

exposed to damaging ultraviolet radiation (UVR). UV

absorbing compounds (MAAs) provides the most important

resistance mechanism against UVR in the marine environment.

We studied the resistance of the Red Sea soft coral

Heteroxenia fuscescens to UVR in course of its life cycle. The

dominant MAA compound was found to be palythine, whose

concentration declined with depth. Batches of azooxanthellate

planulae obtained from 2-3 and 18-20 m were exposed to

controlled radiation levels, corresponding to the ambient ones.

Planulae derived from both depths had LD50 values of 41-60

cumulative hours of UVR exposure. Azooxanthellate primary

polyps from the same depths showed LD 50 values of 30-94 hrs.

Zooxanthellate primary polyps derived from shallow and deep

colonies had LD50 in the range of 136-210 hrs. Yet, it seems

that the LD50 values depend on seawater temperature.

Zooxanthellate polyps that were incubated with glyphosate, an

inhibitor of MAAs biosynthesis, yield LD50 of 76 hrs, a value

2.5 times lowers than without its presence. Survivorship rates

of planulae, azoo- and zooxanthellate primary polyps, and

polyps incubated with or without glyphosate corresponded

with their respective MAAs levels. Our findings indicate that

the resistance to UVR is already acquired during early

onthogenesis of a coral through MAAs, whose presence is

related to the symbiotic state..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A5: Zooxanthellae Biodiversity

Session A5: Biodiversity and Biogeography of Zooxanthellae in Coral-Algal

Symbiosis

31.9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A5: Zooxanthellae Biodiversity

Session A5: Biodiversity and Biogeography of Zooxanthellae in Coral-Algal

Symbiosis

32

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MORPHOLOGY

AND MOLECULAR VARIATION OF

ZOOXANTHELLAE FROM TEMPERATE

AUSTRALIAN REEFS.

Aisyah E.N *, Hoegh-Guldberg, O.; Hinde, R.; and Loh,

W. *School of Biological Sciences, Zoology Building AO8,

The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia. Email:

eaisyah@mail.bio.usyd.edu.au

Until recently, the majority of zooxanthellae have been

ascribed to a single species, Symbiodinium microadriaticum.

Genetic analysis of zooxanthellae from a diversity of host

species has revealed that these symbionts potentially belong to

hundreds of host specific species. This study investigated the

morphological correlates of zooxanthellae from marine

invertebrates growing on temperate reefs at the southern end of

the Great Barrier Reef and Sydney Harbour. The results

indicate that the molecular differences (18S, 28S rDNA, RFLP

and sequence analysis) between zooxanthel-lae track

differences in morphology (TEM and confocal mi-croscopy).

Our results show that the soft coral Capnella gaboensis from

Sydney contain clade C. Zooxanthellae from other marine

invertebrates (clam Tridacna maxima; corals Acropora

longicyathus, Heliofungia actiniformis and Stylophora

pistillata; and zoanthid Palythoa caesia) taken from The Great

Barrier Reef belong to clade C. Zooxanthellae from zoanthid

Zoanthus robustus do not belong to either clade A, B nor C.

The significance of these results to the diversity of

zooxanthellae in the Pacific will be discussed.

ECOLOGICAL, BIOGEOGRAPHIC AND HOST-SYSTEMATIC

PATTERNS OF SYMBIONT DIVERSITY

AMONG REEF-BUILDING CORALS.

Baker A.C.*. *Wildlife Conservation Society, Osborn

Laboratories of Marine Science, New York Aquarium,

Boardwalk at West 8 th St., Brooklyn, New York 11224,

USA. Email: abaker@wcs.org

The diversity of symbiotic dinoflagellates (“zooxanthellae”)

in reef corals was surveyed using Restriction Fragment Length

Polymorphisms (RFLPs) in large subunit ribosomal rRNA

genes. In total >800 samples from >110 species of reef coral

from the western Atlantic (Bahamas, Panamá), eastern Pacific

(Panamá, Galápagos, Mexico) and Indo-west Pacific

(Australia) were surveyed. These methods, combined with

molecular sequencing of large subunit rDNA, distinguished

17-19 symbiont genotypes in four clades of Symbiodinium (A,

B, C and D). The distribution of these genotypes showed

strong ecological, biogeographic and host-systematic patterns.

Many (>35%) of the >100 scleractinian coral species surveyed

contained multiple symbiont genotypes (sometimes in single

coral colonies) which often showed light-related patterns of

zonation, both among colonies at different depths and within

colonies across sunlit and shaded surfaces. Given the

extremely conservative nature of: (1) the molecular methods,

(2) the per-species number of samples, and (3) the number of

sites visited, it is clear that inter- and intraspecific symbiont

diversity is a common feature of reef-building coral biology

with strong ecological and biogeographic implications. This

conclusion argues for an explicit recognition of symbiont

diversity in future studies of reef-building corals.

BLEACHING OF REEF CORALS PROMOTES RAPID

RESPONSE TO ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE.

Baker A.C.*. *Wildlife Conservation Society, Osborn

Laboratories of Marine Science, New York Aquarium,

Boardwalk at West 8 th St., Brooklyn, New York 11224,

USA. Email: abaker@wcs.org

The loss of zooxanthellae during bleaching is conventionally

viewed as a pathological stress response of universal detriment

to reef-building corals. However, because scleractinian corals

are known to host multiple taxa of algal symbionts (whose

distributions within host species often show strong patterns of

ecological zonation), it has been suggested that bleaching may

provide an opportunity for invertebrate hosts to recombine

with different symbiont taxa that are better suited to the

(changed) environment. This hypothesis was tested in eight

species of Caribbean scleractinian coral using controlled

reciprocal depth transplantation experiments. Results

demonstrated that severe bleaching caused by transplanting

corals from deep (20-23m) to shallow (2-5m) sites facilitated

rapid adaptive change in symbiont communities by first

removing existing symbionts. In contrast, transplants from

shallow to deep sites, resulted in little or no bleaching, and did

not lead to symbiont community change. The persistence of

suboptimal host-symbiont combinations (“shallow” symbionts

in the transplanted corals at the deep site) resulted in higher

coral mortality after a one-year period. These data represent

the first empirical findings supporting the “adaptive bleaching”

hypothesis. They challenge the view that bleaching is

universally detrimental, and demonstrate that bleaching may

allow reef coral symbioses to respond more rapidly to

environmental change.

SEASONAL POPULATION DYNAMICS OF ALGAL

SYMBIONTS OF ACROPORIDS AND TRIDACNIDS IN

AN OKINAWA REEF.

Belda-Baillie C.A*, Baillie, B.K.; Shimoike, K.; Maruyama,

T. *Marine Biotechnology Institute Co., Ltd., Kamaishi

Laboratories, Heita, Kamaishi City, Iwate 026-0001,

Japan. Email: carmen.baillie@kamaishi.mbio.co.jp

Acroporids and tridacnids are common components of

Akajima reef in Okinawa, Japan, where extensive bleaching

and death of corals were recorded in 1998 in association with

anomalously-high summer temperatures. To evaluate the

dynamics and possible role of symbiotic dinoflagellates in the

susceptibility of symbiotic reef organisms to bleaching, the

dinoflagellate symbionts of the stony coral Acropora digitifera

and the tridacnid clam Tridacna in Akajima reef were

monitored over four seasons of 1999. A. digitifera and

Tridacna were found to host at least 2 genetically-diverse

populations of the dinoflagellate Symbiodinium, based on

denaturing-gradient gel electrophoresis and sequence

comparison of the hypervariable region of the algae’s 18S

rRNA gene. Measurement of the symbionts’ Chl a content and

density from replicate coral colonies and clams in replicate

plots and weeks of sampling showed no significant seasonal

bleaching and differences in algal growth. Initial assessment

of the mixed algal populations of A. digitifera and Tridacna

showed general consistency over the different seasons. The

year 1999 was a typical year with no anomalous temperature

changes on the reef, based on the daily temperature record of

the Akajima Marine Science Laboratory. These findings

suggest that no significant seasonal bleaching and algal

population shifts occur in some acroporids and tridacnids

during a typical year with respect to temperature. This

constitutes important baseline information on algal population

dynamics in reef invertebrates..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A5: Zooxanthellae Biodiversity

33

DIVERSITY OF ZOOXANTHELLAE IN A HOST

INDIVIDUAL.

Carlos A.A.*, Baillie, Brett K. and Maruyama, Tadashi.

*Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines,

Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines. Email:

binoy@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

The traditional view of zooxanthella-invertebrate symbioses

suggests that individual hosts harbor taxonomically

homogeneous symbiont populations. To assess the diversity of

the zooxanthella assemblage inhabiting an individual host,

zooxanthellae from 6 species of clam (Tridacna gigas, T.

squamosa, T. crocea, Hippopus hippopus, H. porcellanus, and

Corculum cardissa) and 1 species of sea anemone (Aiptasia

sp.) were studied using temperature-gradient gel

electrophoresis (TGGE), coupled with polymerase chain

reaction (PCR) using zooxanthella-specific primers that were

designed to target hypervariable regions of the small subunit

ribosomal RNA (ssrRNA) gene. Results revealed that a clam

may harbor 2 or more genotypically-distinct zooxanthellae,

with 1 to 2 dominant taxa occurring at a time. The clams

studied associated with at least 4 zooxanthella taxa. Nucleotide

sequencing of the TGGE bands and phylogenetic

reconstruction revealed that the zooxanthella taxa in clams

were Symbiodinium spp.; 1 was identical to previously-cultured

clam symbiont isolates, 1 appeared identical to a

previously-studied unculturable clam symbiont, and the other 2

represented novel strains of Symbiodinium. Individual Aiptasia

sp. harbored only 1 zooxanthella taxon, which had a ssrRNA

sequence identical to that of S. pulchrorum, previously isolated

from Aiptasia pulchella. This study has shown that individual

tridacnid and cardiid clams can harbor heterogeneous

zooxanthellae.

IS ZOOXANTHELLA DIVERSITY IN NEWLY

SETTLED OCTOCORALS HABITAT SPECIFIC?

Coffroth M.A.*. *University at Buffalo, Department of

Biological Sciences, Buffalo NY 14260, USA. Email:

coffroth@acsu.buffalo.edu

The growing awareness of the diversity of zooxanthellae and

the increasing incidence of coral bleaching events has focused

attention on the nature and variability of naturally occurring

host-symbiont dynamics. In octocorals such as Briareum

polyanthes and Plexaura kuna, planulae initially lack

zooxanthellae and acquire algae upon metamorphosis. Adults

of these species harbor zooxanthellae belonging to

Symbiodinium clade B over a range of habitats and depth,

suggesting a stable symbiosis. Initial acquisition in new

recruits involves zooxanthellae belonging to multiple clades

that vary with habitat. Newly settled polyps placed at inshore

sites initially acquired zooxanthellae in Symbiodinium clade A,

while polyps from the same cohort acquired zooxanthellae

principally in Symbiodinium clade B when place at offshore

and forereef sites. The cladal composition within the newly

settled polyp changed over time and after 3-6 months the

majority of polyps harbored zooxanthellae of the same clade as

those found in adult hosts, regardless of site. In early ontogeny

the host-symbiont interaction appears to be more plastic than

in the adults, which harbor zooxanthellae in Symbiodinium

clade B throughout the species range. This flexibility may be

driven by either local algal abundance or selection for the

zooxanthella taxon best adapted for that environment. Why the

initial colonists are eventually replaced remains to be

determined.

ZOOXANTHELLAE DIVERSITY WITHIN THE

CORAL GENUS MADRACIS.

Diekmann O.E.*, Tonk, Linda; Bak, Rolf P. M.; Olsen,

Jeanine L. *University of Groningen, PObox 14, 9750 AA

Haren, Email o.diekmann@biol.rug.nl

The diversity of zooxanthellae within five morphospecies of

the coral genus Madracis was investigated. Individuals of the

different morphospecies were sampled at one site on Curaçao,

Netherlands Antilles, over a depth range from 2-50 meter.

Restriction fragment length polymorphism and sequence

analysis of large subunit rDNA showed that, although there is

some variation, Madracis only harbours one type of

zooxanthellae. Comparison with known sequences showed that

all Madracis zooxanthellae belong to the type B clade and that

there is no relation of zooxanthellae variation with

morphospecies or with depth. The general idea that hosting

more than one type of zooxanthellae, as has been found in

Montastraea annularis complex, facilitates adaptation to a

varying environment does not apply to Madracis. However

preliminary data analysis of the faster evolving ITS region

does show differentiation between the predominantly shallow

M. mirabilis and the other morphospecies. This result suggests

that not only different types of zooxanthellae but also variation

within a zooxanthellae type may play an important role in

adaptation to different environments.

SYMBIONTS (“SYMBIODINIUM BERMUDENSE”) OF

AIPTASIA PALLIDA FROM BERMUDA AND FLORIDA

RESPOND DIFFERENTLY TO TEMPERATURE AND

IRRADIANCE.

Goulet T.L.* and Cook, Clayton B. *Harbor Branch

Oceanographic Institution, 5600 U. S. 1 North, Fort Pierce,

Florida USA 34946. Email: tgoulet@hboi.edu

One major correlate of temperature-related bleaching events

is reduced photosynthesis by zooxanthellae of bleaching

corals. We examined the effects of short-term elevated

temperatures (32 and 34°C.) on the photosynthesis-irradiance

responses of zooxanthellae from populations of the subtropical

sea anemone Aiptasia pallida in Bermuda and the Florida

Keys. Zooxanthellae from both locations have been identified

as Symbiodinium bermudense. Using PCR to amplify the

DNA encoding for ss-rRNA, we determined that the

zooxanthellae of Bermuda A. pallida fell in Clade ‘B’ while

those from Florida A. pallida fell in Clade ‘A’. The

zooxanthellae from the two locations differed in

photosynthesis-irradiance responses. Zooxanthellae from

Bermuda anemones had a typical P-I response at 25° with no

photoinhibition up to 530 µmol m -2 sec -1 . At 32° these algae

exhibited photoinhibition at I > 250, with net O2 fluxes < 0 at I

> 500. At 34° O2 fluxes were always negative, increasingly so

at higher irradiances. In contrast, zooxanthellae from Florida

A. pallida never exhibited photoinhibition at these

temperatures. P-I patterns were similar at 25 and 32°; Pmax was

reduced at 34°, although the cells were still net producers at I >

Ic The zooxanthellae found in A. pallida from the two

geographic locations clearly differed physiologically. We are

currently determining whether these differences can be

attributed to the zooxanthella cladal identity..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A5: Zooxanthellae Biodiversity

34

A PHYLOGENETIC COMPARISON OF

ZOOXANTHELLAE FROM REEF CORALS WITH

DIFFERENT MODES OF SYMBIONT ACQUISITION.

Hidaka, M* and Hirose, Mamiko. *Dept. of

Chemistry, Biology and Marine Science, Univ. of the

Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, 903-0213 Japan. Email:

hidaka@sci.u-ryukyu.ac.jp

The purpose of this study is to test the hypothesis that corals

that vertically transmit symbionts from their mother colonies

contain species-specific zooxanthellae, while corals that

acquire symbionts from the environment contain locality-dependent

zooxanthellae. We analyzed the internal transcribed

spacer 1 (ITS1) region of algal nuclear ribosomal DNA to

study the phylogenetic relationships of zooxanthellae

contained in shallow reef corals from Okinawa, Thailand and

Hawaii that show different modes of symbiont acquisition.

Algal ITS1 regions were amplified by PCR using

zooxanthella-specific primers, and PCR products were directly

sequenced after purification. In each case, one (presumably

dominant) symbiont genotype was analyzed for each colony.

When Symbiodinium from Porites astreoides in Florida was

used as an outgroup, the zooxanthellae from corals in Okinawa

were monophyletic while those from Thailand and Hawaii

formed a large unresolved cluster. Symbiont identity appeared

to depend on the locality where host corals were collected

rather than the specific identity of the coral host or its mode of

symbiont acquisition. This suggests that corals which receive

zooxanthellae from their mother colonies may also acquire

symbionts from the environment.

TESTING THE ADAPTIVE BLEACHING

HYPOTHESIS: THE MECHANISM AND

CONSEQUENCES OF ZOOXANTHELLA EXCHANGE.

Jacobs J. Rebecca*. *Biology Department, University of

California, Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA

95064, USA. Email: jacobs@biology.ucsc.edu

The "adaptive bleaching hypothesis" posits that loss of

zooxanthellae by invertebrate hosts under stressful conditions

provides the opportunity for acquisition of a genetically

different type of zooxanthella potentially leading to a more fit

symbiosis. It has also been suggested that acute bleaching may

represent only the most extreme case of zooxanthella exchange

and that new symbiotic combinations may form continually

without acute bleaching and in the absence of perceptible

stress. Here, the facultatively symbiotic sea anemone Aiptasia

pulchella was used as a laboratory system for testing the

adaptive bleaching hypothesis in three kinds of experiments.

In flexibility experiments, different zooxanthella types were

fed to aposymbiotic anemones to document the probability of

successful symbiotic establishment and the subsequent fitness

of symbiotic combinations (e.g., survival, growth rate,

susceptibility to bleaching) under several standard and altered

(stressful) conditions. In exchange experiments, heterologous

zooxanthellae were fed to symbiotic anemones to determine

whether: (1) the introduced zooxanthella establishes a

symbiosis; (2) the resident zooxanthella maintains a symbiosis;

or (3) both zooxanthella types co-exist under standard or

altered conditions. In preference experiments, various

combinations of zooxanthellae were fed to symbiotic and

aposymbiotic anemones to determine which symbiotic

combinations were favored under what conditions.

Zooxanthella genotypes were differentiated by denaturing

gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE).

CORAL ZOOXANTHELLAE DIVERSITY IN

BLEACHED REEFS.

Loh William*, Sakai, Kazuhiko; and Hoegh-Guldberg,

Ove.

Tropical Biosphere Research Center. The University of the

Ryukyus. Okinawa, Japan. Email:

w.loh@mailbox.uq.edu.au

Studies using ribosomal DNA sequences show that a diverse

array of symbiotic dinoflagellate strains or species live within

the tissues of reef-building corals which may affect the

sensitivity of their host taxa to bleaching. Extensive coral

bleaching occurred in shallow reefs off the Ryukyu Islands of

Japan in 1998 and many coral genera in this region suffered

local extinction. We have explored the question of whether the

genotype of symbiotic dinoflagellate determines the sensitivity

of corals by studying the molecular diversity of symbiotic

dinoflagellates from 8 intertidal coral species on reefs off

several Ryukyu Islands that were affected by bleaching. Five

of the coral species (Goniastrea aspera, G. edwardsi, Favites

chinensis, Platygyra ryukyuensis and Pavona frondifera)

showed very little visible bleaching. The remaining species,

Acropora digitifera, Stylophora pistillata and Seriatopora

hystrix bleached extensively. Genetic diversity was

investigated using the D1 and D2 domains of symbiotic

dinoflagellates 28S rDNA and single stranded conformational

polymorphism (SSCP). Up to 18 SSCP profiles were obtained

which inferred a high level of diversity and also the presence

of multiple genotypes within single hosts. Phylogenetic

analyses were done using the 28S rDNA sequences.

Interestingly, lower numbers of genotypes were detected from

bleach-susceptible coral species, suggesting that low

zooxanthellae diversity may contribute to host bleaching

sensitivity.

SPECIFICITY OF HOST-ALGAL SYMBIOSIS FROM

THE SCLERACTINIAN CORAL PLESIASTREA

VERSIPORA ALONG A LATITUDINAL GRADIENT:

ECOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF SYMBIONT

DIVERSITY.

Rodriguez-Lanetty, Mauricio*, Loh, William and Hoegh-Guldberg,

Ove. *Centre for Marine Studies, University of

Queensland, St Lucia QLD 4072, Australia. Email:

m.Rodriguez@mailbox.uq.edu.au

Plesiastrea versipora is one of the most widely distributed

hermatypic corals in the Indo-Pacific area and is recorded

continuously from the cooler waters of South Australia

through the tropics and subtropics to South Japan. This broad

distribution stands in contrast to most other hermatypic corals

that are restricted to the warm, sunlit and relatively stable

conditions of tropical seas. Since the ability of this coral to live

in such diverse habitats may be related to the identity of the

symbiotic dinoflagellates it contains, we examined genetic

diversity in the symbiotic dinoflagellates (Symbiodinium sp.)

in P. versipora from southern Japan to Australia. Using

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLPs) in 18S

ribosomal DNA (rDNA), together with sequence analysis of

28S rDNA, we found two geographically distinct clades of

symbiotic dinoflagellates living within Plesiastrea versipora.

In sub-tropical and tropical waters, P. versipora hosts

symbionts belonging to Symbiodinium clade C, while at high-latitude

sites it contains members of clade B. The presence of

different symbionts at different latitudes in this hermatypic

coral may account for its spread in evolutionary time to the

cooler and more physiologically challenging environments of

high latitude reefs..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A5: Zooxanthellae Biodiversity

35

DIVERSITY AND BIOGEOGRAPHY OF SYMBIOTIC

DINOFLAGELLATES ASSOCIATED TO

ANTHOZOANS FROM KOREAN WATERS.

Rodriguez-Lanetty, Mauricio *, Cha, Harim; and Song,

Jun-Im. *Department of Biology, Ewha Womens

University, Seoul 120-750, South Korea. Email:

m.rodriguez@mailbox.uq.edu.au

Anthozoans are important components of the intertidal

marine fauna along the coastlines of South Korea. Although

the systematics of this group has been studied extensively

within Korean waters, the diversity of the symbiotic

dinoflagellates associated with these cnidarians is still

unexplored. In this preliminary study, we examined the genetic

diversity of symbiotic dinoflagellates associated with

anthozoans from three locations within Korean waters. Partial

nucleotide sequences of 28S ribosomal DNA gene were used

to compare the symbionts extracted from three actinarians

(Anthopleura kurogane, Anthopleura japonica and

Paracicyonis actinostolides), two stony corals (Alveopora

japonica and Dendrophyllia sp.), and one gorgonian

(Muricella muricata). We found the same type of symbiont

(Symbiodinium clade A) living within the actinarians occurring

on the south and east coast of Korea. In the southernmost

location (Cheju Island), which is under the influence of warm

water currents from subtropical areas, different symbionts

were found in association with several anthozoans. Most of the

actinarians and one of the two stony corals (Dendrophyllia sp.)

contained members of Symbiodinium clade A. The other coral

(Alveopora japonica) and the actinarian Paracicyonis

actinostolides contained members of Symbiodinium clade C.

The gorgonian Muricella muricata contained symbionts that

were unlike those reported so far. The biogeographical

significance of these results will be discussed.

MOLECULAR AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY OF

ZOOXANTHELLAE IN BERMUDIAN CORALS.

Savage, A. M.* and Douglas, A. E. *University of York,

Department of Biology, P.O. Box 373, York, YO10 5YW,

UK. Email: ams114@york.ac.uk

Bermuda is a high latitude reef site with an impoverished

scleractinian coral fauna. The molecular diversity of the

zooxanthellae in reef organisms was analysed using sequences

of the 24S rDNA. All zooxanthellae isolated could be

assigned to one of the three main ribotypes (A, B and C)

known from lower latitudes, and none differed substantially in

sequence from previously described zooxanthellae. The

photosynthesis-irradiance characteristics of different

zooxanthellae genotypes was investigated, using zooxanthellae

freshly isolated from a variety of Bermudian host invertebrates

(corals, sea anemones and jellyfish) which had

photoacclimated to a common irradiance level. Significant

differences in quantum yield (a), photosynthetic maxima

(Pmax) and saturating light intensity (Ik) were observed between

24S genotypes of zooxanthellae. Those of ribotype A were

characterised by high values of a and Pmax. Zooxanthellae of

ribotype B had lower values of Pmax, but were clearly

subdivided into two physiological groups with significantly

different a and Ik values.

A SURVEY OF THE GENOTYPES OF

ZOOXANTHELLAE SYMBIOTIC WITH PHILIPPINE

GIANT CLAMS.

Silvestre, Vivian A.*; Monje, Virginia D.; Sison, Marilou

P.; Carlos, Alvin A.; Lluisma, Arturo, O.. * Marine Science

Institute, University of the Philippines,Diliman, Quezon

City 1101 Philippines. Email: vivian@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

Recent studies in algal-invertebrate symbiosis suggest that

different genotypes of zooxanthellae may have varying effects

on the growth and survival of their hosts. In giant clams in

particular, studies have been initiated to understand the

ecological significance of these genotypes. In this study, a

number of wild clams were sampled from selected parts of the

country to assess the frequency and distribution of the different

zooxanthellae genotypes. PCR-RFLP analysis of the 18srRNA

gene segment using Taq I restriction enzyme revealed two

genotypes , A and C, to be dominant in Philippine giant clams.

Giant clams in Bolinao, Tubbataha reef and Investigator reef

generally harbor C zooxanthellae (regardless of species of

clams), while those in Cebu, Bohol and certain islands at KIG

harbor A. Apparently, giant clams have a tendency to associate

with only one genotype of zooxanthellae; co-occurrence of the

two genotypes in the same host was rarely observed.

SHORT TERM RESPONSES OF ZOOXANTHELLAE

FROM SYMBIODINIUM CLADES A AND C TO

SUBOPTIMAL LEVELS OF TEMPERATURE, LIGHT

AND SALINITY.

Sison, Marilou P.*, Licuanan, Suzanne M.; and Gomez,

Edgardo D.;. *The Marine Science Institute, University of

the Philippines, Diliman Quezon City, 1101, Philippines.

Email: msison@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

Different zooxanthella genotypes respond to various physical

factors in different ways. Some show resistance to suboptimal

environmental conditions that may directly and indirectly be

related to the host-symbiont association. To determine how

zooxanthellae from Symbiodinium clades A and C differ in

their response to suboptimal environmental factors, symbionts

from four species of giant clams (Tridacna gigas, T. derasa, T.

squamosa and Hippopus hippopus) were exposed to varying

levels of temperature, light and salinity. The following basic

physiological measures were determined: growth rate, pigment

content, production and respiration. The physiological

characteristics of each clade are discussed in relation to their

possible use in enhancing the resistance of cultured giant clams

to various stressful conditions that normally trigger symbiotic

dissociation (bleaching)..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A5: Zooxanthellae Biodiversity

36

VARIATION AMONG CASSIOPEIA-ALGAL

SYMBIOSES.

Sloan, Adrienne J.*. *Department of Biology and

Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, Texas

77204-5513, USA. Email: asloan@uh.edu

Theoretical and empirical investigations regarding the

evolution and ecology of endosymbiotic associations are

widespread. However, few studies address intraspecific

symbiont variation among the same host species. Variation in

cooperation among Cassiopeia xamachana and Symbiodinium

microadriaticum was investigated using a series of cross-infection

experiments. It was hypothesized that algal

symbionts are not equally benevolent across Cassiopeia hosts.

Cassiopeia larvae and their maternal algal symbionts were

collected from ten sites across 160-km in the Florida Keys.

Nine hundred larvae were collected from one medusa per site

and were divided among flasks once they settled as polyps (30

animals per vessel). Polyps were infected with maternal algae

and nine non-maternal algal types (10 combinations per host

type; three replicates per combination). For each combination,

host size, mortality, algal mitotic index and density in hospite

were measured at 3, 13, and 28 days after infection. Analysis

has revealed significant differences among the combinations

for mortality and growth. Some combinations experienced

100% mortality while others experienced little or no mortality.

Host size either increased, stayed the same, or decreased

depending upon the combination type. On average, maternal

combinations experienced more growth and less mortality than

non-maternal combinations. There is also evidence of

significant host-symbiont interaction effects.

SYMBIONT ZOOXANTHELLAE DIVERSITY OF

ALCYONACEAN CORALS FROM THE KEPPEL

ISLANDS, GREAT BARRIER REEF, AUSTRALIA:

HOW DOES IT COMPARE WITH SCLERACTINIAN

CORALS?

Strychar K.B*., Scott, P.T.; Coates, M.L.; and Sammarco,

P.W. *School of Environmental and Biological Sciences,

Central Queensland University, Rockhampton, QLD 4702,

Australia,. Email: k.strychar@cqu.edu.au

While scleractinian corals are the principle reef forming

organisms worldwide, alcyonacean corals are a primary

constituent of Indo-Pacific reefs as well. Within reef

environments, observations during bleaching events suggest

that alcyonacean corals may bleach at different times, bleach

less, or resist the effects of bleaching, when compared to

scleractinian corals. To examine potential differences between

these coral types, the small subunit ribosomal gene (18S

rDNA) of symbiotic zooxanthellae from three dominant

alcyonacean corals and two scleractinian corals was examined

by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and

DNA sequence analysis following PCR amplification and

cloning of the 18S rRNA gene using specific algae-related

primers. The restriction enzymes Taq I, Hha I, and Alw 261

were used to digest 18S rDNA clones to produce RFLPs.

Preliminary analysis of the RFLPs suggest soft coral

zooxanthellae cannot be categorised into the paradigm

established for scleractinian coral (i.e. clades A, B, and C).

Detailed phylogenetic tree and DNA sequence analysis of

clones from representative scleractinian and alcyonacean

corals confirms the RFLP data. This study has provided strong

evidence that soft coral symbiont zooxanthellae are different to

scleractinian symbiont zooxanthellae, and may be more

bleach-resistant.

THE PHOTOSYNTHETIC RESPONSE TO STRESS IN

DIFFERENT TAXA OF SYMBIOTIC

DINOFLAGELLATES.

Warner, Mark E.*, LaJeunesse, Todd; Schmidt, Gregory

W.; and Fitt. *Department of Botany, University of

Georgia, Athens, Georgia, 30602, USA. Email:

mwarner@dogwood.botany.uga.edu

Previous studies have shown or suggested that different types

of symbiotic dinoflagellates of the genus Symbiodinium show

variable levels of stress tolerance to perturbations in

temperature or light, or a combination thereof. While strong

correlations exist between some taxa of dinoflagellates and

their ecological distribution, the potential physiological

mechanisms that may be driving such correlations have

remained largely unexplored. Furthermore, it remains unclear

if related symbiont taxa have similar physiological constraints

that correspond to phylogenetic groupings. Multiple taxa of

symbiotic dinoflagellates originally isolated from a broad

range of host species and maintained in culture were subjected

to brief periods of elevated temperature and light stress, and

patterns of chronic photoinhibition, rates of photodamage to

photosystem II (PS II), and the potential for photosynthetic

recovery were assessed. Similar field experiments were also

conducted on a smaller scale using one primary Caribbean reef

building coral, Montastrea annularis, which is historically

known to show a high degree of symbiont “polymorphism”.

These data were combined with genetic characterizations using

the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) to assess

phylogenetic affiliation. The extent to which this species level

marker may be used for inferring physiological responses to

stress will be discussed.

EVOLUTIONARY RESPONSES OF ALGAL

SYMBIONTS TO CORAL BLEACHING EVENTS.

Wilcox, Thomas P.* *University of Texas, Austin, TX

78712 USA. Email: tpwilcox@mail.utexas.edu

The ecology and physiology of coral bleaching has been

extensively examined over the last 20 years. However, the

evolutionary implications of bleaching are largely unexplored.

Here I examine potential evolutionary responses of algal

symbionts during bleaching events. Using multi-level selection

theory, evolution of virulence theory, and simple population

genetic models, I consider the following two points: 1)

evolutionary implications of the ‘adaptive bleaching’

hypothesis, and 2) the evolution of resident algal populations

in response to a bleaching stress. Results indicate that frequent

sampling of environmental pools of symbiotic dinoflagellates,

postulated by the adaptive bleaching hypothesis, favor algal

symbionts that ‘cheat’. This results in the eventual extinction

of both hosts and symbionts. Evolution of resident (or

remanent) symbiont populations during bleaching and

recovery can be very complex. If the stress resulting in

bleaching is prolonged, the resident symbiont population can

recover through the accumulation of beneficial mutations that

ameliorate the stress for the symbiont. However, the effect of

this ‘recovery’ on the host depends upon the relationship

between traits that help symbionts grow under stressful

conditions and symbiont traits that help the host. In general,

the models considered demonstrate that great care should be

taken in interpreting field evidence for changes in resident

symbiont genotypes during or after a bleaching event. A

detectable change in symbiont composition does not mean that

change is adaptive..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A5: Zooxanthellae Biodiversity

37

SEASONAL VARIATION IN SYMBIONT

COMMUNITY COMPOSITION WITHIN SINGLE

COLONIES OF ACROPORA PALIFERA.

Yang Y. Avon*, Soong, Keryea; and Chen, Chaolun Allen.

*Institute of Marine Biology, National Sun Yat-sen

University, Kaohsiung, 424, Taiwan. Email:

yawen@mail.nsysu.edu.tw

Within-colony symbiont diversity has recently been

documented in scleractinian corals, and the distribution of this

diversity has been correlated with the ambient irradiance

(depth) experienced by the coral host colony. In this study, the

distribution of symbionts in the scleractinian coral Acropora

palifera was investigated by line transect survey at Nanwang

Bay (southern Taiwan), where the depth distribution of this

species is restricted to 1–2m. Symbiont diversity within and

among coral colonies was investigated using Restriction

Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLPs) in 18S ribosomal

DNA (rDNA). RFLP surveys revealed two distinct symbiont

genotypes belonging to Symbiodinium clades C and D, with

some samples containing composite RFLPs (C+D), indicating

that A. palifera can harbor mixed symbiont genotypes. Surveys

of within-colony symbiont diversity revealed that in August

1999 the distribution of C : D : C+D was 0 : 8 : 0 (N=8

colonies), while in January 2000 it was 4 : 10 : 4 (N=18) and in

March 2000 it was 7 : 11 : 3 (N=21). These data suggest that

seasonal variation in symbiont community composition may

occur in colonies of Acropora palifera..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A6: Coral Reef Fish – Pelagic

Session A6: Ecology of the Pelagic and Settlement Stages of Coral Reef Fishes

38

COMPARATIVE EGG DISPERSAL FROM INSHORE

AND OFFSHORE SITES IN A CARIBBEAN CORAL

REEF FISH, Thalassoma bifasciatum.

Appeldoorn, R.S.*, Hensley, D.A., Shapiro, D.Y.,

Kioroglou, S.. *Department of Marine Sciences, University

of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez, Puerto Rico 00681-9013 USA.

Email: r_appeldoorn@rumac.uprm.edu

Pelagically-spawning coral reef fishes are hypothesized to

select sites for spawning that result in eggs being rapidly

transported away from reef areas. Experiments at an inshore

reef and shelf-edge site were conducted to test the hypothesis

that shelf-edge spawning offers an advantage in rapidly

transporting eggs away from reef areas, with the bluehead

wrasse as the model species. Using drogues, spawning events

were simulated at known spawning sites (N = 4/site) and water

masses tracked for 24 hours. Simulated releases were paired

sequentially offshore/inshore. Experiments were run only

during the autumn season. There was no tendency for the

dispersal paths from inshore and shelf-edge sites to merge over

time: those from the inshore site stayed inshore, those from the

shelf-edge site stayed within 4 km of the shelf edge. However,

only one shelf-edge experiment resulted in dispersal off the

shelf platform. Dispersal from the shelf-edge site was much

more variable compared to the inshore site. Results indicate

that differences in dispersal due to site selection are scale

dependent: greater differences are observed when comparing

sites at greater distances apart. Thus, shelf-edge spawning

would facilitate the dispersal of eggs into an offshore

environment merely by being located closer to that

environment. Autumn spawning additionally favors retention

of eggs in the near shelf-edge environment.

RECRUITMENT OF CORAL REEF FISHES AT

LIMESTONE REEF, SOUTH AFRICA.

Beckley L.E.* *Oceanographic Research Institute, PO Box

10712, Marine Parade 4056, Durban, South Africa. Email:

seaworld@dbn.lia.net

Limestone Reef, a shallow inshore reef off Durban on the

east coast South Africa, is located about 300 km south of the

coral reefs of northern KwaZulu-Natal. Despite this,

numerous fish species commonly associated with western

Indian Ocean coral reefs have been recorded at this site. A

study of the recruitment of these fishes was made by deploying

light traps to ascertain the occurrence of settlement stage

larvae of these species in the water column on the seaward side

of the reef. Replicate traps were deployed on one evening

each month over a period of two years. Larvae of some 40

families of fishes were recorded with Clupeidae and

Tripterygiidae numerically dominant. Larvae of coral reef

fishes belonging to families such as Scorpaenidae, Lutjanidae,

Apogonidae, Lethrinidae, Chaetodontidae, Synodontidae,

Acanthuridae, Balistidae and Tetraodontidae were collected.

Their seasonal abundance is discussed relative to known

reproductive biology of the adults as well as local

oceanographic events and variability in the Agulhas current.

OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF FISH

LARVAE IN THE TAKLONG IS. NATIONAL MARINE

RESERVE, CENTRAL PHILIPPINES.

Campos, Wilfredo L. * and. Delola, Alfredo P. Division of

Biological Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences,

University of the Philippines in the Visayas, Miagao, Iloilo

5023 Philippines. Email: oceanbio@miagao.i-next.net

The ichthyoplankton of the shallow reef flat portion of a

marine reserve located in Central Philippines was investigated

from August 1998 to May 1999. Of the twenty (20) species

groups of fish larvae identified, thirteen (13) were epibenthic

and seven (7) were pelagic. Overall mean density of all fish

larvae was 39.6 ind.100 m -3 , while fish eggs showed a mean

density of 840 per 100 m 3 . Atherinids comprised about 75 % of

the larvae in the samples. Species composition of the larvae

was found to be consistent with fisheries catch composition.

Larval densities in the reserve are well within the range

reported for reef areas. Seasonal abundance was highest

towards and during the southwest monsoon. Geographically,

abundance was found to be highest around channels, and

decreased towards the inner shallow portion of the reserve.

Future investigations shall include comparisons with adjacent

areas so to derive insights into the spatial scale of transport, as

well as larval flux rates.

PROCESSES AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF

PLANKTONIC EGGS OF PAIR AND GROUP

SPAWNING REEF FISHES OF PALAU.

Colin, Patrick L.* and Hamner, William M.. *Coral Reef

Research Foundation, P.O. Box 1765, Koror, Palau 96940.

Email: crrf@palaunet.com.

Studies were designed to test the hypothesis that many reef

fishes producing planktonic eggs spawn at times and places

which promote the offshore dispersal of eggs. Many species of

reef fishes, principally acanthurids, scarids and labrids, pair

and group spawn daily just after high tide in a narrow band-like

zone on the eastern and western fringing and barrier reefs

of Palau, Western Caroline Islands. Many of these fishes

migrate short distances daily to reach these spawning sites.

Current-following drogues were released at spawning sites

during times of intense spawning (“spawning drogues”) and

also some time after spawning had ceased (“post-spawning

drogues”). The tracks of these drogues were determined for 8-

24 hours after spawning and are presumed to reflect the

movement of fertile eggs. No difference was found in the

offshore transport component of the movement of spawning

and non-spawning drogues. Many drogues launched in water

containing newly spawned eggs came back over the reef, often

near their spawning sites, on the next rising tide. Eggs were

found to be concentrated on occasion after spawning by

langmuir cell effects and spawning and post-spawning drogues

often ended up very close to one another, centered in langmuir

slicks..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A6: Coral Reef Fish – Pelagic

39

THE ROLE OF LONG DISTANCE DISPERSAL

VERSUS LOCAL RETENTION IN REPLENISHING

MARINE POPULATIONS.

Cowen R.K.*, Claire B. Paris, Donald B. Olson. *Marine

Biology and Fisheries, Rosenstiel School of Marine and

Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, 4600

Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL. 33149, Email:

rcowen@rsmas.miami.edu

Early models and evidence from genetics suggested that long

distance dispersal of larvae is likely a common event leading

to considerable population connectivity among distant

populations. However, recent evidence strongly suggests that

local retention is more the rule, and that long distance transport

is likely insufficient to sustain ecologically marine

populations. We build on earlier model results to examine the

probability of larval dispersal to downstream islands within

different regions of the Caribbean at varying distances from

source populations. Through repeated runs of an 3-D ocean

circulation model (MICOM), coupled with a random flight

model estimating larval subgrid turbulent motion, we estimate

the likelihood of particular circulation events transporting large

numbers of larvae to within a 5 and 10 km radii of downstream

populations, as well as account for total accumulations of

larvae over each year. Further, we incorporate realistic larval

behavior and mortality estimates into our models. Our results

are consistent with the hypothesis that marine populations

must rely on mechanisms enhancing self-recruitment rather

than depend on distant ‘source’ populations. We briefly

discuss field efforts that will test the predictions of these model

runs.

DEVELOPMENTAL PATTERNS AND THE

ONTOGENY OF SWIMMING IN DEMERSAL

SPAWNING CORAL REEF FISHES.

Fisher R.* & David R Bellwood. Department of Marine

Biology, James Cook University, Townsville, Australia.

Email: rebecca.fisher@jcu.edu.au

In recent years it has been demonstrated that late stage larval

reef fishes have excellent swimming abilities. However, in

order to assess the potential impact of active behaviour on

dispersal we need to know how these abilities develop

throughout the pelagic phase. Using larval rearing and current

flume techniques we examined swimming abilities and gross

morphological development in five reef fish species.

Developmental patterns differed between species, but were

similar within sub-families. At hatching, anemonefishes are

large (4-5mm) and well developed. They develop swimming

abilities quickly and have a short larval duration (8-11d).

Damselfishes hatch small (~3mm) and undeveloped but have a

longer larval duration (20-22d). The species examined gained

excellent swimming abilities towards the end of the pelagic

phase (~15d). Apogonids hatch at 3-4mm, are poorly

developed and have a long larval duration (~24d). They are

poor swimmers throughout their larval phase. While larval reef

fish cannot be considered a single group in terms of their

dispersal abilities, they may be classed into “functional”

groups that could be used for modelling purposes. Larvae that

have poor swimming abilities throughout their larval phase are

unlikely to influence their dispersal via horizontal swimming.

Larvae that develop swimming abilities early, or show good

swimming towards the end of their pelagic phase may have the

potential to exert considerable influence over their dispersal,

and have a high potential for self-seeding.

RECRUITMENT OF LARVAL FISHES TO THE

SOUTHERN MOST CORAL REEFS ON THE EAST

COAST OF AFRICA, SODWANA BAY, SOUTH

AFRICA.

Harris, Dr Shael*. Coastal Research Unit Zululand,

University of Zululand, Private Bag X1001, Kwa

Dlangezwa, 3886, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Email:

shaelh@worldonline.co.za.

As part of the coral ecosystem research on the Maputaland

coast, a study on the early life history stages of coral reef fish

was undertaken from July 1998 to May 1999. The main

objective of the study was to examine whether the local coral

reef fish populations are self-recruiting or being replenished

from spawning areas further north i.e. have open populations.

Quarterly samples were collected from four sites

approximately 1 km offshore, and at three depths. Preliminary

analysis of the samples from two-mile reef has indicated that

over 30% of the fish larval species are reef-associated species

which were found at all three depths sampled. Small numbers

of larval priacanthids, apogonids, gobiids, pempherids,

trichonotids and lutjanids at all developmental stages have

been identified from these samples. However, the most

abundant species were shore-associated species, Bregmaceros

atlanticus and Engyprosopon grandisquama, and oceanic-associated

species such as Cyclothone pseudopallida and

myctophids. This indicates that the larval fish populations in

the Sodwana area are being influenced by the south-flowing

Agulhas Current which is probably an important source of

eggs and larvae to the Maputaland reef fish populations.

TRACKING BENTHIC RECRUITMENT DYNAMICS

OF THE WHITE GRUNT: A COMMERCIALLY

IMPORTANT CORAL REEF FISH WITH CHOOSY –

YET, NOT SO CHOOSY - HABITAT SELECTIONS.

Hill R.L.*. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, NOAA/National

Marine Fisheries Service, 4700 Ave U, Galveston, Texas,

USA 77551. Email: ron.hill@noaa.gov

The white grunt, Haemulon plumieri , is an important

component of the reef-based fisheries of the Caribbean and

Southeastern United States. Indications are that many

populations, particularly in Puerto Rico and the US Virgin

Islands, are currently on the decline. The benthic recruitment

of this and other grunt species was assessed in a shallow

backreef lagoon in La Parguera, Puerto Rico over a 10-month

period to investigate fine scale temporal variation in settlement

dynamics. Settlement strength varied throughout the

experiment roughly in correlation to the documented spawning

of grunts in this area of Puerto Rico suggesting some degree of

self-recruitment. Social facilitation in settlement, density-dependent

habitat selection, and hurricane-induced variations

in habitat availability and selection are presented. Implications

for local management through habitat protection and

establishment of marine reserves are discussed..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A6: Coral Reef Fish – Pelagic

40

DELIVERY MECHANISMS LIMIT LARVAL SUPPLY

IN CORAL REEF FISHES.

Hixon M.A.*, V. Dufour, T.W. Anderson, and P.J.

Doherty. MAH: Department of Zoology, Oregon State

University, Corvallis, OR 97331-2914 USA. EMail:

hixonm@bcc.orst.edu

We show that nearshore oceanographic features, particularly

waves and tidal currents, can limit the rate at which fish larvae

are delivered to coral reefs in both the Pacific and the Atlantic.

In Moorea, French Polynesia, larvae are delivered to the

lagoon by waves that break over a reef crest that is slightly

above sea level. At times when settlement-stage larvae are

present just offshore, larval delivery to the lagoon occurs only

when waves are sufficiently high to break over the reef crest.

Therefore, variation in wave height increases variability in

larval delivery. High mortality within the lagoon due to

predation substantially reduces this variability so that actual

settlement is uniformly low. Near Lee Stocking Island in the

central Bahamas, tidal currents deliver larvae from the deep

Exuma Sound to shallow reefs on the Great Bahama Bank.

Reefs further from the Sound receive fewer larvae, as

evidenced by recruitment patterns. Here, larval delivery

appears to be limited by variation in the range of tidal

excursions and prevailing winds, such that isolated reefs far

from the Exuma Sound receive settling larvae very

infrequently and appear to be extremely recruitment limited.

OCEANOGRAPHIC SIGNALS AND THE REPONSES

OF PRESETTLEMENT REEF FISHES

Kingsford, Michael J. *, Jelle Atema , *School of Biological

Sciences, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.

Email: mikek@bio.usyd.edu.au

Reefs have the potential to provide conspicuous signals to

the pelagic forms of reef fishes and invertebrates that are

seeking a suitable settlement site. In this study we describe

conspicuous turbidity plumes at One Tree Island, Great Barrier

Reef, water choice experiments were also done using

presettlement fishes. Plumes may provide cues to

presettlement forms, generate retention areas and cause

significant changes to the predicted direction of tidal currents.

On the flood and ebb tides, while the crest was broached,

distinctive plumes were generated. When the tide flooded

early in the morning, cool waters were exported from the

lagoon. If the tide flooded late, CTD drops and temperature

loggers indicated waters up to 3C o higher were advected from

the lagoon. Plumes were about 5-9 m deep near the reef crest

and shallowed with distance from the reef. The turbidity of

plumes was visible at distances of 1-4 kilometres from the reef

crest, hence these plumes constitute significant intrusions into

mainstream currents. Tide and wind determined the size and

direction of movement of plumes. Presettlement fishes

(especially Apogonidae) responded to different water masses

in tank experiments. Some taxa, that settle in lagoons, showed

a positive response to lagoonal waters. The ability of

presettlement fish to distinguish between water masses may

have a great influence on their ability to detect reefs.

SENSORY DEVELOPMENT IN THE SETTLEMENT

STAGES OF CARIBBEAN LABROIDS WITH

IMPLICATIONS FOR SETTLEMENT CUE

DETECTION.

Lara Monica R.. NOAA/NMFS 75 Virginia Beach Dr.

Miami, FL 33149 USA. Email: mlara@rsmas.miami.edu

In order to help explain the role that behavior plays in larval

settlement it is necessary to investigate the sensory capabilities

of settlement-stage larvae. If fish larvae are capable of

exercising control over their movements then they must also

possess the ability to assess their environment and alter their

behavior according to cues detected in their environment.

Sensory abil it y cannot be m easur ed di rectl y from mor phology;

rather by using a compar ati ve method relat ive abi lit ies can be

inferred by compari ng obser ved m or phological development wi th

that of conspecif ic adul ts or larvae of ot her species. A

comparative study of the morphology of the olfactory, visual

and lateral line systems using histological methods and

scanning electron microscopy was conducted to assess the

level of morphological development of these systems in some

coral reef fishes at the time of settlement onto a reef. Thirteen

species of Labridae and two genera of Scaride from the

Caribbean were examined. The level of development of each

of these systems was similar across taxa and may represent a

minimum competency level required for settlement. These

stages appear to have highly developed sensory structures

when compared to adults and their morphology suggests that

settlement-stage labroids may be capable of using all three of

these sensory systems in the detection of reefs and selection of

microhabitats within a reef. It is probable that a combination of

sensory stimuli are used by settling fishes and these are

discussed.

SUBSURFACE MOORINGS AS A RESEARCH TOOL

FOR SETTLEMENT BEHAVIOUR IN REEF-FISH

LARVAE.

Leis Jeffrey M. * and Brooke M. Carson-Ewart. Centre

for Biodiversity and Conservation Research and Division

of Vertebrate Zoology, Australian Museum, 6 College St,

Sydney, NSW, 2010, Australia. Email:

jeffl@austmus.gov.au

Artificial-reef units attached to subsurface mooring floats

offer interesting research possibilities for the study of

settlement behaviour in larvae of reef fishes. The artificial-reef

units (loose rolls of plastic garden mesh) were located at

depths between 8 and 15 m in water 20 m deep in the Great

Barrier Reef Lagoon greater than 1 km from natural reefs.

Ignoring one-offs, larvae of 23 genera of 13 families settled on

these units. The most abundant taxa were pomacentrids,

apogonids, blenniids, monacanthids, balistids, gobiids and

tetraodontids. Experiments using these moorings evaluated

visual, olfactory and auditory cues that reef-fish larvae may

use to locate and settle onto reefs. Visual cues (large white

panels) did not enhance settlement. Experiments on olfactory

cues (corals in vented containers) and auditory cues (broadcast

recordings of ‘the nocturnal chorus’ of tropical reefs) were

compromised by low settlement levels, but show the potential

of the approach. Design of the moorings allowed examination

of depth selection at settlement. This revealed that there are

clear depth preferences among species. The advantages and

disadvantages of the method are discussed..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A6: Coral Reef Fish – Pelagic

41

USING OTOLITHS TO STUDY CORAL REEF FISH

LARVAE IN FRENCH POLYNESIA.

Lo-Yat*. EPHE-ESA CNRS 8046, Av. de Villeneuve, 66860

Perpignan, France & SRM, BP. 20 Papeete, Tahiti, French

Polynesia. Email : loyat@univ-perp.fr

Coral reef fish larvae were studied in French Polynesia. In

Rangiroa atoll (Tuamotu Archipelago), we collected larvae

when they ended their pelagic phase by passing over the reef

crest (colonization stage). The incoming larvae were trapped

with a crest net (1.5m wide x 0.75m high, 1mm mesh size)

erected in a shallow channel that connects the ocean to the

lagoon. From 332 sampling nights evenly distributed over 2

years (from January 1996 to December 1997), at least 154

lagoonal species belonging to 46 families were identified. The

mean larval fluxes were 132 larvae m -1 . j -1 for larvae with body

depth>5mm and 16 055 larvae m -1 . j -1 for smaller larvae. A

typology of otoliths using Fourier elliptic shape analysis was

made in order to help in larvae identification and description.

Otoliths daily growth increments were counted to determine

pelagic larval durations (PLD). Among 60 species, observed

PLD ranged between 18 and 80 days. PLD was relatively

stable within species except for some species (e.g. Aulostomus

chinensis, Fistularia commersonii). Then spawning period of

the adults could be estimated by linking PLD and results from

temporal monitoring of larval colonization. Finally we also

tried to estimate the growth of some larvae during their pelagic

phase. That was realised by associating PLD and age data from

larvae caught during mesopelagic trawlings made in French

Polynesia's EEZ between 1996 and 1998.

LUNAR AND TIDAL CYCLES IN SETTLEMENT OF

REEF FISHES AT GORGONA ISLAND (TEP).

Lozano, S* and Zapata, F.A. Universidad del Valle, A.A.

25360 Cali, Colombia. Email:

sachaloz@mafalda.univalle.edu.co

Larval settlement is an important life history event that may

determine adult population dynamics in marine reef fishes.

During one peak recruitment season (May-August 1998), we

monitored fish larval settlement of 40 species in Gorgona

Island, Tropical Eastern Pacific. Every other day we removed

and counted all newly settled fishes on 15 semi-natural

sampling units located nearshore on the eastern coast of the

island. Time series analysis and circular statistical tests

indicated that there were two temporally consistent patterns in

settlement and that they were synchronized with the lunar and

tidal cycles. Additionally, means and variances of settlement

size, measured every sampling day, exhibited temporal

patterns in some species that suggested the occurrence of size

selection during certain dates. The first was a lunar pattern

with settlement pulses in the days around the new moon

(coincident with the widest spring tides) and it was exhibited

by Lutjanus guttatus, Pomacanthus zonipectus and a non-identified

Haemulid. This pattern was related to variation in

moonlight intensity during the lunar cycle. The second was a

semilunar pattern with settlement pulses around the first and

third moon quarters, coincident with neap tides and it was

exhibited by three combined species of Antennariidae

(Antennarius sanguineus, Antennarius coccineus and

Antennatus strigatus). This pattern seemed to be more related

to the tidal cycle than to variation in moonlight intensity

during the lunar cycle. Other eight species analyzed exhibited

cyclical tendencies in settlement with partial or no temporal

consistency.

THE ROLE OF PHYSICAL PROCESSES IN SHAPING

PATTERNS IN LARVAL SUPPLY TO NINGALOO

REEF, WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

McIlwain, J.L.* *Australian Institute of Marine Science

(WA), PO Box 264 Dampier, WA 6713, Australia. Email:

j.mcilwain@aims.gov.au

Ningaloo Reef is Australia’s largest fringing coral reef,

running parallel to the mainland for 280 km, from North West

Cape to Cape Cuvier, Western Australia. The shallow nature of

the reef crest and the unidirectional flow of water into the reef

lagoon meant crest nets were an ideal tool for monitoring the

abundance of larval fish during the transitional phase as they

leave the plankton and swim into the adult habitat. During the

summer months of 1994/95 and 1995/96 I deployed two and

four nets respectively. These nets were emptied every day for

up to four months at a time. A total of 89 598 larval fish from

65 families/groupings were captured, with twice as many fish

caught in the first compared to the second summer. Primary

peaks in larval supply occurred during the months of

November and December, a comparative result to

replenishment studies on the east coast of Australia (the Great

Barrier Reef). Large inter-annual variability in the abundance

of most taxa and families were attributed to variations in the

strength of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) during

this time. This result is similar to the catch rates of

commercially fished invertebrates along the Western

Australian coast which varied with the strength of the Leeuwin

Current and ENSO events operating in the region. At a smaller

time scale, daily abundance of 28 different taxa were

compared with nightly wind strength and direction. Although

peaks in supply sometimes coincided with strong cross-shore

winds, there were a number of days when under the same

conditions catch in the nets remained low.

TEMPERATURE, FOOD AVAILABILITY,

PLANKTONIC GROWTH RATES AND THE

MAGNITUDE OF LARVAL SUPPLY IN A CORAL

REEF FISH.

Meekan M. G.* and Flynn K. *The Australian Institute of

Marine Science, P.O. Box 264, Dampier, WA, 6713,

Australia. Email: l.vigliola@aims.gov.au

Evidence from temperate environments suggests that under

conditions favourable to growth, survivorship of larvae in the

plankton is high and results in strong year classes. We

examined this hypothesis on the NW Shelf of Western

Australia during two summers when coastal waters were

characterised by very different conditions. During the first

summer, upwelling occurred on the shelf and resulted in

relatively cool water temperatures and high primary and

secondary production. During the second, coastal waters were

stratified and primary production was relatively low. Given

these differences in food availability for fish larvae between

summers, we predicted that growth rates and survivorship

would be greater in the first summer than the second. In order

to test this hypothesis, we used otolith analysis to examine the

planktonic growth of a common reef fish (Pomacentrus

coelestis) between summers. Growth rates were compared to

the magnitude of catches of this species in light traps deployed

on a transect across the shelf during the two summers..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A6: Coral Reef Fish – Pelagic

42

LARVAL BEHAVIOR AS A MECHANISM FOR

POPULATION SELF-RECRUITMENT IN A TROPICAL

CORAL REEF FISH.

Ochavillo, Domingo G.* Bakus, Gerald J. and Aliño,

Porfirio M.. * Department of Biological Sciences University

of Southern California Los Angeles, CA 90089-0371, U.S.A.

*(ochavill@scf.usc.edu)

It is not presently known how larval behavior of coral reef

fishes influences their eventual settlement. The traditional

paradigm is that coral reef fish larvae behave as passive

particles under the mercy of physical elements such as currents

and waves. Rare in situ observations in the swimming speeds

and directions of larval reef fishes, however, indicated ability

to maintain position in the water column, orientational

swimming and ability to navigate (Leis et al. 1996). Planes

(1993) hypothesized that larval behavior may be a mechanism

for limited gene flow and larval dispersal in the convict

surgeonfish despite a pelagic egg and high planktonic larval

duration. In this study we tested this hypothesis of larval

behavior as a mechanism for population self-recruitment.

Previously, our analyses of the genetic structure of adult and

recruit Siganus fuscescens among contiguous reefs indicated

population self-recruitment. We released late pelagic

presettlement S. fuscescens offshore from the reef and the

results indicated active larval behavior, highly directional

swimming, predator avoidance and orientation towards the

reef.

EVIDENCES FOR SELF-RECRUITMENT IN A

TROPICAL CORAL REEF FISH POPULATION.

Ochavillo, Domingo G.*, Gerald J. Bakus and Porfirio M.

Aliño . * Department of Biological Sciences University of

Southern California Los Angeles, CA 90089-0371, U.S.A.

Email: ochavill@scf.usc.edu

The majority of tropical coral reef fishes have a bipartite life

cycle which consists of a pelagic early life history stage and a

reef-associated benthic adult stage (Ehrlich 1975). This

possession of a planktonic stage has led to an assumption that

reef fishes exist as spatially subdivided metapopulations

largely interconnected by larval exchanges (Mapstone and

Fowler 1988). In this paper we tested this hypothesis using a

combination of the analyses of the genetic structures of both

the spawning adults and the local recruits of the rabbitfish

Siganus fuscescens to infer fish larval dispersal among

contiguous reefs (< 450 km linear distance) using the highly

polymorphic mtDNA control region. The results of the

analyses showed a significant genetic heterogeneity among

Siganus fuscescens in the neighboring reefs based on the

sequence variation of the mitochondrial DNA control region.

The mtDNA control region sequence of juveniles also

indicated significantly high affinity to the local adults. These

results indicate population self-recruitment and that larval

dispersal may not be as widespread as usually assumed among

fishes with an early planktonic phase. The implications of self-seeding

reef fish populations are very important. It implies

that patchy tropical coral reefs can exist in relative isolation

and that management can be local in scale. Surprisingly,

independent and very recent studies have also indicated self-recruitment

on some coral reef fishes.

NEAR-FIELD TRANSPORT DYNAMICS OF LARVAL

COHORTS OF CORAL REEF FISH IN THE VICINITY

OF BARBADOS, W. INDIES.

Paris, Claire B.* and Robert K. Cowen, and Kamazima

M.M. Lwiza. Marine Sciences Research Center, State

University of New York at Stony Brook, NY 11794-5000,

USA. Email: cparis@rsmas.miami.edu

Most coral reef fishes undergo a pelagic phase and it has

been generally assumed that their offspring are widely

dispersed and have little influence on the outcome of their

transport. Alternatively, coral reef fish larvae could be retained

in the vicinity of their natal reef, potentially limiting their

dispersal. To test this latter hypothesis, high-resolution

biological and physical surveys of the pelagic processes

affecting the larval phase of Pomacentridae were conducted on

the western shore of Barbados. The study region was limited to

an array extending approximately 15 km from shore and 25 km

along-shore. Sampling involved repeated quasi-synoptic

physical and biological measurements following larval cohorts

throughout their pelagic duration. An integrated view of the 3-

D flow field is given by multivariate objective analysis of CTD

and ADCP in situ data, in which virtual larvae are released

using a ‘random flight’ scheme. Here we describe the

formation, maintenance, and advection of larval patches by

comparing, for different degrees of behavior, predicted and

observed distributions of larval cohorts. Larval behavior was

found to be critical to accurately model larval transport. Most

importantly, by computing larval fluxes and the percentage of

larvae retained in the Barbados near-field, we demonstrate that

they largely explain observed variability in recruitment

strength.

POPULATION STRUCTURE IN REEF FISHES: HOW

OPEN IS REALLY OPEN AND HOW CLOSED IS

CLOSED?

Sale, Peter F.* *Great Lakes Institute for Environmental

Research & Dept. of Biological Sciences, University of

Windsor, Windsor ON Canada N9B3P4. Email:

sale@uwindsor.ca

Thirty years ago ecologists and managers treated reef fish

populations as if they were closed on very local scales. Then

we "discovered" that dispersive larvae permitted them to be

open. Recently, ecologists have been documenting the

openness, but arguing that this is limited to the local scale.

Self-recruitment is seen as increasingly important. I review

published, and limited unpublished data to address the

question: "At what spatial scales can reef fish assemblages be

considered open, and at what scales closed?". I also explore

metapopulation theory to see whether the spatial scale at which

openness is manifested is critical to the dynamics of such

systems. While it is clear that we need new data, and new

techniques to establish scales of interaction among local

populations, it is also clear that we must resist the temptation

to continue swinging the pendulum from one extreme view to

the other..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A6: Coral Reef Fish – Pelagic

43

SMALL CHANGES IN TROPICAL OCEAN

TEMPERATURE CAN SIGNIFICANTLY INFLUENCE

REEF FISH EARLY LIFE HISTORY.

Shafer, David J.*. *School of Ocean and Earth Science

and Technology, University of Hawai’i, Honolulu, Hawai’i

96822, USA. Email: shafer@hawaii.edu

Declining populations of tropical reef fishes worldwide has

focused attention on factors which may regulate their

recruitment, growth, and survival. Variation in ocean

temperature has traditionally been linked to fluctuation in the

population dynamics of temperate marine fishes; however,

little is known about its importance to tropical fishes. Here I

reconstruct the effects of small changes in sea surface

temperature (SST) on larval growth rate, larval duration, and

size at settlement of a common Hawaiian reef fish,

Bathygobius coalitus, by retrospective otolith analysis. Results

show that small temperature changes can significantly

influence early life history. Specifically, larval growth rate

was directly related to SST, and larval duration and size at

settlement were inversely related to SST. Frequency

distributions of larval duration suggest a competency-based

threshold to settlement during warm SST, but not during cool

SST. Shorter larval durations during warmer SST may result

from optimum conditions for growth and development,

combined with physical conditions that result in nearshore

retention. Because growth rates, larval duration, and size at

settlement have implications for survivorship, competition, and

recruitment success, variation in ocean temperature may have

profound consequences for the population dynamics of tropical

reef fishes.

JOINT ROLES OF LARVAL SETTLEMENT, REEF

RESOURCES, AND POST-SETTLEMENT LOSSES IN

THE RECRUITMENT OF A CORAL REEF FISH.

Shima, Jeffrey S.*. *Dept. of Ecology, Evolution, and

Marine Biology and the Marine Science Institute,

University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA.

Email: shima@lifesci.ucsb.edu

I evaluate the consequences of considering, separately and

jointly, the effects of three factors (larval settlement, reef

resources, and post-settlement losses) on spatial patterns of

abundance of a coral reef fish, the six bar wrasse (Thalassoma

hardwicke). Using commonly employed correlational

methods, I show that local patterns of abundance of juvenile

wrasse could be attributed entirely to either (1) patterns of

abundance of settlement habitat, or (2) patterns of larval

settlement. This occurred because habitat and presumed larval

delivery co-varied positively with one another in space. I

manipulated abundance of settlement habitat in a field

experiment to uncouple this co-variation, and found

subsequent settlement to be simultaneously influenced by both

factors. However, joint effects of habitat and larval settlement

failed to account for patterns of abundance of juvenile wrasses

without also considering a third factor—post-settlement losses,

which were density-dependent and qualitatively modified

patterns of settlement. These results illustrate (1) how

multifactorial explanations of ecological patterns may be

falsely refuted when incomplete sets of multiple factors are

considered, and (2) how single-factor studies may misrepresent

underlying multifactorial causation of ecological patterns.

Uncovering the interactive role of multiple factors in

determining ecological patterns may require a shift from

single-factor approaches to more pluralistic perspectives.

VARIABLE LARVAL GROWTH IN A CORAL REEF

FISH AND IMPLICATIONS FOR POPULATION

CONNECTIVITY.

Sponaugle S.*, Steven Searcy, and John Fortuna. *Division

of Marine Biology and Fisheries, Rosenstiel School of

Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami,

4600 Rickenbacker Cswy., Miami, FL 33149. Email:

ssponaugle@rsmas.miami.edu

Recent results from otolith-based field efforts in Barbados

and the Florida Keys suggest that certain reef fishes

(Thalassoma bifasciatum) exhibit a high degree of variation in

larval growth. New recruits settling after variable larval

periods in the plankton exhibited strikingly different otolith

growth trajectories. In the Florida Keys, cohorts of T.

bifasciatum settling in the spring had grown more slowly in the

plankton than those settling later in the summer. These

differences are most likely the result of seasonal changes in

water temperature. However, for fishes settling to Barbados,

contrasting otolith growth trajectories likely result from

variable pelagic food availability. Residency in water masses

with reduced food content may lower overall larval growth

rates. In order to attain a minimum condition necessary to

undergo settlement and metamorphosis, slower-growing fishes

therefore must remain in the plankton for longer periods. Thus,

rather than delaying metamorphosis, those fishes with longer

pelagic larval durations instead may be accumulating energy

prior to settlement. The capacity of organisms to tolerate low

growth for long periods of time (i.e. in oligotrophic open ocean

waters) is a critical consideration in understanding and

predicting population connectivity for benthic marine animals.

EVIDENCE AND MECHANISMS FOR SELF-RECRUITMENT

IN AN ISLAND POPULATION OF A

CORAL REEF FISH.

Swearer, S.*. *Department of Ecology, Evolution and

Marine Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara,

California, USA. Email: swearer@lifesci.lscf.ucsb

Most populations of benthic marine organisms are

considered to be open (when recruitment results from dispersal

of larvae from other source populations). In truth we know

little about the degree of connectivity among populations. For

localities such as coral reef islands, relative isolation from

other island populations may increase the importance of self-recruitment

to population persistence. In order to test this

hypothesis, we used otolith elemental signatures and nearshore

seawater trace element concentrations to classify locally and

non-locally produced populations of coral reef fish larvae.

Using this approach in a study of reef fish recruitment to St.

Croix, US Virgin Islands, we found that periods of high

recruitment in the lee of the island were coincident with

characteristics of locally-retained larvae. Physical

measurements of the circulation dynamics of the island wake

region using a high frequency radar indicate that high

recruitment events occur during time periods favorable for

physical retention of larvae. These results suggest that local

processes operating in the nearshore regions of islands are

important factors influencing the recruitment dynamics of

island populations of reef fishes..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A6: Coral Reef Fish – Pelagic

44

SIZE-SELECTIVE MORTALITY LINKS PRE- AND

POST-SETTLEMENT PHASES OF THE LIFE

HISTORY OF A CORAL REEF FISH.

Vigliola, L.* and Meekan, M. G. *The Australian Institute

of Marine Science, P.O. Box 264, Dampier, WA, 6713,

Australia. Email: l.vigliola@aims.gov.au

Newly settled coral reef fishes undergo very high rates of

mortality. At present, the extent to which this mortality is

determined by the condition, growth or size of fish is

unknown. In this study, we repeatedly sampled a cohort of a

damselfish (Neopomacentrus filamentosus) immediaetly prior

to, at, and then at monthly intervals after settlement. Otoliths

from these individuals were used to determine the growth

characteristics of fish that survived up to three months after

settlement. We found that one month after settlement, this

species underwent an intense period of size-selective mortality

where smaller, slow-growing fish had higher rates of mortality

than larger fast-growing individuals. As fish that were fast-growing

after settlement also tended to be fast-growing at

earlier life history stages, the variation on which the size-selective

mortality acted was present during the planktonic

phase and potentially at hatching.

THE NATURE OF THE EVIDENCE FOR LOCAL

RETENTION IN MARINE POPULATIONS WITH

PELAGIC LARVAE.

Warner, Robert R.* and Stephen E. Swearer, *Dept. of

Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology and the Marine

Science Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara,

CA 93106, USA. Email: warner@lifesci.ucsb.edu

The major unanswered question in marine ecology is the

degree of connectedness between local populations. Put

another way, what proportion of young arriving into a local

population are products of local production? Since most

marine animals have a pelagic larval stage, the paradigm thus

far has been to assume extensive dispersal and massive export.

In contrast, a working group convened at the National Center

for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis suggests that evidence is

accumulating in a variety of fields that indicates a surprising

amount of local retention, even in species with long larval

durations. The evidence arises from empirical studies of

recruitment and endemic species, geographic genetic structure,

spread of introduced species, larval distributions, proximal

effects of marine reserves, and paleoecology. If retention turns

out to be a common feature of local marine population

dynamics, this will require major reassessment of marine

metapopulation models, fishery management schemes, marine

reserve designs, and ideas about the mechanisms of marine

speciation. It also underscores the need for more intensive

studies of larval ecology and behavior.

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL PATTERNS OF CORAL

REEF FISH SETTLEMENT TO NEIGHBOURING

SMALL ISLAND STATES IN THE EASTERN

CARIBBEAN.

Watson, Maggie * and Richard S. Nemeth. *ICLARM

CEPO, 158 Inland Messenger, Road Town, Tortola, British

Virgin Islands. Email iclarm@candwbvi.net

We investigated spatio-temporal patterns in the settlement of

coral reef fish both between reefs and between neighbouring

island states in the Eastern Caribbean. During the new moon

periods of July August and September 1999, three light traps

were set near each of three fringing reefs in the British Virgin

Islands (BVI) and three in the United States Virgin Islands

(USVI). Approximate separation was 2-5 km and 50-60 km

within and between countries respectively. Catches varied

substantially among traps, months and sites. Hierarchical

cluster analyses of total catches showed sites within countries

grouped together each month (except one site in July). BVI

and USVI were clearly distinct. In BVI, the largest numbers of

almost all species were caught consistently at one site. This

site, a proposed Marine Protected Area, may be a local

‘hotspot’ for settlement. Peak abundance of each family

generally coincided at BVI sites. By contrast, in USVI no one

site consistently produced more fish, and abundances of

several families peaked at different sites in different months. In

September, 36.6, 2.4 and 4.3 snappers per trap were caught at

the three sites in BVI, while USVI yielded only 0.1, zero and

0.4. For surgeonfish the pattern reversed, with 0.1, 0.9 and 0.8

fish from BVI and 27.6, 11.5 and 10.5 from USVI. Thus

settlement was not uniform in space or time at these scales. We

discuss the results in the light of the current debate over

widespread dispersal versus local retention of postlarval fish.

THE INFLUENCE OF LIGHT TRAP OPERATION AND

DEPLOYMENT ON CATCHES OF PRE-SETTLEMENT

FISHES AROUND CORAL REEFS IN THE SAN BLAS

ARCHIPELAGO, CARIBBEAN PANAMA.

Wilson. DT*. *James Cook University, Dept. Marine

Biology, Townsville, QLD, Australia. Email:

david.wilson@jcu.edu.au

Light traps are a popular technique for sampling patterns of

larval supply to populations of coral reef fishes. However,

relatively few studies have examined the biases of this

sampling technique. This study examined the influence of tidal

patterns, time of night factors and depth of deployment on

catches in light traps. Tidal and time of night influences on

catch rates were examined by sampling traps at 2 hr intervals

for 13 d centred around the new moon in each of 3 lunar

months. Larval catches were generally correlated to ebb tidal

flows, although the pattern was weak and variable. This

probably reflects the relatively small tidal range in the

Archipelago. There were no significant changes in catch rates

during the night, although a gradual trend of increasing catches

towards dawn was identified. The effect of trap deployment

depth on catches was examined by anchoring traps at the

surface and just above the bottom in two habitats for 3 lunar

months. All families of reef fishes collected in high numbers

displayed clear patterns of depth preference. The larvae of

gerrids, pomacentrids and lutjanids were predominantly

captured in shallow traps, while acanthurids, gobies, labrids,

apogonids, synodontids and blennies were usually collected in

deep traps. These results suggest that the composition and

abundance of catches will be strongly affected by the depth at

which traps are deployed..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A7: East Indies Triangle

Session A7: The East Indies Triangle of Maximum Marine-Biodiversity: Definition

and Origins

45

SPECIES COMPOSITION OF SOFT CORALS

(OCTOCORALLIA) ON THE CORAL REEFS OF THE

RYUKYU ARCHIPELAGO, JAPAN.

Benayahu Y.* Department of Zoology, Tel Aviv University,

Ramat Aviv, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel. Email:

denlit@post.tau.ac.il

The history of studies on the octocoral fauna of Japan is over

120 years old. The latest taxonomic revisions of some major

alcyonacean genera and the progress made to date in studying

them on various Indo-Pacific reefs encouraged the initiation of

an extensive collection of soft corals on the Ryukyu

Archipelago. Species composition of the families

Clavulariidae, Tubiporidae and Alcyoniidae was studied on 20

reef sites, from Sesoko Island in the north, to Yonaguni Island

in the south. The collection, comprising over 325 specimens,

yielded 56 species. The study established 4 new species and in

addition over 30 new zoogeographical records. Many of the

new records have already been described in the past from the

reefs of the Bay of Nha-Trang, Vietnam and recently from

Taiwan, indicating the close resemblance among these soft

coral faunas. Therefore, it is clear that the soft corals of the

Ryukyu Archipelago share many similarities with the fauna of

the East China Sea reefs. Most of the species obtained in the

present study are representatives of the family Alcyoniidae.

Low number of genera characterizes this family in the

surveyed sites, yet some are with remarkably high species

richness. The alcyoniids of the genera Alcyonium, Cladiella,

Lobophytum, Sarcophyton and Sinularia form large

assemblages, which dominate shallow reef areas. Members of

the families Nephtheidae, Xeniidae and Nidaliidae were also

collected and are still being examined. They contribute to the

diversity in habitats where Alcyoniidae species are rare.

Further studies on other islands of Japan will enable an

appropriate evaluation of the spatial and latitudinal patterns of

octocoral biodiversity in the region.

VARIATION IN CORAL SPECIES DIVERSITY AND

OCCURRENCE WITHIN INDONESIA: INFLUENCES

OF BIOGEOGRAPHY, GEOMORPHOLOGY, AND

LAND-BASED POLLUTION.

Edinger E.*, Jurek Kolasa, Michael Risk. Dept. of Earth

Sciences, Laurentian University, Ramsey Lake Road,

Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, P3E 2C6. Email:

eedinger@nickel.laurentian.ca.

We assess local and regional variation in coral species

diversity and species occurrence within the Indonesian

archipelago, and the influence of regional species pools,

geomorphology, and anthropogenic pollution on coral species

diversity and occurrence. We measured line-intercept transects

from 33 sites on 14 reefs in three regions of Indonesia: Ambon

(Moluccas), South Sulawesi, and the Java Sea. Unpolluted

reference sites in eastern Indonesia were approximately 20%

more diverse than Java Sea reference sites. Rare species

formed a higher proportion of the coral fauna on eastern

Indonesian sites. Approximately 25% of the species recorded

in Ambon and South Sulawesi did not occur in the Java Sea.

Between-site variation in species occurrence was lower on

Java Sea reefs than on eastern Indonesian reefs. Pollution from

land-based sources was the primary determinant of coral

species diversity and species occurrence on reefs. A larger

species pool in eastern Indonesia than in the Java Sea probably

accounted for most of the difference in within-site species

diversity between eastern Indonesian and Java Sea reference

sites. High fishing intensity in the Java Sea, including

destructive fishing practices, may have also reduced within-site

species diversity on Java Sea reference reefs.

GEOLOGICAL INFLUENCES ON INDO-WEST

PACIFIC BIOGEOGRAPHY DURING THE

CENOZOIC.

Hall, Robert*. *SE Asia Research Group, Royal Holloway

London, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, UK; Email:

robert.hall@gl.rhbnc.ac.uk

The distribution of land and sea and changing depths of seas,

essentially the result of geological processes, have played an

important part in the evolution of life and the development of

biogeographic patterns in SE Asia and the West Pacific.

Cenozoic geological events have also influenced climate and

oceanic circulation in the region. Major plate reorganisations

took place at about 45 and 25 Ma. Long term subduction

maintained discontinuously emergent volcanic island chains.

Early Cenozoic collision of India with Eurasia enlarged land

areas. Later, Eurasia-Australia and New Guinea arc-continent

collisions led to connections between Australia, Asia, and the

Pacific. These changes will be examined with the aid of

computer-animated tectonic models. Wallacea is a critical area

between the Sunda and Sahul shelves where, since the early

Miocene, an old deep-water barrier has been eliminated, but as

mountains rose, new deep basins developed. There have been

very rapid changes in geology, topography and land/sea

distribution, with multiple opportunities for dispersal and

vicariance. More subtle geologically-related forces have also

modified biogeographic patterns, such as links between

tectonics, mountain rise, sea level, climate, seaway closure and

ocean circulation. Changes occurred within a framework of

long-term cooling and sea level fall, with extreme variations

during Quaternary glacial and interglacial periods. The

complex links between geology, climate and ocean circulation

are still to be understood but are likely to have significant

biogeographic impact.

THE REEF CORAL FAUNA OF BALI AND NEARBY

AREAS.

Hoeksema, Bert W.* & Ketut Sarjana Putra. *Nationaal

Natuurhistorisch Museum / Naturalis, Postbus 9517, 2300

RA Leiden, The Netherlands. Email:

Hoeksema@naturalis.nnm.nl

Although Bali is well known for its diving tourism,

surprisingly little is known of its underwater fauna. Three

areas of Bali have been quickly monitored with regard to their

reef coral fauna: (1) Bali Barat national marine park, west Bali,

(2) the Tulamben - Amed area, northwest of Bali's easternmost

point, and (3) Nusa Lembongan en Nusa Penida, two islands in

the Lombok Strait between Bali and Lombok. Mushroom

corals (Fungiidae) and scleractinian genera were selected as

target taxa. Bali Barat, mainly consisting of uplifted limestone,

appeared to be the least rich, a possible effect of bleaching.

The Tulamben - Amed area, predominantly consisting of

volcanic sediments with limestone outcrops, appeared to be the

richest. The neighbouring islands Nusa Lembongan and Nusa

Penida, also characterised by uplifted limestone, appeared to

have very special fauna elements due to cold upwelling and

strong currents. Compared to nearby areas in western and

eastern Indonesia, the coral fauna of Bali, on the boundary

between west and east, resembles most the fauna of eastern

areas..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A7: East Indies Triangle

46

THE EAST INDIES TRIANGLE OF MARINE

BIODIVERSITY.

Hoeksema, Bert W. *. *Nationaal Natuurhistorisch

Museum / Naturalis, Postbus 9517, 2300 RA Leiden, The

Netherlands. Email: Hoeksema@naturalis.nnm.nl

Most tropical benthic animal species occur on coral reefs in

the Indo-Malayan Triangle, which includes Malaysia,

Indonesia, the Philippines and Papua New Guinea. Many

species show an Indo-West Pacific range from the western

Indian Ocean and the Red Sea toward the central Pacific, while

others occur predominantly in the Indo-Pacific convergence.

Cumulatively, these ranges form a centre of maximum marine

biodiversity, which is located at the East Indies triangle. The

boundaries of this triangle do not appear to have any

biogeographic significance. Depending on the taxa and

material studied, various triangles have been distinguished in

the past. Consequently, we do not know yet where exactly the

real centre of diversity is located. Species distributions

presented in systematic revisions are usually incomplete.

Nevertheless, well-defined boundaries are important for

explaining the centre of diversity, since they may relate to the

area's climatic and geological past or to dispersal by currents

and its ecological barriers. The fossil record and data on

molecular variation between and within species may also help

herein. Taxonomists should design sampling programmes that

focus on target taxa, which would enable them not only to look

for occurrence data but also to obtain reliable information on

species absence. Eventually, the patterns of many marine

benthic taxa need to be compared in order to find their real

diversity centre.

MOLECULAR PHYLOGEOGRAPHY OF THE

PATELLOIDA PROFUNDA GROUP (GASTROPODA:

LOTTIDAE).

Kirkendale, L.*. *Marine Lab, University of Guam &

Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida,

Gainesville FL 32611 USA, Email:

kirkendale@flmnh.ufl.edu

Studies on the origin and diversification of Indo-West Pacific

(IWP) biota are hampered by the frequently sympatric

distribution of related species. Limpets of the Patelloida

profunda group are exceptional in retaining largely allopatric

ranges, which together with their predominant restriction to

calcareous shores make them a promising group to address

questions of IWP diversification. In the Pacific the group is

basically confined to tectonically uplifted islands where

emergent fossil reefs provide suitable substrata. Both

tectonism and sea level fluctuations alter the distribution and

connectedness of these habitats, and provide opportunities for

speciation. Using 16S and COI mtDNA sequence data from

most P. profunda group members and several other Patelloida

and other limpet species, I explore the relationships and test

hypotheses about the origins, of these limpet species. Results

show a deep split between Pacific and Indian Ocean clades that

may date from the Miocene tectonic restriction of circulation

between the ocean basins. Differentiation within the Pacific is

more shallow and consistent with Plio-Pleistocene sea level

fluctuations as a driving mechanism. Indian Ocean taxa show

deeper differentiation among themselves than Pacific taxa,

consistent with the more fragmented nature of habitats in the

former, and also with data from other groups. Results raise

questions about the boundaries of the P. profunda group, the

genus Patelloida, as well as of patellogastropod families in

general.

INDO-WEST PACIFIC DIVERSITY: PHYLOGENETIC

EVIDENCE FROM COWRIES FOR A MOSAIC OF

CAUSES

Meyer Christopher *, Gustav Paulay. *Marine

Laboratory, University of Guam & Florida Museum of

Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL

32611 USA. Email: cmeyer@flmnh.ufl.edu

Cowrie snails ( Cypraea) are diverse, well-known members

of coral reef communities whose diversity peaks in the Indo-West

Pacific triangle. As their overall diversity is comparable

to other reef-associated taxa, we use the group as a model

system to understand mechanisms that generate diversity in the

region. A comprehensive phylogeny for the group based on

190 species from two mtDNA genes is used to test the relative

roles of Center of Origin, Center of Overlap, and Center of

Accumulation explanations. The phylogenetic hypothesis

indicates the following patterns: (1) For center of origin, taxa

endemic to the region are either a.) young (<3 MY) and often

nested within a more widespread paraphyletic taxon or b.)

older (>5 MY), deeper water species restricted to marginal

areas of the triangle. (2) Evidence for center of overlap is

evident in taxa where sampling has been more extensive (C.

mappa, C. arabica, C. tigris). (3) There is little evidence for

center of accumulation or refugia hypotheses playing a role in

cowries as older peripheral taxa maintain their peripheral

status (Cribrarula clade). However, the center of accumulation

hypothesis is difficult to falsify without a good fossil record.

For cowries, the diversity peak of the Indo-West Pacific

triangle is clearly a mosaic of mechanisms operating at

different time periods and within different arenas.

REGIONS OF MAXIMUM BIODIVERSITY AND

RATES OF SPECIES TURNOVER IN STOMATOPOD

CRUSTACEANS.

Reak a-K ud la, Marj orie*. *Departm ent of Biology, Un iversit y

of Maryland, Coll ege P ark, Md . 20742, USA. Emai l:

mr9@umail.umd.edu

Within lineages of coral-dwelling mantis shrimps, species of

smaller body size produce fewer larvae with lower dispersal

potential, inhabit smaller geographic ranges, and show higher

rates of speciation and extinction than species of larger body

size. Among lineages that span the Central Pacific (CP), West

Pacific (WP), Indo-West Pacific (IWP), and Indian Ocean

(IO), populations reach larger body sizes along the margin of

Africa and western Asia than on offshore islands of the IO; the

largest range of body sizes occurs in the IWP continental

region; and body sizes decrease toward the CP, with

populations from atolls dwarfed relative to those from high

islands. Endemism is high in the western IO, high in the IWP,

low in the WP, and high in the CP. The Center of Origin (CO),

Center of Accumulation (CA), and Center of Survival (CS)

hypotheses all appear to operate, but the rate of species

turnover (extinction/speciation) likely is critical for species

richness among regions. Origination occurs in the IWP

(predicted by CO) but also in peripheral areas (predicted by

CA). Low dispersal of the small endemics, the diversity

gradient, and the low endemism adjacent to the continental

region, however, suggest that small peripheral species do not

migrate and accumulate in the IWP (as predicted by CA). The

ratio of extinction/speciation, however, likely is lower in the

IWP continental area because of larger body sizes (high

dispersal, low extinction) of some lineages there (predicted by

CS)..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A7: East Indies Triangle

47

LARGER FORAMINIFERA FROM THE SPERMONDE

ARCHIPELAGO (INDONESIA) AND BOHOL

(PHILIPPINES)

Renema, Willem* Nationaal Natuurhistorischmuseum PO

Box 9517

2300 RA Leiden Email: Renema@naturalis.nnm.nl

Symbiont bearing larger foraminifera live in (sub)tropical

seas. Previous studies have been shown that substrate type,

light intensity (depth) and hydrodynamic energy are the most

important parameters influencing larger foraminifera

distribution patterns. In this study larger foraminifera of two

carbonate seas have been studied, in order to find whether the

same parameters affect larger foraminiferal distribution in

mesotrophic conditions. At the sand cay type reefs in the

Spermonde Arhipelago, depth and exposure related parameters

were important parameters in determining the foram

population. Highest densities were found in samples taken at

the reef base. Hardly any larger foraminifera were observed

shallower than 2m depth. The reefs around Cabilao constitute

of steep walls and a shallow reef flat (<2m depth). The highest

densities were observed on the reef flat, some meters from the

reef edge. From 2m down to about 8m little foraminifera were

found, while similar densities as in the Spermonde

Archipelago were observed from 8m to 30m. Most species

found at the reefbase in the Spermonde were not present

around Cabilao. This shows that next to previously known

parameters, also reef geometry is an important parameter in

determining the fauna composition and density of larger

foraminifera.

CENOZOIC HISTORY OF CORAL DIVERSITY IN THE

INDO-WEST PACIFIC: GEOLOGICAL CONTROL OF

AVAILABLE HABITATS.

Rosen B.* & Moyra Wilson. Department of

Palaeontology, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell

Road, London SW7 5BD, Great Britain. Email:

b.rosen@nhm.ac.uk

The Indo-West Pacific is the most taxonomically rich region

for numerous shallow-water marine organisms including

zooxanthellate corals, but notwithstanding considerable

research effort, this pattern continues to be enigmatic. The

most popular explanation is that the region is a Centre of

Origin (C-of-O) though other authors question this on cladistic

grounds. An implicit prediction of the C-of-O model is that

such regions should have a long history of species richness.

For groups with high preservation potential like corals, one

might expect this history to be reflected in their fossil record,

yet such evidence has been largely neglected. We have

quantified area of shallow-water carbonates of SE Asia

through the Cenozoic as a proxy for availability of coral

habitats, and compared this to the changing richness pattern of

z-corals. Although suitable habitats were present throughout

the Cenozoic, they increased dramatically early in the Neogene

(c 25 Ma), coincident with the collision of Australia and SE

Asia. Z-coral richness parallels this pattern, increasing four-fold

around the same time. This and other evidence suggests

that (1) the high biodiversity of the modern region is a

surprisingly young feature, (2) the influence of geotectonics on

biodiversity, particularly in controlling availability of suitable

habitats, has been widely overlooked, and (3) these factors

have been more important than the intrinsic evolutionary

processes invoked by C-of-O advocates.

CORAL BARNACLES— DECLINE AND EXTINCTION

IN THE ATLANTO-MEDITERRANEAN/EAST

PACIFIC, DIVERSIFICATION IN THE INDO-PACIFIC

DURING THE LATE CENOZOIC.

Ross, Arnold* & William A. Newman. *Scripps Institution

of Oceanography, La Jolla, California 92093-0202 USA,

Email: arross@att.net

The coral barnacles, first appearing in the Late Oligocene of

the Caribbean, underwent diversification unparalleled by any

other group of shallow-water sessile barnacles. An

archaeobalanid ancestor, with a shell of six wall and four

opercular plates, proceeded from an unspecialized, facultative,

setose-feeding planktotroph to variously modified obligate

commensals largely of corals. This not only led to a diversity

of shell forms but to feeding on host coral tissues and

ultimately to nutritional parasitism. Fragmentation of the

Tethyan seaway, concomitant with polar cooling and

wholesale extinctions of host corals, especially in Europe, the

Mediterranean basin and eastern Pacific during the Tertiary,

resulted in relict distributions and regional endemism. These

events included Neogene and Quaternary extinctions of

barnacle and coral genera in the western Atlantic/Caribbean

which have not been replaced by originations. On the other

hand, the development of the exceptional diversity of coral

barnacles now evident in the Indo-Pacific was apparently tied

to the survival and radiation largely of zooxanthellate corals

there.

NATURE AND ORIGINS OF UNIQUE HIGH

DIVERSITY REEF FAUNAS IN THE BAY OF TOMINI,

CENTRAL SULAWESI: THE ULTIMATE “CENTRE OF

DIVERSITY”?

Wallace, C.C*., Paulay, G., Hoeksema, B.W.H., Bellwood,

D.R., Hutchings, P., Barber, P. H., Erdmann, M. and

Wolstenholme, J. *Museum of tropical Queensland,

Townsville, Australia 4810. Email:

carden@mtq.qld.gov.au

The staghorn corals (Acropora spp.) of the Bay of Tomini in

eastern Central Sulawesi may typify the maximal marine

biodiversity associated with the idea of a “centre of diversity”

in the central Indo-Pacific: other faunal groups have variable

diversity, but unexpected species composition. Faunal

assemblages from several phyla in this bay were assessed

against phylogenetic and biogeographic data and biotic and

environmental parameters in order to compare several

hypotheses about the origins of the unusual species

composition. It was found that the Togian Islands within the

bay support a fauna with strong affinities to sites in the western

equatorial Pacific, in all the studied groups except

Stomatopoda. Both species composition and distribution of

ecological functional groups is influenced by unusually calm

and oligotrophic conditions in the islands and populations

within the islands have various levels of genetic connectively

to populations in other parts of Sulawesi, including complete

isolation of some populations. It is proposed that these islands

represent lagoonal refugia from Pleistocene lowstands, with

affinities to similar refugia in the western Pacific.

Additionally, the bay is possibly influenced by larval

distributions from the Pacific through-flow current and there is

little or no influence from the Indian Ocean..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A7: East Indies Triangle

48

ASPECTS OF BIODIVERSITY AND ENDEMISM IN

THE OCTOCORALLIAN FAUNA OF THE TROPICAL

WESTERN PACIFIC.

Williams, Gary C.*. *California Academy of Sciences, San

Francisco, California, U.S.A. 94118 Email:

gwilliams@calacademy.org

Recently acquired data from the southeast Asian region has

allowed for a preliminary assessment of species diversity on

coral reefs of the western Pacific. Regarding octocorallian

coelenterates, the northern and eastern points of the high

diversity triangle are estimated to be in the regions of southern

Luzon (Philippines) and the Milne Bay area (Papua New

Guinea). The western point has not yet been clearly defined,

other than central Indonesia. A single dive site in the

Philippines is shown to approximate the shallow-water (<30

meters depth) octocoral diversity (species richness) of the

entire Caribbean region - exceeding one hundred species.

Zooxanthellate octocorals of two of the world’s largest coral

reef regions, the western Pacific and the Tropical Western

Atlantic, are compared. It is shown that the western Pacific is

approximately nine times more diverse than the tropical

western Atlantic. The tropical western Atlantic octocorallian

fauna of shallow-water coral reefs (<15 m depth) is composed

almost entirely of gorgonians, while these corals comprise only

approximately 6% of the western Pacific fauna within a similar

depth range. Two families make up 96% of the tropical

western Atlantic fauna, while 92% of the western Pacific fauna

is comprised of three soft coral families: Alcyoniidae,

Neptheidae, and Xeniidae. The remaining western Pacific

elements include helioporacean, stoloniferan, and

pennatulacean taxa..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A8: Palaeoecology

Session A8: Lessons from the Past: Reef Palaeoecology and Its Applications

49

FATES OF SKELETAL CARBONATE IN TROPICAL

SEDIMENTS: HARSHEST TAPHONOMIC FILTER IN

REEF ENVIRONMENTS?

Best, M.M.R*. *Department of the Geophysical Sciences,

University of Chicago, 5734 S. Ellis Ave., Chicago,

IL60637, U.S.A., Email: mmrbest@midway.uchicago.edu

Environmental assessments in coastal environments rarely

include baseline surveys before the onset of change. We can

turn to sediments and skeletal death and fossil assemblages to

investigate the past and develop longer time series on

community composition and environmental conditions. In

order to use this historical information, potential biases arising

from the processes of fossilization need to be identified across

environments. Study of both carbonate and siliciclastic settings

in Caribbean Panama has provided insight into processes of

skeletal preservation along environmental axes including

sediment grain size, chemistry (carbonate, organic carbon,

iron), and accumulation rates. Post-mortem condition of

experimental and naturally occurring bivalve death

assemblages is compared to coordinated environmental

datasets. Sediment texture and chemistry show a strong

relationship with post-mortem condition, with destruction

being highest in reefal carbonate settings and shell persistence

highest in iron-rich siliciclastics. These results imply that reef

skeletal deposits are more highly filtered than adjacent

habitats, though deceleration of damage accrual over time

suggests information loss is not complete. Furthermore, when

environments shift, siliciclastic sedimentation in some reefal

areas may result in a greater fidelity of the reef skeletal fossil

assemblage.

ARE THERE PROXIES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL

STRESS IN LIVING AND FOSSIL REEF-BUILDING

CORALS?

Burr,*S.A. Department of Geological Sciences, Snee Hall,

Cornell University, Ithaca NY, 14853 . sab45@cornell.edu

Corals can be stressed by fluctuations in the parameters that

control their growth and limit their environment. Solar

irradiance, varying symbiont photosynthetic rates, volcanism,

sedimentation, elevated nutrient levels, ENSO events, storms,

ship groundings, disease, outbreaks of predators, and die-offs

of herbivorous organisms that control the proliferation of algae

are stressors must have existed in the Pleistocene and

Holocene eras, but what should we look for as indicators in the

fossil record? Stress does not always result in an obvious

marker such as a community phase shift. The stable isotope

fraction content of Holocene scleractinian coral skeletons has

been used as a proxy for past climate, salinity, and average and

seasonal temperature, and as such may act as a proxy for a

bleaching event. Coral skeletal density can be a proxy for

water temperature, light intensity, and nutrient supply. 13 C/12 C

ratios can be indicators of ocean nutrient levels. The trace

metal contents of Holocene scleractinian coral skeletons have

been used as proxies for paleo ocean circulation and chemistry.

Can these chemical proxies also record stress, disturbance,

and/or disease in the fossil record? If proxies for coral stress

exist, the Pleistocene and Holocene fossil record could become

a source of information about the permanence of the damage

done to coral reef communities by pathogens and other factors,

the effect on the biodiversity of the reef community, and the

prognosis for recovery of today's reef systems.

THE "PARADOX" OF GLOBAL MID-PALEOZOIC

REEF EXPANSION DURING SUPER GREENHOUSE

EPISODES.

Copper P.*, *Dept. Earth Sciences, Laurentian

University,Sudbury, Ontario, P3E 2C6, Canada, Email:

pcopper@nickel.laurentian.ca

Giant coral-sponge reef tracts of the silurian (wenlock) and

devonian (eifel-givet) were common during greenhouse

climate maxima, with average ssts at 24c-26c, and atmospheric

pco2 16x to 24x today’s. Epicontinental seas flooded

equatorial cratons during sl highstands: reefs ranged to

latitudes 50s, and c.60n. Reef builders were calcitic tabulate-rugose

corals, aragonitic stromatoporoid sponges, aragonitic

chloro- and calcitic rhodophytes, and diverse calcitic

calcimicrobes. This paradox of optimal reef cum maximal

greenhouse suggests: (1) warm, supersaturated calcite oceans

enhanced precipitation, sequestering co2 otherwise

suppressing caco3 production, (2) zooxanthellae were more

abundant and efficient at removing co2 and buffering tropical

mid-paleozoic oceans, (3) reef builders spread to higher

latitudes during global warming episodes, (4) stratified,

sluggish deep ocean waters were effective sinks for surplus

co2 and p, except during las niñas events at mass extinction

boundaries.

BRYOZOAN REEFS AND BRYOZOAN-RICH

LIMESTONES IN THE MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN OF

SOUTHWESTERN VIRGINA.

Cuffey R.J.* Cawley, J.C.; Lane, J.A.; Bernarsky-Remington,

S.M.; Ansari, S.L.; McClain, M.D.; Ross, T.L.;

& Savill, A.C. *Dept. Geosciences (Deike Bldg.),

Pennsylvania State Univ., University Park, PA 16802, USA.

Email: cuffey@ems.psu.edu

Bryozoan-built reef mounds are rare, small, exotic

compared with coral reefs, but started early in their

phylum’s history. Several are preserved in thick gray

fossiliferous limestones (upper Chazyan and lower

Blackriveran) across southwestern Virginia, and were

examined to understand critical aspects of such structures at

that time. The bryozoan reefs are small (meter-sized) crust-mounds

built largely by t h e s h e e t - l i k e t o

m a s s i v e t r e p o s t o m e B a t o s t o m a c h a z y e n s i s ;

t h e r e s u l t i n g r o c k a v e r a g e s c r u s t s t o n e

( w i t h p a c k s t o n e t o w a c k e s t o n e matrix). Much

larger (km-scale) regional calcarenite shoals and banks

contain considerable skeletal sediment derived from break-up

of scatt e r e d b r a n c h i n g b r y o z o a n c o l o n i e s ;

t h e s e r o c k s a r e m o s t commonly floatstone (with

packstone to grainstone matrix). Shallow shoals host

trepostomes (Nicholsonella acanthobscura) and bifoliates

(Pachydictya sheldonesis, Stictopora fenestrata), deeper

banks the trepostomes Anaphragma hermitagensis and

Nicholsonella inflecta. Locally, the branching trepostome-like

fistuliporoid Constellaria islensis forms dense but

non-reefal thickets (packed rudstones with micstone to mud-stone

matrix). Overall, 51 bryozoan species have been

identified here, some in frame-building and others in

sediment-forming constructional ecologic roles..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A8: Palaeoecology

50

MID-HOLOCENE FOSSIL REEF AT JEPARA,

CENTRAL JAVA, INDONESIA: A BENCHMARK OF

NEARSHORE REEF DIVERSITY AND COMPOSITION

BEFORE HUMAN DISTURBANCE?

Edinger E.N., Joyce Lundberg, Michael Risk.* *Dept. of

Earth Sciences, Laurentian University, Ramsey Lake

Road, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, P3E 2C6. Email:

eedinger@nickel.laurentian.ca

Modern nearshore reefs of the Java Sea, Indonesia, have

been subjected to high levels of anthropogenic sedimentation,

sewage, agricultural and aquacultural runoff for the past

century or longer. Comparison with fossil reefs may show the

nature and degree of change in reef ecology associated with

long-term pollution. Fossil reef exposures in the Jepara region,

Central Java, include reef flat facies from siliciclastic

dominated nearshore environments which grew approximately

7000 ybp during the Holocene hypsithermal sea level

highstand. Species richness of the fossil reef was not

significantly different from that of the degraded shallow

modern nearshore reefs, nor from unpolluted reefs growing

among mangroves. Microatolls, massive corals, and branching

corals dominated the fossil reefs. Multilobate submassive

corals were much more abundant on the modern degraded

reefs than in the fossil reefs. While fossil reefs were dominated

by typical reef flat corals, polluted modern reefs were

dominated by taxa tolerant of turbid or polluted water,

especially Goniopora djiboutiensis, Galaxea fascicularis,

Alveopora spp., and Lobophyllia hemprichii , and taxa typical

of reef flats and shallow reef fronts. Acropora corals were rare

on both fossil reefs and degraded modern reefs. Pleistocene

and Holocene fossil reefs can provide a useful pre-pollution

benchmark of nearshore reef coral species composition.

MIRRORS, PRISMS, OR SNAPSHOTS: HOW

CLOSELY DO FOSSIL REEFS RESEMBLE SOURCE

LIFE AND DEATH ASSEMBLAGES?

Edinger E.*, John Pandolfi, Russell Kelley. *Dept. of Earth

Sciences, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario, P3E

2C6, Canada. Email: eedinger@nickel.laurentian.ca

The diversity and taxonomic composition of Holocene raised

fossil reefs was compared with those of modern reef coral life

and death assemblages in adjacent moderate and low-energy

shallow reef habitats of Madang Lagoon, Papua New Guinea.

Species richness per sample area and Shannon-Weiner

diversity (H’) were highest in the fossil reefs, intermediate in

the life assemblages, and lowest in the death assemblages. The

taxonomic composition of the fossil reefs was most similar to

the combined composition of the life and death assemblages

from the modern reefs adjacent to the two fossil reefs. The

Madang fossil reefs represent depth-specific snapshots of the

combined life and death assemblages as they existed at the

time the reef was uplifted. Lagoonal facies of fossil reefs are

dominated by the dominant sediment producing taxa, which

are usually, but not necessarily, the most abundant in the life

assemblage. Rare or slow-growing taxa accumulate more

slowly than the encasing sediments, and are under-represented

in fossil reefs. Nevertheless, Holocene and Pleistocene fossil

reefs provide a time-integrated historical record of community

composition, and may be used as long-term benchmarks for

comparison with modern, degraded, nearshore reefs.

Comparisons between fossil reefs and degraded modern reefs

display gross changes in community structure more effectively

than they demonstrate local extinction of rare taxa.

MOLLUSK ASSEMBLAGES WITHIN PLEISTOCENE

AND MODERN REEFS RECORD THE ECOLOGICAL

VARIABILITY OF BACKREEF AREAS.

Gardiner, L.* University of Georgia, Department of

Geology, Athens GA 30605, USA. Email:

gardiner@gly.uga.edu

Previous interpretations of paleoenvironmental conditions

from Pleistocene reef deposits have relied upon the predicable

zonation of coral species identified in modern reef settings.

However, mollusks from different Pleistocene and modern

backreef locations with similar coral assemblages do not have

such constancy in different locations. Mollusk assemblages

from two different geographic locations of Pleistocene reef

building within the Bahamas were investigated through

identification of over 4000 mollusk specimens. The two

mollusk assemblages were significantly different (MANOVA,

p<0.001) despite similar coral assemblages. Investigation of

over 6000 mollusk specimens from modern Bahamian

backreefs also revealed high variability of mollusk death

assemblages associated with variable habitats. Thus,

differences in the Pleistocene mollusk assemblages may be

attributed to variability of paleohabitats within Pleistocene

backreef areas. The mollusk assemblages within backreef

coral deposits will differ if adjacent habitats are unlike,

regardless of the similarity of corals. While corals have been

cited as demonstrating the constancy of Neogene reefs,

mollusks from different fossil reef localities demonstrate the

ecological patchiness and habitat variability within shallow

platform environments. Therefore, investigation of mollusks

from ancient reef deposits provides important paleoecological

information about reefs and adjacent near-reef habitats that is

not typically obtained from analysis of coral zonation pattern.

TAPHONOMY OF REEF BUILDING CORALS AT

INTRA- AND INTER-PROVINCIAL SPATIAL SCALES:

IMPLICATIONS FOR PALAEOECOLOGICAL

STUDIES.

Greenstein, Benjamin J. *, John M. Pandolfi. Department

of Geology, Cornell College, 600 First St. West, Mt.

Vernon, IA 52314 U. S. A.; Email: bgreenstein@cornell-iowa.

edu

In order to interpret more accurately the results of

palaeoecological studies of Pleistocene and Holocene fossil

reef coral assemblages, we have investigated the taphonomic

processes affecting coral death assemblages on a variety of

spatial scales. We have made comparisons between shallow

(reef tract and patch reef) and deep (20 and 30 m) reef

environments of the Florida Keys, between shallow reef

environments of the Florida Keys and Bahamas, and between

shallow reef environments of the tropical western Atlantic and

Indo-Pacific Provinces. Dead corals were examined to

determine the extent of coverage of a variety of physical,

chemical and biological agents of degradation. The results of

this multi-year study of taphonomic processes affecting the

common reef-building corals of these regions reveal complex

patterns of degradation between and within reef environments

and coral colony growth forms. The influence of both wave

energy regime and coral colony growth form on the amount of

degradation suffered by dead corals is evident from our inter-provincial

comparisons. However, within-province differences

in preservation potential exist, and are related to background

sedimentation rate and light availability. Differences observed

between and within reef provinces suggest that the fossil

record of reef corals can best be understood if studies of reef

coral palaeoecology are coupled with taphonomic studies in

closely analogous modern environments..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A8: Palaeoecology

51

REEFFORMING POTENTIAL OF RECENT AND

FOSSIL CORALS.

Gudo, Michael*. *Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg,

Department for Comparative Anatomy,

Senckenberganlage 25, 60325 Frankfurt am Main,

Germany, Email: m.gudo@em.uni-frankfurt.de

Due to the abilities of Rugosa and Scleractinia to build reefs,

two processes have to be distinguished: ‘reef-building’ and

‘reef-forming’. Reef-building is determined by the

environment, the climate, and life assemblages, and reef-forming

is detemined by the bauplan of the soft bodies and the

individual growth potential. Reef-forming depends on the

ability to build an organism with an endless number of polyp-modules

that share the volume of their gastric cavities. Due to

the bauplans of polyps four types of reef-forming will be

presented: solitary corals, colonial corals, stock-corals and

autositary corals. Solitary corals are single polyps excreting a

carbonate substrate, colonial corals are assemblages of

individuals, in stock-corals the polyps share their carbonate

substrate but they are individuals, and in autositary corals the

polyps share their gastric cavities, which means that the polyps

are functional units (modules) in one large organism. The

solitary, colonial and the stock-corals only have a low reef-forming

potential, but the autositary corals have a high

potential of reef-forming. Due to their bauplan the Rugosa had

a limited number of growth sectors so that they build solitary,

colonial or stock-corals. But the Scleractinia have an unlimited

(exponentially increasing) number of growth sectors and

consequently they were able to build autositary corals and they

have an high reef-forming potential.

RELATIONS BETWEEN BIO-COENOCLINES AND

TAPHO-COENOCLINES OF LARGER

FORAMINIFERA IN FRONT OF CORAL REEFS.

Hohenegger, Johann * and Elza Yordanova. Institut für

Paläontologie, Universität Wien, A-1090 Wien, Austria.

Email: johann.hohenegger@univie.ac.at

Larger Foraminifera living on coral reef slopes show strong

habitat differences. Since all house symbiotic algae, light

attenuation and water energy are the most important limiting

factor that must be dealt with test structures. The local

topography influences the hydrodynamic regime leading to

various substrates. Since all factors correspond to depth,

species are restricted to small intervals along the depth

gradient. A sequence of assemblages correlated to an

environmental factor is called a coenocline. Comparisons

between living and death assemblages of larger foraminifera

are carried out at a NW-Pacific island slope. Transport is

estimated by comparing relative frequencies between living

individuals and empty tests. The complex slope topography

leads to allochthonous specimens that additionally hamper the

relation between coenoclines of living individuals (bio-coenoclines)

and empty tests (tapho-coenoclines) based on

depth displacement. On the one hand, specimens living in

backreef regions are transported into the fore reef areas during

waning tropical cyclones, while elements of relict sediments,

on the other, are reworked in the deeper slope during these

episodic events. Both factors, in combination with down-slope

transport and slope inclination, disguise the clear depth

dependence of living larger foraminifers as manifested in bio-coenoclines.

BIOLOGICAL VERSUS GEOLOGICAL REEF

COMMUNITIES AT BUCK ISLAND, U.S. VIRGIN

ISLANDS.

Hubbard, D.K.*, Bythell, J., Gladfelter, E. Dept of

Geology-Oberlin College, Oberlin, OH, USA, 44074. Email:

dennishubbard@oberlin.edu

Both distribution and abundance of corals in seven cores

from Buck Island National Reef Monument are similar to the

patterns quantified by over two decades of repeated surveys.

In addition, differences in accretionary styles in the northern

versus southern reefs over the past 7000 years mimic

differences in present coral-community structure. Along the

northern reef, protected from most major storms, the zonation

pattern is well-delineated with few corals from one zone being

found in others. Along the more frequently disturbed southern

reef, coral zonation was mixed in the cores, as it is on the reef

today. The distribution of Acropora palmata in cores

compares best with the 1976 survey conducted before the

devastation of the A. palmata community by White Band

Disease. This may suggest that such afflictions are relatively

new to Caribbean coral reefs. The core data largely agree with

averaged patterns seen over the duration of the survey; they

often are at odds with individual surveys. This points out both

the short-term plasticity of the reef community and the

importance of a well-constrained and longer-term data base

when addressing questions about either long-term reef stability

or the importance of recent changes seen on reefs throughout

the Caribbean, and probably elsewhere.

TAPHONOMIC COMPARISON OF MIDDLE EOCENE-EARLY

OLIGOCENE CARBONATES.

Nebelsick J.*, Bassi, Rasser. *Inst. Geology &

Palaeontology, Univ. Tübingen. Sigwartstr. 10, D-72076

Tübingen. Email: nebelsick@uni-tuebingen.de

The middle Eocene to Early Oligocene time period is

generally recognized for its paucity of coral reefs and rapid

change-over of major carbonate facies types. We have

analyzed different taphonomic aspects of the major facies

types recognized in circum-alpine, middle Eocene to Early

Oligocene carbonates. These carbonates are characterized by a

wide variety of facies types dominated not only by larger

foraminifera, but also coralline algae, corals and bryozoans.

Important changes of facies composition and distribution are

caused by extinction events of larger foraminiferal taxa

(alveolinids, large Nummulites, Orbitolites and

orthophragminids) and the development of other facies types.

Reefs as such do not constitute a major facies type and

carbonate build-ups seem to be restricted to coral patches and

thicket as well as larger foraminiferal banks. We use a

microtaphofacies approach, analyzing such factors as

disarticulation, fragmentation, abrasion, bioerosion and

encrustation which are readily recognizable in thin section

analysis. This comparison shows important differences in

taphonomic signatures which can be related to variations in the

skeletal morphology of the constituent components as well as

general depositional environment. These differences of

preservation should help in the general ecological

interpretation of different facies types. This approach can also

contribute to answering questions concerning the paucity of

reef formation and rapid change-over of facies types formed

during this important transitional time in the general

development of carbonate facies and reefs..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A8: Palaeoecology

52

PREDICTING REEF AND SURROUNDING

ENVIRONMENTS FROM THE TAPHONOMIC

CONDITION OF MOLLUSK REMAINS.

Parsons-Hubbard, K.M., *Oberlin College, Oberlin, OH

44074, Email: karla.hubbard@oberlin.edu

Reef-related zonation patterns are difficult to decipher in the

record of fossil reefs. Much of the argument over the

classification of ancient reefs has centered around the

determination of reef core vs. flank beds and surrounding

environments. As the "framework" in the reef core is

increasingly composed of in-situ but disturbed colonies and

debris, it becomes more difficult to differentiate the core from

flank deposits and surrounding associated environments. What

would help is a biomarker that is sensitive to subtle

environmental differences between the reef and these

surrounding areas. Hundreds of mollusk remains were

collected from the open shelf, reef proper, back reef, sandy

lagoon, sea-grass bed, mud-bottom, and beach on the north

coast of St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. Each shell was

characterized according to breakage, color loss, surface

condition, and epibiont encrustation. Taphonomic data for each

shell sample were run through a discriminant analysis to

establish a predictive model for each of the reef-associated

environments. When "unknown" bivalve remains were

analyzed based on the model, the model predicted the correct

depositional environment more than 75% of the time for all

environments except for the grassbed (which was correctly

identified 60% of the time). Results were much more sensitive

than taxonomically-based cluster analyses for the same shells.

Because mollusks have been a common reef-associated group

throughout much of the Phanerozoic, the utility of taphofacies

analysis to interpretations of ancient reef deposits may prove to

be very useful, especially given the fact that taxonomic

identity changes, while taphonomic signatures are more

constant through time.

STORM HORIZONS WITHIN PLEISTOCENE

SHALLOW WATER REEF FACIES: LONG-TERM

RECORDS OF STORM DEPOSITION AND

COMMUNITY RESPONSE.

Perry, C.T.*. Dept. of Environmental & Geographical

Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester

M1 5GD, U.K. Email: c.t.perry@mmu.ac.uk

Changes in community composition, coral fragmentation,

and mobilisation of coral rubble and sediment, are well

documented following hurricane impacts on reef systems.

Whilst a number of modern studies have indicated the potential

for relatively rapid recovery of coral communities following

such natural disturbance events (especially via regeneration of

fragmented corals), combined anthropogenic (e.g., over-fishing,

pollution) and disease (e.g., white band disease,

Diadema die-off) events often result in both delayed recovery

and subsequent major community shifts. These may, however,

give an unbalanced (and perhaps negative) view of community

response to storm events under undisturbed post-storm

conditions. Uplifted, shallow water (Acropora palmata

dominated) facies in the Pleistocene reef terraces of Barbados

record evidence of multiple storm deposition events over

timescales (10 2 -10 4 years) that are beyond the scope of modern

studies. Storm horizons are identified using high resolution

field mapping and analysis of epilithic community successions

preserved on A. palmata rubble

HYDRODYNAMIC SELF-RIGHTING IN MANICINA

AREOLATA, A STRATEGY WITH

PALAEOECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE.

Piller, Werner E.*, B. Hubmann, B. Riegl. *Institut für

Geologie und Paläontologie, Karl-Franzens-Universität

Graz, Heinrichstraße 26, A-8010 Graz, Austria. Email:

werner.piller@kfunigraz.ac.at

The scleractinian Manicina areolata is a common coral on

Caribbean hard and soft substrata and was studied at Lee

Stocking Island (Exuma Cays, Bahamas). It is not only found

on reefs but also on bioclastic sand with seagrasses.

Investigated coralla ranged in size from 2 to 10 cm, growth

form varied from conical with round to oval cross-section to

turbinate forms with few meanders and flat oval cross-section.

The conical morphotype was usually attached to hard

substratum, while the turbinate morphotype was usually

unattached and upright, in soft substratum. In infratidal areas,

both attached and unattached turbinate forms were found in

close vicinity, however, conical attached forms were rare.

Habitats with sandy softgrounds, where free-living turbinate

morphotypes were common, were influenced by strong tidal

currents with concurrent danger of burial or "disorientation" of

the coralla. Investigations in a flume channel showed that the

colony shape itself led to passive cleaning and self-righting,

which was achieved by the flat-turbinate morphology, with a

concave side and a flat to slightly convex opposite side, under

high current speeds. The concave side, and particularly the

median lobes formed by many meandroid coralla, were the

critical morphological factors. Grooves formed in between the

lobes channelled currents in a way that scour underneath the

coral and drag produced by the lobes allowed passive self-righting.

This could be used to explain ecological strategies in

similar-shaped fossil solitary corals.

LATE EOCENE CRUSTOSE ALGAL BUILDUPS OF

THE ALPINE FORELAND - A NEW TYPE OF

CORALLINE ALGAL REEFS?

Piller, Werner E. * and Michael W. Rasser. Institute of

Geology and Paleontology, University of Graz,

Heinrichstrasse 26, A-8010 Graz, Austria. Email:

werner.piller@kfunigraz.ac.at

Late Eocene sediments of the Upper Austrian Molasse Zone

contain up to 80 m thick red algal limestones, which are

underlain by up to 40 m thick siliciclastic series. Red algal

limestone facies are dominated by Maërl sediments (i. e.,

coralline algal branches, rhodoliths, and their detritus). Up to 7

m thick crustose algal buildups develop from rhodolith

accumulations. The buildups consist of up to 0.5 - 10 mm thick

consecutive coralline algal crusts, mainly formed by

Neogoniolithon sp., as well as crustose corals; other biota, such

as peyssonneliacean algae, benthic foraminifera, bryozoans

and serpulids, are rare. Small laminar rhodoliths can occur

within the framework. Growthforms of Neogoniolithon sp.

cause considerable constructional cavities, which are filled by

finegrained bioclasts and micrite. Modern crustose algal

buildups are known from tropical to temperate environments.

Tropical and subtropical buildups are restricted to the

intertidal/shallow subtidal and usually develop from coral

reefs. Temperate buildups are known from the Northern

Atlantic and the Mediterranean. They lack corals and either

occur in the rocky intertidal or on Maërl sediments from 30 to

150 m water depth. The studied coralline algal buildups are

unique in earth history due to the combination of framework

building crustose corallines and corals within a Maërl-dominated

sediment..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A8: Palaeoecology

53

DECIPHERING CHANGE IN HOLOCENE REEF

COMMUNITIES

Precht, William F.*, Richard B. Aronson and Ian G.

Macintyre. PBS&J, 2001 NW 107 th Ave., Miami, FL

33172, Email: bprecht@pbsj.com

Coral reefs of the Caribbean have been in flux for the past

few decades. Among the changes has been the near elimination

of the dominant coral species at intermediate depths, Acropora

cervicornis (staghorn coral). Whether the transition is natural

or the result of human disturbances is a topic of strenuous

debate. To address this issue, we must ask the question, "Did

episodes of reef degradation occur in the past, before the era of

human interference, or is the current state of coral reefs unique

to our time?" Because coral reefs are both geologic and

biologic entities, it should be possible to observe the effects of

various disturbances in ecological time, detect historical

changes in the fossil record, and deduce the multi-scale

processes behind those patterns. We have undertaken a

multidisciplinary approach of this sort to decipher the

Holocene history of lagoonal reef complexes in Belize.

Catastrophic mortality of staghorn coral populations during the

1980’s was documented using standard ecological reef-monitoring

techniques. Subsurface investigation of these reefs

showed that the recent collapse of staghorn coral populations

in the Belizean lagoon is without precedent in at least the last

few millennia. The novelty of recent events suggest that the

current state of the Belizean reefs was produced by a

combination of factors unique to our times. If these Belizean

reefs are representative of the Caribbean as a whole, the

possibility of an anthropogenic role in their decline cannot be

discounted and warrants further study.

MIOCENE BIOSTROMAL CORAL FACIES (LEITHA

LIMESTONE, AUSTRIA) – LOW DIVERSITY CORAL

CARPETS AND THEIR ACTUALISTIC

INTERPRETATION.

Riegl, Bernhard*, Werner E. Piller. Institut für Geologie

und Paläontologie, Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz,

Heinrichstrasse 26, 8010 Graz, Austria. Email:

bernhard.riegl@kfunigraz.ac.at

The Leitha Limestone of Badenian age (Middle Miocene) at

the type-locality in Grosshoeflein (Burgenland, Austria) is

characterized by biostromal coral-rich strata which were re-interpreted

from an actualistic viewpoint in comparison with

Recent Caribbean and Arabian Gulf coral communities. The

investigated outcrop (quarry ”Fenk”) is interpreted as a

sequence of biostromal framebuilding coral carpets and non-framebuilding

coral communities, which alternate with

bryozoan and corallinacean calcarenites as well as bivalve

beds. A sequence of 10 coral intervals was observed, which

can be grouped into 2 coral carpet types (high carpet

framework, low bushy framework), four non-framework

communities and one bivalve/coral community. All coral

communities were dominated by Porites species. Within this

sequence, no unequivocal indication for sea-level changes at

the time of deposition was apparent. In comparison with

Recent coral systems in the Caribbean (Bahamas, Florida,

Cayman Islands) and the Arabian Gulf (Dubai, UAE), we

interpreted the different coral facies as having been deposited

in similar water depths. We assume that the facies represent

different lateral positions within the same spatially highly

complex environment which is illustrated by a distribution

map of benthic biota in the Arabian Gulf, a structurally

comparable system that illustrates what the likely lateral

distribution of the Miocene facies could have looked like.

THE CLOSURE OF THE TETHYAN SEAWAY AND ITS

INFLUENCE ON CORAL FAUNAS.

Schuster, Frithjof*. *Research Institute Senckenberg,

Senckenberganlage 25, D-60325 Frankfurt, Germany.

Email: fschuste@sngkw.uni-frankfurt.de

The closure of seaways has a profound influence on the

distribution of benthic organisms as it forms invincible

barriers. Additionally, oceanic circulation systems already

change previously to such an event. The Tethyan Gateway

which connected the Atlantic Ocean with the Tethyan Sea

during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic was closed during the Early

Miocene due to the collision of the African/Arabian plates with

the Eurasian continent. Oligocene and Early Miocene coral

faunas were investigated in the critical region now covering

the central and eastern part of the Mediterranean, NE Africa,

and the Middle East. Highly diverse Late Oligocene coral

assemblages from central Iran show marked differences to

coeval coral occurrences of the Mediterranean Tethys. Several

new species and faunal elements known only from the

Indopacific area are taken as evidence for a beginning faunal

separation as early as the Late Oligocene, a time when the

Tethyan Gateway still provided an open marine connection. A

species level based comparison of the Iranian fauna with

species known from the Mediterranean Tethys show a

correspondence of 27 per cent. The main reason for this early

faunal separation is seen in a change of the oceanic circulation

system responsible for the larval distribution of corals.

Fluctuating sea levels locally lead to evaporation phases during

the Aquitanian but renewed marine conditions prevailed until

the Burdigalian. Burdigalian coral faunas of northern Iran

(Qom Basin), Turkey (Mut Basin), and Egypt (northern Gulf

of Suez) are all very similar suggesting an open marine

connection between these regions.

BIONTS ON MOLLUSCS IN MODERN AND FOSSIL

REEFS AS USEFUL INDICATORS OF ENVIRONMENT

AND REEF HEALTH.

Walker, S.* and Gardiner, L. Department of Geology,

University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602. Email:

swalker@gly.uga.edu

Coral reef communities contain molluscs and bionts

(bioeroders and encrusters) that can be used to interpret

modern and fossil reef community diversity, associated

environments, and relative reef health. Shells of molluscs and

their associated bionts were examined along beach-to-reef

transects from two Recent sites: a stressed reef (i.e., Lindsey

Reef, LR: few living corals; algal cover dominant) and a less

stressed reef (i.e., Telephone Pole Reef, TPR: lacking

Acropora cervicornis) from San Salvador Island, Bahamas.

Most (80%) of the TPR shells had bionts, whereas 30% of the

LR shells had bionts. The TPR site had the highest biont and

mollusc diversity. The LR site was dominated by a

foraminiferan, Homotrema, and characterized by a bryozoan

species, a vermetid (Dendropoma), and a general lack of

coralline algae and bioeroders. Whereas, the TPR site was

dominated by the foraminiferan (Planorbulina), five species of

bryozoans, coralline algae, and bioeroders. We then compared

our Recent findings to fossil molluscs from a Pleistocene reef

on San Salvador Island: 80% of the fossils had remarkably

preserved bionts: Homotrema and Planorbulina were rare;

Dendropoma was relatively common; bryozoan diversity was

higher than reported here for the TPR reef; bioeroders were

relatively common..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A8: Palaeoecology

54

NOVEL PALAEOECOLOGY OF A POST EXTINCTION

REEF:FAMENNIAN (LATE DEVONIAN) OF THE

CANNING BASIN, WESTERN AUSTRALIA

Wood, R.* *Dept. of Earth Sciences, University of

Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EQ, UK.

Email: rw43@esc.cam.ac.uk

Reefs are widely supposed to be particularly susceptible to

mass extinction events, and to survive only as low-diversity,

remnant communities dominated by holdover and disaster

taxa. The Famennian (Late Devonian) reefs exposed in the

Windjana Limestone, of the Canning Basin, Northwestern

Australia demonstrate, however, that a quite novel reef

ecology was established in the immediate aftermath of the

Frasnian/Famennian mass extinction event. Here, diverse

calcimicrobes (including Rothpletzella spp., Shuguria spp.,

Ortonella, and Girvanella) together with bryozoans,

brachiopods, and stromatoporoid, sphinctozoan and lithistid

sponges, grew as complex framework intergrowths in

previously undocumented morphological forms, forming

spectacular elevated laminar to platy structures up to 3 m in

diameter and 0.35 m thick. At least fifteen morphospecies of

lithistids are now identified, where only two were previously

documented. These communities show no substantial

reduction in biodiversity compared to Frasnian counterparts,

nor any change in tiering or loss of complex ecological

interactions. These observations suggest that where stable

carbonate platforms persisted after mass extinction events,

reef-building could continue. More importantly, they

demonstrate that no protracted interval of time was necessarily

required for either recovery to ecological stability, or for

completely new reef ecologies to assemble. Such studies

highlight the need to document ecosystem recovery after mass

extinction and other catastrophic events using detailed

palaeoecological analyses in addition to simple compilations of

global biodiversity changes.

LIVING AND DEAD MOLLUSCS ON CORAL REEFS

IN THE NORTHERN RED SEA – IMPLICATIONS FOR

THE FOSSIL RECORD

Zuschin, Martin*, *Institute of Palaeontology, University

of Vienna, Althahnstr. 14, A-1090 Vienna, Austria. Email:

martin.zuschin@univie.ac.at

Reef-associated hard substrata (reef flats, reef slopes, coral

carpets, coral patches, rock grounds), were studied in order to

determine the agreement of assemblages of living and dead

shell-bearing molluscs. A total area of 340.5 m_ was

investigated and 2846 individuals were counted at 68 sample

localities ranging from shallow subtidal to 40 m water depth.

Most taxa found dead in the study area were also found live

and vice versa. Strong differences exist in the proportion of

living and dead fauna, dominant taxa, and molluscan

distribution patterns. The ratio of live to dead molluscs is high.

Living molluscs are strongly dominated by taxa with distinct

relations to corals, mainly Pedum, Coralliophila and Tridacna,

and the encrusting gastropod Dendropoma. Five distinct

groups of living molluscs can be differentiated and related to

specific hard-substrata. In contrast, the death assemblages are

always strongly dominated by encrusting bivalves, mainly

Chamoidea and Spondylidae, and cerithiid gastropods in

varying dominances. The observed bias is due to the close

relationship of molluscan life habits and post mortem history

of shells. Molluscs that live permanently attached to or within

living corals (mostly bivalves and encrusting Dendropoma)

can easily be overgrown after death by the large amounts of

living substrata available. Rapid transport of dead shells into

surrounding sediments or into crevices within corals is typical

of gastropods that feed on corals. Molluscs that colonize dead

surfaces preferentially accumulate on rock grounds..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A9: Sea Level

Session A9: Reef Response to Rapid Climate and Sea Level Change During the Late

Quaternary

55

THE RESPONSE OF CORAL REEFS TO SEA

SURFACE TEMPERATURE CHANGE: EVIDENCE

FROM THE RAISED HOLOCENE REEFS OF KIKAI-JIMA.

Abram N.J.* J.M. Webster, P.J. Davies and W.-Chr. Dullo.

School of Geosciences, Division of Geology and Geophysics,

The University of Sydney, Australia 2006. Email Address:

Nerilie.Abram@anu.edu.au

The Holocene reefs of Kikai-jima (central Ryukyu Islands,

Japan) provide a rare opportunity to define both environmental

and biological variations within a reef ecosystem over a

geological time frame. This study documents the

palaeoenvironmental records archived in the d

18 O and d

13 C

isotopic composition of four Holocene Porites cores collected

from the raised Holocene reef terraces of Kikai-jima. These

coral samples record mean sea surface temperatures (SST) of

23.5ºC at 4220yBP, falling to 22.2ºC at 3790yBP and to a

minimum of 21.4ºC at 3400yBP. After this time mean SST rose

to 23.5ºC at 1860yBP before reaching modern day conditions

of 24.9ºC. During the cool water period between 3790yBP and

3400yBP the coral isotope data indicate that SSTs were below

the currently accepted 18ºC minimum temperature for reef

development approximately 14% of the time. Ecological

variations preserved in the raised Holocene reef terraces of

Kikai-jima can be explained by these variations in Holocene

sea surface temperature.

PARADOXICAL OCCURRENCE OF CORALGAL

REEFS ON THE SOUTH TEXAS SHELF EDGE

DURING LAST DEGLACIATION.

Belopolsky A.V.* and André W. Droxler Rice U., *Dept. of

Geology & Geophysics, Houston, TX 77005. Email:

andre@rice.edu

Southern Bank, a relict coralgal reef located 55 km offshore

Corpus Christi on the edge of the South Texas Shelf, is one

among twenty individual coralgal reefs that flourished during

the first half of the last deglaciation within an embayment

between the Rio Grande and Brazos/Colorado shelf margin

lowstand deltas. The elevations of each individual reef crest

fall between - 58 and - 62 m below sea level. Single channel

seismic profiles across some of the reefs and a grid of 8 very

high resolution 24 channel seismic profiles, acquired in the

area of Southern Bank by IFREMER and Rice, demonstrate

that the thickness of the lower part of the reefal edifice, buried

in an Holocene siliciclastic mud blanket, is at least as thick as

15 to 20 m. Including the average 15 m thickness of their

outcropping part, each individual reefal edifice is, therefore,

30-50 m thick. Once established on top of lowstand

siliciclastic coastal deposits, the different coral reef edifices

flourished and were paradoxically capable of keeping up with

very fast rates of sea level rise during the first part of the

deglaciation. Moreover these reef systems grew during a time

when large volumes of fresh water were discharged into the

Gulf of Mexico through the Mississippi River due to the

melting of the Laurentide continental ice sheet. The reef

demise during the Younger Dryas can be explained by the

establishment of colder SST in the Gulf of Mexico and a

contemporaneous significant sea level fall. The reef is

expected to have drowned at the end of the Younger Dryas

when sea level rose sharply (Melt-Water Pulse-1B?). Southern

Bank is, therefore a rich source of information concerning sea-level

fluctuations, climate change, and the environmental

conditions associated with rapid reef growth in siliciclastic

marginal seas.

SOME EFFECTS OF REEF ARCHITECTURE ON SEA

LEVEL CURVES DERIVED FROM REEF CORES.

Blakeway,. D.* *Department of Geography, University of

Western Australia, Nedlands, W.A. 6907 Australia, Email:

blakeway@cyllene.uwa.edu.au

Three conditions must be met for reef growth curves derived

from core to accurately represent sea level curves: reefs must

colonise the substrate immediately it is submerged, reef growth

must keep pace with sea level, and the core must penetrate the

first-formed reef. In environments where reef colonisation

occurs in patches, and/or the topography of the growing reef is

irregular, the third condition may be difficult to achieve. In this

paper I use computer simulations to determine the extent to

which growth curves derived from such reefs may

misrepresent the actual sea level curve. The approach I have

used is to simulate reef growth under a predefined pattern of

sea level rise, then examine how closely the growth curves

derived from ‘cores’ through the reefs represent the actual sea

level curve. The results indicate that cores generally

underestimate the timing of reef colonisation and overestimate

the reef growth rate. Proxy sea level curves derived from cores

will tend to indicate a later and faster sea level rise than was

actually the case. Alternatively, if an independent regional sea

level curve already exists, reef growth will seem to lag sea

level rise, then rapidly catch up to sea level. This potential for

error should be taken into account in core-based studies of reef

growth and sea level change.

DISCOVERY OF A SUBMERGED, EARLY

HOLOCENE, RELICT REEF OFF GRAND CAYMAN: A

CASUALTY OF THE 8.2 KA COLD EVENT?

Blanchon P.*. *Coral Reef Systems Lab, U.A. Puerto

Morelos, ICMyL, National Autonomous University of

Mexico, Email: blanchon@icmyl.unam.mx

Ten short cores drilled on the eastern shelf off Grand

Cayman have revealed the presence of a relict, early Holocene,

breakwater reef at a depth of 21 m below msl. Cores from the

crest of the relict reef consist not of in-situ coral framework

but of cobbles of Acropora palmata in a matrix of skeletal

sand—a facies that is identical to the modern reef-crest

deposit. The surface of the relict reef slopes seaward from -21

to -24 m and, in some areas, is overlain by up to 1 m of mixed-coral

framework containing severely bioeroded stumps of A

palmata and other corals. In other areas, this veneer is absent

and marine abrasion has produced furrows that cut down into

the relict reef surface. Dating the reef surface gives U-Th

TIMS ages that range from 9878 ±97 to 8122 ±101 Cal. years,

indicating that reef growth had stopped by ~8.1 Cal. ka. The

depth of the relict breakwater reef around Grand Cayman is

close or identical to the depth of relict reefs reported from

other Caribbean islands. Radiocarbon dating of those reefs

indicates that they ceased accreting in a narrow window

between 7-8 14 C ka and had re-initiated in new positions 5-10

m higher up slope by 6-7 14 C ka. When the dates of reef

demise on these islands are calibrated for secular variation in

atmospheric 14 C production, the demise of relict reefs across

the Caribbean clusters around 8 Cal. ka—closely matching the

age of reef demise on Grand Cayman. The cause of this

Caribbean-wide reef demise is uncertain, but has been

previously attributed to a rapid sea-level jump caused by ice-sheet

collapse (CRE-3)..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A9: Sea Level

56

GROWTH STRATEGY OF THE UPLIFTING

POSTGLACIAL REEF OF URELAPA IN VANUATU

(SOUTHWEST PACIFIC).

Cabioch G. * , Kirsten A. Banks-Cutler, Frederick W.

Taylor, George S. Burr, Jacques Récy, Lawrence R.

Edwards, Thierry Corrège, Warren J. Beck. * IRD, BP

A5, 98.848 Nouméa cedex, Nouvelle-Calédonie. Email:

cabioch@noumea.ird.nc

The cores recovered into the uplifting reef of Urélapa at

Espiritu Santo in Vanuatu (Central Vanuatu island arc), reveals

the most continuous postglacial growth record for the last 22

kyr. The reef settled during the last glacial maximum and,

then, provide data on environmental changes during the

deglacial period in Vanuatu. The ability of reefs to grow

continuously during the last 22 kyr also provide additional

informations on the initiation and development factors of the

regional postglacial reefs. Although the plaoesea surface

temperatures were 3 to 4°C colder than the modern ones

during the former period of the sea level rise (Taylor et al.,

2000), the reef was able to settle and kept up the sea level. But

at around 11-12 ka, a clear change of biofacies informs on a

change of growth strategy, the reef catching up the sea level. In

the west Pacific, the delay in the settlement and the

development of postglacial reefs appears to depend on a lack

of suitable substrate and accomodation space. These last

factors could be dominating parameters of the postglacial reef

growth accompanying temperatures cooler than present.

GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF THE NINGALOO

REEF SYSTEM DURING THE LATE QUATERNARY.

Collins, Lindsay B.* Zhong Rong Zhu, Karl- Heinz

Wyrwoll, and Anton Eisenhauer. *School of Applied

Geology, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, 6102,

GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA, 6845. Email

head@lithos.curtin.edu.au

The Ningaloo Reef, Australia’s largest fringing reef system,

is developed for over 200 km along the western margin of the

Cape Range Anticline, an uplifted Tertiary structure. The

peninsula and its bordering reef system are flanked by a

narrow continental shelf on the west. A series of raised

Pliocene-Quaternary terraces, including an extensive Last

Interglacial reef terrace (the Tantabiddi Terrace) landward of

the reef. The reef system extends from 21.5 to 24°S and is

fully tropical. The Leeuwin Current is an important influence

on the regional oceanography. Seismic profiles suggest a

maximum Holocene reef thickness of <20 m. Most reef

development is in depths <35m. An interpreted drowned reef

crest is also evident to seaward of the present reef.

Stratigraphic data are available for the northern part of the reef,

from short cores and from a 26m core drilled in immediately

seaward of the reef crest. The cored section showed 7m of

Holocene reef (giving a projected Holocene thickness of 18m

at the reef crest), underlain by 12 m of Last Interglacial reef,

which was in turn underlain by coarse skeletal grainstone.

These data indicate that Holocene reef growth (basal age of the

cored Holocene reef is 7.57 ka U/Th) recolonised the

Tantabiddi Terrace (Last Interglacial reef) near its submerged,

seaward margin, and is relatively thin. The envelope of Last

Interglacial U/Th reef ages (115-120 ka) in the cored section

(at SL -18 to -36 m) postdates the Last Interglacial highstand

reef deposits (125 ka at SL+ 2m), suggesting that this

submerged, distal part of the Tantabiddi Terrace grew under

post-highstand conditions of falling sea level.

FORWARD MODELLING OF THE GROWTH OF A

POSTGLACIAL BARRIER REEF SYSTEM (TAHITI,

FRENCH POLYNESIA)

Dalmasso, H.., L. Montaggioni *, G. Cabioch, G. Camoin,

D. Bosence. *Centre de Sédimentologie et Paléontologie.

UPRESA-CNRS 6019. Université de Provence. 3, Place

Victor Hugo. 13331 Marseille Email : reef@newsup.univ-mrs.

fr

A numerical model CARBONATE developed by Bosence

and Waltham (1990), is used to investigate the reef growth

patterns of a Tahitian barrier reef for the last 14 kyr. The

dataset comes from previous chronostratigraphical and

paleoecological works by Bard et al. (1996), Montaggioni et

al. (1997), Cabioch et al. (1999). The main input parameters

include (1) initial surface, (2) sea-level changes, (3) carbonate

production rates. The basic predicted initial surface was purely

speculative. Two variants of the sea-level curve were used (1)

a regularly rising sea-level ; (2) a sea-level integrating the

Meltwater Pulse 1B (11,5-10,5 ka B.P.). Rates of carbonate

production ranges from 6 to 20.6 m kyr -1 . Carbonate

production is assumed to be dependent only on depth and not

to vary laterally. The facies distribution was output from four

coralgal assemblages, diagnostic in terms of water depth

range : 0-5 , 5-15 , 15-25 and deeper than 25 m. The predicted

facies distribution is in good agreement with the natural

depositional environnements.

WORLDWIDE MODERN BARRIER REEF

ESTABLISHMENT, OPTIMUM NERITIC CaCO3

PRODUCTION, AND DISSOLUTION OF

PERIPLATFORM/PELAGIC CaCO3 IN THE MID-BRUNHES.

Droxler, A.W.*, *Rice University, Dept. of Geology &

Geophysics, Houston, TX 77005. Email: andre@rice.edu

Results of our research along the Belize margin point out

that, as for other modern barrier reefs offshore Northeast

Australia, South Florida, and Southeast Asia, the Belize

Barrier Reef appears to represent young (late Pleistocene) and

thin carbonate sedimentary deposits covering a series of

prograding siliciclastic paleo coastlines (deltas and possibly

beach ridges). The mid-Brunhes interval (interglacial marine

isotope stage MIS 11 - 463-362 KA) is also characterized by

optimum production of CaCO3 banks (Bahamas, Maldives, and

Queensland Plateau). These findings are explained by MIS 11

warmer climates and overall flooding of tropical paleo fluvial

plains and tops of carbonate banks caused by the first

exceptionally high amplitude (more than 100 m) late

Pleistocene sea level transgressions since the onset of the main

northern Hemisphere glaciations 2.8 Ma. In contrast, the late

Pliocene and early Pleistocene were characterized by an

overall lowering of the marine base level tied to the

establishment and the expansion of the northern hemisphere

major continental ice sheets. Massive accumulations of neritic

CaCO3 at low latitudes in a relatively short time are expected

to have dramatically modified the oceanic carbonate mass

balance, decreased the [CO3 = ] in the water column, and can

explain an interval, centered around MIS 11, marked by a clear

global dissolution pulse from subthermocline to abyssal

depths..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A9: Sea Level

57

LATE HOLOCENE SEA-LEVEL VARIATIONS AND

CONGLOMERATE PLATFORM FORMATION AT

THE CHAGOS ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN

Dullo, Wolf-Christian .* Anton Eisenhauer * GEOMAR

Research Center for Marine Geosciences, Wischhofstrasse

1-3, 24148 Kiel/Germany. Email: cdullo@geomar.de

Emerged conglomerate platforms extending up to 100 m and

more seawards belong to the most interesting geological

features of the Chagos and other Indian Ocean atolls. In order

to constrain the formation and timing of their horizontal

progradation we dated fossil corals from various platforms of

the Chagos Islands applying the U/Th mass-spectrometry

technique. Seven out of eleven coral ages cluster in a narrow

time frame from about 2.8 to 3.8 ka B.P.. This chronological

information is in accordance with independent observations

from other Indian Ocean islands showing a similar age

distribution. A qualitative model discusses the formation of

these platforms in the light of the generally decreasing Indian

Ocean sea level since about 6.5 ka. The prominent cluster of

coral ages is then interpreted as to reflect a time of intense

coral growth and horizontal reef progradation due to a

relatively stable sea level above its present position,

corresponding to a time of generally warmer climate from

about 2.8 to 4.3 ka B.P.. Only a few and scattered coral ages

fall along the period before (6.5 to 4.3 ka B.P.) and after (2.8

ka B.P. to present) the prominent time interval of enhanced

platform formation. This scattered coral ages may reflect

periods of rapid sea level oscillations or may be interpreted as

fossil corals displaced from their original position.

CORAL GROWTH DURING RAPID SEA-LEVEL

CHANGES.

Esat Tezer M*. Department of Geology, The Australian

National University, Canberra ACT 0200. Email:

tezer.esat@anu.edu.au

Rapid sea-level change over the last glacial period and

during glacial to interglacial transitions has been established as

a recurrent mode of climate variability. Because of this, at

uplifting sites such as the Huon Peninsula, the previously held

views of reef growth patterns have had to be revised. The most

prominent Terrace at Huon represents the Last Interglacial

(5e), often situated at elevations beyond 200 m above present

sea-level, with other, lower elevation, major terraces

representing stages 5a, 5c and stage 3. Recent dating of these

terraces reveal that the structure of 5e extends below stages 5a

and 5c, and possibly underlies a part of stage 3. Therefore,

corals that grew during periods of rapid sea level oscillation

through the stage 6 to 5 transition are now overlain by coral

terraces of stages 5a and 5c. However, these corals can be

accessed at many locations through caves and patchy cover of

younger overlain reefs. Some corals collected and dated from

terraces representing stages 5a and 5c have much older ages

relating to an earlier sea-level history. In particular, we have

located a number of well preserved corals in a large cave

overlain by stage 5c corals. The cave appears to have corals

that represent at least four sea-level transgressions through the

same location, but at effectively different elevations due to

rapid uplift, over a period from 145 ka to about 90 ka. This

finding highlights the complexity of the coral record in an era

dominated by rapid climate change but also the opportunity it

presents for documenting rapid sea-level changes. I will

discuss the sea-level curve we have derived from this record

and compare it with sea levels during the stage 2 to 1

transition.

AGGRADATION OF THE OAHU CARBONATE

SYSTEM IN THE LATE QUATERNARY.

Fletcher C.*, Clark Sherman, Eric Grossman, Jodi

Harney, Colin Murray-Wallace, Ken Rubin. *University of

Hawaii, Department of Geology and Geophysics, 1680 East

West Rd., Honolulu, HI, USA 96822 Email:

fletcher@soest.hawaii.edu

The Oahu insular shelf, Hawaiian Islands, is a gently-dipping

terrace (depth 0 to ~20 m) ending in a seaward-facing vertical

wall (depth ~20 to 30 m). Cored facies indicate it is a fossil

reef complex. Th-U ages of in situ corals date to MIS 7

(223.3±1.4 to 202.7±1.9 kyrs: d

234 Ui 145 to 165‰). Named the

Waianae Reef, it formed when paleosea-level was -14 to -18

m. Later accretion occurred along the seaward front of the

Waianae Reef in late MIS 5 (110.1±7 to 82.8±5 kyrs: d

234 Ui

145 to 165‰). Stage 5 corals formed when sea level was

below present. The terrace front displays a prominent fossil

intertidal notch at –24 m, potentially marking the fall of late

Stage 5 sea levels or a melt-water pulsed jump during the early

Holocene. Holocene accretion is limited by accommodation

space and flexural uplift. Where antecedent relief and wave

energy shadowing provides for Holocene growth, accretion

opportunistically infills the karstified basement beginning in

the range 8 to 9 kyrs. Both “catch-up” and “keep-up” Holocene

facies are observed. Carbonate eolian deposits correlate largely

to late Stage 5 and Holocene time based on AAR analyses.

Unconsolidated beach and shoreface sands are typically fossil,

with ~70% dating 0.5 to 4.5 kyrs and ~12% of modern age.

AGE, STRUCTURE AND CORAL COMMUNITY OF AN

OFFSHORE REEF PLATFORM, EGYPT, RED SEA

Fletcher C.*, Mathew Barbee, Christopher Conger, Dolan

Eversole, Eric Grossman, Jodi Harney, John Rooney,

Clark Sherman.

University of Hawaii, Department of Geology and

Geophysics, 1680 East West Rd., Honolulu, HI, USA 96822

fletcher@soest.hawaii.edu

Located 7 km offshore the southern Egyptian mainland,

Geziret Suyul is a carbonate reef platform of approximately 12

km

2

, one in a chain characterizing this coast. A small parabolic

cay of well-sorted fine to medium carbonate sand, oriented

along strike of the dominate NW trade winds (300 – 320

o

), is

the only emergent feature at high tide. The majority of the

platform surface is characterized by presently intertidal fossil

reef-framework facies (indicating a fall in relative sea level),

carbonate sand shoals responding to tidal and wave-driven

currents, beachrock, and coralgal flats with increasing coral

cover toward leeward and windward margins. Platform slopes

are characterized by sand chutes and fields, limestone

outcrops, soft corals, algal turfs, and scleractinian corals.

Shallow (0 to 10 m) coral communities are characterized by

abundant (>10%) Porites sp. (lobata, lutea, rus, solida),

Acropora sp. (digitifera, hemprichii, nasuta, valenciennesi,

valida), Pocillopora verrucosa, and Montipora informis;

deeper communities (10 to 40 m) have abundant Porites sp.

(lobata, lutea, rus, solida), Montipora sp. (danae, informis),

Pocillopora verrucosa, Goniastrea edwardsi, and Acropora

valida. Wireline cores with a maximum penetration of 15 m

provide the internal structure (largely algal-dominated with

coral-rich facies of “catch-up” behavior) and age (prob. Early

Middle Holocene: samples still under analysis) of the platform

interior..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A9: Sea Level

58

LATE QUATERNARY HISTORY OF REEF

ACCRETION AND DIAGENESIS AT KWAJALEIN

ATOLL, MARSHALL ISLANDS.

Gray, S.C.*, Lewis, S., and Hunt, C.D., Jr. *Marine and

Environmental Studies, University of San Diego, 5998

Alcala Park, San Diego, CA, U.S.A.

Email:sgray@acusd.edu

The relationship between reef growth, sea-level change, and

diagenesis during the Holocene and late Pleistocene was

investigated through a lithologic, petrographic, mineralogic

and AMS 14 C dating study of two cores drilled into a rim islet

of Kwajalein Atoll, Marshall Islands. XRD and petrographic

analyses revealed that the Holocene reef is primarily aragonite

with some high-magnesium calcite. Secondary low-magnesium

calcite and primary aragonite (without low Mg

calcite) characterize the mineralogy of the Pleistocene reef

platform. Reservoir corrected AMS 14 C ages indicate that a

Holocene reef was established at Kwajalein 7030 +/- 75 years

B.P. on a Pleistocene reef platform, which is presently 25-27

m below sea level. Comparison of 14 C ages of the deepest

corals to published sea-level curves suggests Holocene reefs

colonized Pleistocene substrates relatively soon after flooding

of the platform. Subsequently, reef growth lagged behind sea-level

rise until the outer reef rims reached sea-level. The

average rate of reef accretion over the past 7030 years was 3.3

+/- 0.3 m/1000 years. Average reef accretion rates were

higher (5.8 m/1000 yrs.) between 7030 and 4795 yrs. B.P.

when reef growth was "catching up" to rapidly rising sea level.

The islet formed more recently than 1140 yrs. B.P. The depth

of the Holocene/Pleistocene boundary at Kwajalein is deeper

than the boundary reported for Enewetak or other Pacific atolls

in “tectonically stable” environments (e.g., Cook Islands,

Tarawa, Mururoa) where Holocene reefs colonized submerged

Last Interglacial reefs.

SUBMERGED PLEISTOCENE COASTAL LAKES AND

DROWNED REEFS IN HAWAII

Grigg, Richard W.* Earle, Sylvia A; Gittings, Stephen R;

Evans, Kip; Lott, Dave; and McDonough, John. *Dept. of

Oceanography, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii.

Email: rgrigg@iniki.soest.hawaii.edu

At the last glacial maximum (LGM), about 21,000 years ago,

the Hawaiian Islands of Maui, Lanai and Molokai were inter-connected

by two karstified limestone bridges creating a super-island

that has been named, Maui-Nui. Approximately 120

meters of sea-level rise during the Holocene Transgression

flooded and then drowned both bridges separating the islands

by narrow channels. A new multibeam high resolution

bathymetric survey of the channels between the islands,

coupled with observations and video transects utilizing

DeepWorker 2000 submersibles, have revealed the existence

of numerous drowned reef features including irregular

concentric basins, ribbon reefs, reticulate ramparts, patch reefs

and reef pinnacles. The concentric basins contain flat lagoon-like

bottoms and are rimmed by steep sided limestone walls.

Many of the walls are incised by horizontally oriented notches,

possibly eroded by former sea or lake levels. At one stage or

another during the transgression, all of the basins appear to

have been shallow shoreline lakes. Today, the undercut

notches serve as habitat for two species of commercially

harvested black coral (Antipathes dichotoma and A. grandis)

and bottom fish.

CARIBBEAN-WIDE LOSS OF A. PALMATA 7,000 YR

AGO: SEA-LEVEL CHANGE, STRESS, OR BUSINESS

AS USUAL?

Hubbard, D.K.*, Gill, I.P., Burke, R.B. Dept of Geology-Oberlin

College, Oberlin, OH, USA, 44074. Email:

dennis.hubbard@oberlin.edu

Cores through shelf-edge reefs at 3 Caribbean sites (U.S.

Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Florida) show similar depositional

histories. A. palmata reefs developed at the shelf break shortly

after flooding (ca. 10,000 ybp - cal 14 C age). Approximately

7,000 ypb, accretion stopped at all three sites and the locus of

reef development shifted 4-10 km landward to head-coral

reefs. These three examples closely match patterns of ancient

“backstepped reefs”. A survey of A. palmata dates from the

Caribbean reef literature indicates a near or total disappearance

of A. palmata from the Caribbean at this time. The

synchronicity between sites with widely varying

oceanographic/sedimentary settings argues for an extrinsic

control. However, no evidence for a rapid rise in sea level

exists. Closely spaced cores yield different stratigraphic

sequences (i.e., local environmental controls dominate over

any sea-level signal). Data to implicate disease, inimical

waters, or other factors commonly equated with “give-up”

reefs are equivocal. A computer model based on the average

rate of sea-level rise at the time and calcification rates from

these and nearby reefs closely matched the actual “start-up”

and “give-up” times, measured rates of accretion (cores), and

the ultimate reef thickness at all three sites without a sudden

and rapid rise in sea level. Perhaps we should not be using

such events in the geologic past as universal indicators of

drastic environmental or climatic change.

SKIPPED REEF INITIATION AND DELAYED REEF-SLOPE

FORMATION DURING RAPID SEA-LEVEL

RISE AT HIGH-LATITUDE, KUME ISLAND,

RYUKYUS.

Kan, H.*, Nakashima, Y., Takahashi, T., Koba, M.,

Adachi, H., Naito, G. Faculty of Education, Okayama

University, Okayama 700-8530, JAPAN. Email:

kan@cc.okayama-u.ac.jp

Seventeen drill cores from Kume Island located 26°20'N in

the central Ryukyus exhibit a significant reef initiation and

growth sequence during Holocene sea-level rise at high-latitude.

Reef started to grow in 7470yBP at –15m and

7380yBP at –10m to form the present reef-flat where tabular

Acropora assemblages accumulated at the average rate of

4m/ka. However, initiation occurred in 6250yBP at –20m

beneath the reef-slope terrace where massive coral assemblage

is accumulating at the rate of 1 to 2m/ka. Although –20m

substratum had been provided at an appropriate depth before

7500yBP, reefs skipped it under the rapid sea-level rise and

started to grow on the shallower landward substrate at

7500yBP. It contrasts to the early initiation and continuous or

give-up reef growth sequences in tropical region. Our result

implies the high-latitude reefs would not possibly respond to

further rapid sea-level jump immediately..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A9: Sea Level

59

THE ROLE OF SEA LEVEL ON THE EVOLUTION OF

BRAZILIAN REEFS DURING LATE QUATERNARY.

Leão Zelinda M. A. N.* and Ruy K. P. Kikuchi.

Laboratório de Estudos Costeiros, Universidade Federal da

Bahia, Rua Caetano Moura 123, Salvador 40210-340,

Bahia, Brazil. Email: zelinda@ufba.br

Holocene reef growth, in Brazil, began as early as 7220 cal

yrs B.P. (calibrated years before present), a further evidence

that reef initiation, after 8000 yrs B.P., was a global scale

event. But the last post-glacial sea level oscillations that

occurred along the coast of Brazil, left distinctive imprints on

the development of the reefs. A drowned phase must have

occurred during early Holocene, before the 5100 yrs B.P.

maximum sea level (+5m above present position), which

characterizes the “give-up” facies of coralline algae rhodoliths

developed above submerged reefs found at the shelf edge. At

the inner shelf initial reef growth follows the “catch-up”

pattern of vertical accumulation of the reef structures, and this

occurred when sea level was already at or above its present

position. This reef growth phase is characterized by a vigorous

and rapid upward accretion reflected by reef accumulation

rates in the order of 7 mm/y. An ultimate stage started when

the reef structures reached sea level and from then to the

Present, during the regressive phase of sea level, the

development of nearshore reefs is characterized by a passage

from a phase of reef aggradation to their dominant lateral

growth. This period responds for the sub-aerial exposure of the

top of the reefs, which are now subject to heavy sedimentation,

high levels of turbidity and the intertidal reef community to

intense solar radiation.

LOCAL EXTINCTION OF ACROPORA CORAL

SPECIES ON NIUE ISLAND (SOUTH PACIFIC)

DURING A REGRESSION CAUSED BY TECTONIC

UPLIFT.

Paulay, Gustav * and Carden C. Wallace. *Florida

Museum of Natural History, University of Florida,

Gainesville FL 32611-7800. Email: paulay@flmnh.ufl.edu

Like other remote islands of the south Pacific, Niue enjoyed

a greater diversity of reef corals of the genus Acropora during

the Plio-Pleistocene than is currently present on its reefs. This

is demonstrated from a comparison of fossil assemblages from

the fossil lagoon and fore reef of this uplifted atoll, with living

assemblages that now inhabit its narrow fringing reef system.

Several widespread Indo-Pacific species absent today occur as

fossils. Several of the local extinctions may be attributed to

loss of, and changes in, habitats accompanying the Pleistocene

uplift of the island. The uplift transformed Niue from a large

atoll with a shallow lagoon, to an emergent limestone island,

with consequent loss of all lagoonal habitats. The local

extinction shown by Acropora and other faunal elements

provides a model for what happened to the faunas of central

Pacific islands in general during each glacio-eustatic

regression in the Pleistocene. The absence of some species

may not be attributable to habitat loss, as suitable habitats

remain, even if reduced in extent. Failed recolonization of

these, in particular the larval-brooding, species, may be a result

of the isolation of the island and the unstable nature of

upstream distributional boundaries. A caution is taken against

interpreting biogeographic events based on current surveys and

models based on simple ecological processes.

PLEISTOCENE (5e) SEA LEVEL DECIPHERED FROM

DETAILED STRATIGRAPHY OF CORAL REEF

SEQUENCES:

Precht, William F. * PBS&J, 2001 NW 107 th Ave., Miami,

FL 33172, Email: bprecht@pbsj.com

Exposures of reefal limestones from the Pleistocene

(Sangamon, Marine Isotope Stage 5e) of Jamaica present an

opportunity to evaluate the stratigraphic history relative to

high-order eustatic changes in sea level. Outcrops from

localities on both the northern and western coast show similar

relationships between relative sea level history, sedimentary

sequences, internal facies mosaics, and subsequent

overprinting by diagenetic processes. Evaluation of wholly

preserved stratigraphic sections indicate that, vertically, the

Sangamon is composed of three discrete shallowing-upward

depositional stages, which can be correlated within and

between complexes. This stratigraphic evidence strongly

suggests the occurrence of a triple-high sea stand during the

last major interglacial maximum. The three pronounced reefal

sequences appear to be correlative with warm substages 5e5,

5e3 and 5e1 of the Greenland Ice-Core Project (GRIP),

respectively. The lower two sequences are separated by a

distinct stratigraphic discontinuity. This surface represents a

drop in relative sea level in the middle of Stage 5e and is

marked by indicators of subaerial exposure. This surface is

correlative with cool substage 5e4 from the GRIP.

RESPONSE OF ALGAL REEFS TO SEA LEVEL

CHANGES AND CLIMATE DURING THE LATE

QUATERNARY ALONG THE WESTERN

CONTINENTAL MARGIN OF INDIA.

Rao, Purnachandra V.*, L. Montaggioni, K.H. Vora and F.

Almeida *National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula

– 403 004, Goa, India. Email: esa6019@newsup.univ-mrs.fr

Bathymetric and shallow seismic studies on the outer

continental shelf off western India, at depths between 75 and

110 m, indicate the presence of pinnacles and reef-like

structures, 4 m to 14 m high. Carbonate nodules are the

predominant samples recovered from these geomorphic

features and range from 8,000 to 12,000 years B.P. in age.

Three types of nodules occur (1) foraminifera - dominated with

Discogypsina, Gypsina plana, Rupertina stabilis, Homotrema

ruber. (2) coralline algae – dominated, with Lithophyllum,

Lithothamnium, Spirolithon, Mesophyllum, Porolithon,

Hydrolithon, Lithoporella (3) mixed, encrusting foraminifera

and coralline algae. Ferruginized coral chunks, belonging to

Porites, have been recovered from two pinnacles located at

105 and 110 m depth off Mangalore ; their 14 C ages are 12,180

and 13,270 years B.P. On the carbonate platform, mound-shaped

structures, resembling bioherms, are common. The

limestones recovered from the mound-shaped structures

contain abundant Halimeda grains and faecal pellets. Faecal

pellets corespond to Palaxius genus of Thalassinidea tribe,

Palaxius habanensis, P. decum lunulatus, Upogebia deltura,

Favreina salevensis. The age of the limestones ranges from

9,200 to 8,400 years B.P. The timing and growth conditions of

the algal and foraminiferal nodules were correlated to climatic

conditions and glacio-eustatic sea level positions during the

late Quaternary. Ecological succession of different organisms

implies changes in light and nutrient conditions during their

formation..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A9: Sea Level

60

GROWTH HISTORY OF THE HOLOCENE RAISED

CORAL REEF AT KIKAI ISLAND OF THE CENTRAL

RYUKYUS, SOUTHWESTERN JAPAN.

Sasaki K* and Omura, Akio. *LLRL, Kanazawa Univ.,

Ishikawa 923-1224, Japan. Email: sasak1@llrl.ku-unet.

ocn.ne.jp

Holocene raised coral reefs are developed encircling the

whole island of Kikai, central Ryukyus, southwestern Japan,

which has been uplifted since the last interglacial maximum. It

is thus possible to discuss a pattern of reef growth in response

to relative sea level change. The well-developed raised reef at

the northeastern coast was investigated by using five cores

drilled throughout the Holocene sediments with high recovery

(> 70%). The total of thirty-one corals was dated by the _-spectrometric

230 Th/234 U method. The Holocene reef, underlain

directly by unconsolidated Plio-Pleistocene mudstone, is

composed of two lithologic units with the maximum thickness

of 25.8 m and age of 9.56±0.15 ka. The lower unit is consisted

of a mixture of terrestrial grains derived from the basal

mudstone and limestone with Holocene bioclastics in contrast

to the upper reef limestone unit representing a typical reef

zonation of coral community. A distinct time lag between the

maximum transgression at 7.5 ka and facies change to the

upper limestone at 6.6 ka indicates that a regression-induced

reduction of terrigenous inputs has triggered the rapid growth

of Holocene reef under the low-turbidity condition. After

catching up with the sea level, the reef was emerged by

episodic uplift events. During the stage of regression, spurs

were prograded and grooves were buried and cemented to

facilitate a characteristic process of physical erosion at the

level of mean high-tide, which constructed continuous terrace

surfaces carving into the main reef slope dominated by the

spur-groove system.

LATE HOLOCENE SEA-LEVEL CHANGES AND

TECTONIC UPLIFT AT KIKAI-JIMA, RYUKYU

ISLANDS, JAPAN

Sugihara, K. * , T. Nakamori, Y. Iryu * Fukuoka Univ.,

Fukuoka, JAPAN, Email: sugihara@fukuoka-u.ac.jp

Kikai-jima (Kikai Island) is surrounded by four Holocene

raised coral reef terraces, which are thought to be an offlapping

sequence of reef deposits caused by combined effects of

seismic uplifts and Holocene sea-level changes. Many studies

have been conducted to discuss Holocene sea-level changes

and reef growths, but there are relatively few references in

which reliable paleobathymeters (sea-level indicators) were

given. We have found that Pocillopora verrucosa, one of the

most abundant coral species on the upper reef slope of fringing

reefs in the Ryukyus, is overwhelmingly dominant in the

shallowest part of reef slope (< 2 m deep) in Kikai-jima.

Therefore, this species is considered to be available as a

dipstick for the Holocene reef deposits in this island. Our

results, combined with hitherto known and new radiometric

dates (109 dates in total), clearly show that the four terraces

were formed in response to 4 repeated tectonic uplifts (at

approximately 7, 4, 3, and 1.5 ka) and that the sea-level was

about 1.5 to 2 m higher at about 6-7 ka than the present.

RESPONSE OF SOUTHEAST FLORIDA AND

BAHAMAS HOLOCENE RELICT REEFS TO

DEGLACIAL SEA-LEVEL RISE. Toscano, M. A.*

Macintyre, I. G.. *NOAA/NESDIS/ORA/ORAD E/RA3,

NOAA Science Center Rm 711, 5200 Auth Road, Camp

Springs, MD 20746 USA. Email:

mtoscano@nesdis.noaa.gov

One hundred sixteen (116) high-quality dates from samples

collected off the southeast coast of Florida, Bahamas, USVI,

Panama, and Belize (16 TIMS U-TH coral, 49 14 C coral, and

51 14 C peat dates) provide a detailed record of coral-reef

accumulation in response to sea-level rise over the last 10.6 ka.

South of Miami at Sand Key and Carysfort Outlier Reefs,

Holocene framework dates from 9-5 ka, at depths of d20 to

d7m. North of Miami, three shore-parallel ridges preserve

Holocene reefs ranging in age from 10.6 to 8.0 Cal kaBP

(lower ridge; d27 to –16.5 m MSL) and 7.4 to 6.8 Cal kaBP

(upper ridge; d9.5 to –7.8 m MSL). Dated mangrove peats that

closely tract sea-level positions record initial flooding of the

Florida shelf at about 8.5 Cal kaBP, which immediately

predates the demise of the lower outlier reef tract near Miami.

The Sand Key profile stopped accreting at 6.9 ka. Only the

Carysfort profile survived to 5 ka in a protected area. A

shallower d5.5 to –7.3 m) reef tract on the eastern edge of the

northern Bahamas experienced a similar die-off around 3.9 Cal

kaBP when the back-reef platform was flooded. Because post-10.6

ka sea-level rise rates are well within the range of

Acropora palmata framework accumulation rates, any gaps

specifically in the record of A. palmata must be accounted for

by coincidence with platform flooding, local

environmental/climatological constraints, or missing data,

rather than by reef drowning related to sudden pulses of sea-level

rise in the last 8000 years.

THE RESPONSE OF CORAL REEFS TO SEA-LEVEL

CHANGE : EVIDENCE FROM THE RAISED

HOLOCENE REEFS AT KIKAI-JIMA.

Webster J.M. * , and P. J. Davies. *School of Geosciences,

Division of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney

2006. Australia. Email: jody@es.su.oz.au

Kikai-jima (central Ryukyu Islands, Japan) is fringed by

exposed terraces of Holocene reefs, formed by periodic local

tectonic uplift associated with regional subduction/collision.

The terraces form four topographically distinct features (TI-IV)

around the island and represent reefs that grew to sea-level

at 9000-6065 y BP, 6065-3390 y BP, 3790-2630 y BP, and

2870 to 1550 y BP. The reef terraces were uplifted sequentially

around 6050 y BP (4 m), 3390-3790 y BP (2.5 m), 2630-2870

y BP (1 m) and 1550 y BP (2.5 m). Five locations were studied

to define reef development in response to rapid periodic

relative sea-level fall and different stillstand recovery periods.

Significant horizontal variations in total coral abundance,

genera number, diversity, eveness and the coverage density of

Acropora sp. and Faviids occur both within and between the

terraces. Stratigraphically, drill core and outcrop data record

shallowing upward sequences characterised by tabulate

Acropora sp. overlying massive Porites sp. and Faviids. These

biological variations represent growth strategies responding to

initial colonisation, episodic perturbation (relative sea-level

fall) and differing recovery times during stillstands, and

indicate a reef ecosystem stable and strong enough to recover

after substantial perturbations..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A10:Turbid Environments

Session A10: Coral Reefs in Turbid Environments: Geological and Ecological

Significance

61

ADAPTATION OF CORAL REEFS IN A MARGINAL

ENVIRONMENT.

Bak, RPM , Meesters, EH. *NIOZ, P.O. Box 59, 1790 AB

Den Burg, The Netherlands. Email: rbak@nioz.nl

Coral reefs are known to flourish typically in clear

oligotrophic waters but, contrary to this dogma, many reefs

occur under marginal conditions such as high turbidity and/or

high sedimentation environments. The question we pose is:

how are reefs adapted to such marginal environments? As a

model system we studied the reefs of the turbid Bay of Banten,

NW Java, Indonesia. Reef surveys (transects) along a string of

islands showed changes in community characteristics (inshore-offshore):

Coral colony partial mortality decreased, coral cover

and species richness increased. Asexual recruitment was

dominant on all reefs, but sexual recruitment was still

occurring (~10%). High turbidity (k' = 0.17-1.26) and

sedimentation (2.5-63 mg cm -2 day -1 ) did not correlate with reef

development. Resuspension of bottom sediments, possibly

preventing negative effects of sedimentation, paralleled

patterns in reef development. Variation also occurred at the

level of the coral organism. Chlorophyll a levels were high in

coral colonies (Porites massive) in turbid conditions compared

to less turbid conditions (depth < 4m, 36 versus 15 mg cm -2 ).

Most of the changes in community structure are probably the

result of phenotypic adaptation at the organismic level. There

are also indications of adaptation sensu stricto, representing

genetically based variation. We found RNA/DNA ratios in

coral tissue, which are presumed to reflect tissue growth

characteristics, to be consistently higher in corals living in

turbid environments. However, under the most extreme

turbidity conditions RNA/DNA ratios were not higher.

Apparently, corals are able to adapt to some degree to higher

turbidity levels.

CARBONATE-CLASTIC INTERACTIONS AND THE

IMPLICATIONS FOR CORAL REEF SURVIVAL;

TERTIARY EXAMPLES FROM SPAIN.

Burton L.*, Moyra Wilson and Maurice Tucker.

*Department of Geological Sciences, University of

Durham, South Road, Durham, England. DH1 3LE.

Email: l.m.burton@durham.ac.uk

The Vic Basin (NE Spain) and the Fortuna Basin (SE Spain)

provide well-exposed examples of carbonate production and

development within predominantly siliciclastic semi-arid shelf

environments. The aim of this paper is to show the response of

coral reefs and other important carbonate-producing organisms

to terrigenous siliciclastic sedimentation in terms of species

diversity, organism morphology and biotic zonation. This

paper also aims to explain the evolution of the carbonate-clastic

successions in response to changing sediment influx,

climate and relative sea-level change. The methods employed

were 1) the production of detailed sedimentary logs, 2)

palaeoshoreline-normal transects across carbonate-clastic

successions, 3) production of photomontages and 4) detailed

sampling of lithofacies for petrological and geochemical

analysis. This study has implications in understanding

carbonate production and coral reef development and survival

in modern turbid waters.

CORAL COMMUNITIES IN VARIOUS ECOLOGICAL

CONDITIONS AT NORTHERN VIETNAMESE REEFS.

Dautova T.N.*, Yu.Ya.Latypov, S.Sh.Dautov. *Institute of

Marine Biology, RAS, Vladivostok, Russia. Email:

daut@mail.primorye.ru

The specifics of reefs of Bay Thy Long Archipelago (Gulf of

Tonkin, South-China Sea) are determined by effect of

monsoon climate, heavy terrigenous sediment flow and

freshening water by rivers. The studied reefs, six of which was

studied ecologically, differed significantly by coral populations

and conditions. The reefs in the closed island bays had small

average total water flow Qint, which was even less above coral

settlements. This reefs were specified by low values of

suspended load in water body SCOL (25-33 g/(m 2 day)) and of

bottom suspended load SBOT (16-60 g/(m 2 day)), which was

calculated with resuspension effect estimation, and by small

values of resuspension intensity RI above coral settlements

(0,2-0,5, arb. units). As a result almost all bottom layer

suspended matter settled here. Oportunistic corals of Porites,

Pavona, Favia, Favites, Goniastrea genera prevailed on this

reefs. Well washed, open reefs was characterised by high load

of SBOT (69-100 g/(m 2 day) ) and SCOL (45-61 g/(m 2 day)),

high Qint, increasing above coral settlements, and high RI

(0,6-0,9 arb. units). This reefs was dominated by Acropora,

Gonyastrea, Goniopora at the reef flat and slope. This relation

of coral communities structure to the physical conditions is

explained by various environment adaptations of this corals.

Porites and Pavona colonies with good self cleaning system

are dominant in the silting, poor water exchange conditions.

Fast growing and more aggressive Galaxea, Goniopora,

Acropora take advantage in favourable conditions.

PORITES CORALS RECORD HIGHER TRACE

ELEMENT CONCENTRATIONS (ZN, PB, Y, LA, CE)

DURING INCREASED SEDIMENTATION, MISIMA

ISLAND, PNG.

Fallon, Stewart J., McCulloch, M.T. White, J.C., Barnes,

D.J., Lough, J.M. *Research School of Earth Sciences, The

Australian National University, Canberra, ACT. Australia.

Email: Stewart.Fallon@anu.edu.au

In 1989 open pit gold mining commenced on the island of

Misima in Papua New Guinea. Open pit mining by its nature

causes a significant increase in sedimentation, both natural and

mining-induced. This increased sedimentation affected the

nearby fringing coral reef to varying degrees, causing coral

mortality (complete suffocation) in some areas. This sediment

consists of soft mine waste which is made up of quartz

feldspar, greenstone and schist. These rocks have distinct

chemical constituents (rare earth elements [REE], zinc and

lead etc.), which are entering the near-shore environment in

considerably higher than normal concentrations. Using laser

ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-

MS) we analyzed eight colonies (2 from high

sedimentation, 2 transitional, 2 minor and 2 control sites) for

Y, La, Ce, Zn and Pb. All sites show low steady “background”

levels prior to the commencement of mining. After mine

construction began in 1988, all sites aside from the control

show dramatic increases of Y, La, and Ce associated with the

increased sedimentation. Zn and Pb increase after 1989 when

the ore processing began. The concentration of these elements

in these corals decreases as the distance from the mine

increases..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A10:Turbid Environments

62

RESPONSE OF A REEF TO SEDIMENT OVERLOAD:

MOLOKA’I, HAWAI’I

Field M.*, Michael Bothner, Paul Jokiel, and Andrea

Ogston. *US Geological Survey, Pacific Science Center,

University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064. Email:

mfield@usgs.gov

The coral reef off southern Moloka’i hosts some of the most

continuous and densest live coral in the Hawaiian chain. The

reef consists of a broad (1 km) and shallow (1-1.5 m) reef flat

succeeded seaward by extensive spur and groove development

to depths of 25 m. Erosion rates of the adjacent volcano

terrain appear to have dramatically increased due to

deforestation, agriculture, and overgrazing; terrigenous mud is

now accumulating on the reef flat and along the shoreline, and

corals in a number of locations are degraded and necrotic. Our

study focuses on the processes of mud transport and

accumulation on the reef, and their impact on coral viability.

Excessive sedimentation from land run-off and past reef

dredging events appear to have had a substantial impact on

coral health that is superimposed on other stresses from natural

processes (e.g. large waves) and anthropogenic activities (e.g.

fishing, anchors). Corals are stressed and impoverished in

several locations on the inner reef and fore reef (less than 50 %

live coral coverage at 10 m depth, compared to ~90 %

elsewhere). Their status reflects both excessively large

sediment loads and also entrapment of fine sediment on the

reef flat. The inner reef flat is typically mantled with 5-15 cm

of mud, and no live coral is present. Sensors on an

instrumented tripod show that mud may be resuspended by

trade wind processes, and that net transport is to the west and

offshore towards the zone of impoverished coral. Pb 210,

Cs137, and trace metal analysis are being conducted on

sediment cores from expected depositional sites in the reef

platform to investigate changes in sediment input resulting

from major storms, land use and coastal development.

MIXED SILICICLASTIC-CARBONATE SEDIMENTS

FROM A HIGH VOLCANIC ISLAND LAGOON, FIJI.

Gussmann O.A.* and A.M. Smith. University of Otago,

Department of Marine Science, PO Box 56, Dunedin, New

Zealand. Email: GUSOL423@student.otago.ac.nz

Modern lagoonal sedimentation in the Navua-Suva Lagoon,

Fiji, derives from both allochthonous siliciclastics and

autochthonous marine carbonates. Sediments are characterized

by a high insoluble load, small grain size, a wide range of

textures, and a high degree of mixing. Sediment facies are

controlled by the adjacent shallow-marine area and its

carbonate sediment productivity, and by rate and distribution

of siliciclastic sedimentation. Molluscs and Halimeda

dominate the mostly lagoonal skeletal composition.

Preliminary budget calculations indicate that 96% of the

siliciclastic supply by-passes the lagoon; about 0.3 Mt/y is

accumulating in the lagoon, which is not yet enough to inhibit

potential carbonate production (0.1 Mt/y). Contemporary

allochthonous siliciclastic and autochthonous skeletal

carbonate sedimentation in the lagoon results in true

syndepositional (in situ) mixing. We predict that tropical in

situ mixing of carbonate and siliciclastic sediments is more

common than previously appreciated (the high volcanic island

mass effect ), which makes them excellent testing grounds for

the study of carbonate-siliciclastic interactions.

ADAPTATION TO LIFE ON TURBID REEFS: A

CORAL ENERGY-NICHE MODEL WITH A

WORKED EXAMPLE

Anthony, Kenneth R.N. Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove *, and Bette

L. Willis *Department of Marine Biology, James Cook

University, Townsville 4811 QLD and the *Centre for

Marine Studies, University of Queensland, 4072 QLD

Australia. Email: Kenneth.Anthony@jcu.edu.au

The conditions on inshore fringing reefs are often in strong

contrast to those on offshore reefs. Periodically high sediment

concentrations inshore can severely reduce light levels

compromising coral photosynthesis, and high rates of

sedimentation may smother coral tissues. Nevertheless, many

inshore reefs display high coral cover, suggesting that inshore

corals have become adapted or acclimated to periodically

turbid conditions. Traditional models of coral energy budgets

poorly account for the physiological mechanisms for

acclimation in corals since these models use fixed parameters

for the functional responses of energy acquisition to available

resources, and ignore variation in energy losses among levels

of resources or stressors. Here, we present a model that enables

analysis of the effect of dynamic functional responses on the

coral energy balance. Based on experimental physiological

data and model predictions for two coral species we analyse

the role of photo-acclimation and heterotrophic capacity in

delimiting the resource niches of corals on turbid reefs.

Sensitivity analyses of the model suggest that three factors are

critical for maintaining a positive energy balance on turbid

reefs: (1) a capacity to vary the parameters of the P-I curve

within short time frames, (2) minimised respiratory and

excretory losses under high turbidity, and (3) a high capacity to

utilise heterotrophic sources of energy.

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR CORAL REEF

DEVELOPMENT IN TURBID WATERS IN BRAZIL.

Kikuchi, R. K. P. * and Leão, Z. M. A. N. * Universidade

Estadual de Feira de Santana, Feira de Santana, Brazil.

Email: rkpkikuchi@geocities.com

The Brazilian continental margin is characterized by a

transition of siliciclastic to carbonate sediments. Our study

focuses on turbidity and sedimentation rate on bank reefs of

the northern coast of Bahia State, Brazil, between latitudes

12°33’S and 12 °44’S and longitudes 37°55’ W and 38°05’ W,

where a coral community of early successional stages develops

in a high energy environment. The bank reefs are generally 3

to 5 m high, with their tops 5 to 15 m deep, within 2 km from

the coast. A small river drains to the area affecting but the

reefs closest to shore. Coralline algae cover up to 90% of reef

surface. Coral community is composed by 9 species, the most

important being endemic species such as Mussismilia hispida,

M. braziliensis, Siderastrea stellata, Favia gravida and the

cosmopolitan Agaricia agaricites. An average Secchi disk

depth of 4,5 m characterizes water turbidity and mud fills

many reef cavities and surface depressions. Summer

(November-March, dry season) sedimentation rates, though,

are relatively low, varying from 0.06 mg cm-2 d -1 up to 1.25

mg cm-2 d -1 . River plume in the summer has a small area of

influence and sediment discharge in that season is small,

around 50 kg d -1 . A higher sediment discharge, to be measured

this winter (May-August, rainy season), may respond for a

higher sedimentation rate during this season. The dispersal of

the sediment during the remaining time of the year may be

carried out by the constant waves with periods of 6-7 s that

dominate the region..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A10:Turbid Environments

63

TURBIDITY EXCEEDENCE CURVES AND INFERRED

SEDIMENT ACCUMULATION RATES FROM FIELD

DATA AT NEARSHORE CORAL REEFS OF THE

CENTRAL GBR.

Larcombe Piers*. *Marine Geophysical Laboratory,

School of Earth Sciences, James Cook University,

Townsville 4811, Australia. Email:

piers.larcombe@jcu.edu.au

Worl dwide, many researcher s wor k on cor al reef s i n tur bi d

coastal and shelf envi ronment s, but f ew fi el d studies have focused

upon the links between t he coral r eef s and t hei r dynam ic

sedi mentary envir onment. In t erm s of coral physiology, durations

of t urbidity and sedim entar y impacts of a few hours ar e

part icularly r elevant, because l onger exposure to hi gh levels may

induce st resses l eading to coral deat h. Ti me-seri es oceanographi c

data taken at var ious nearshore and i nner- shelf coral reefs near

Townsvi ll e ( centr al Gr eat Bar rier Reef shelf ) all ow hi gh- quali ty

deli neati on of exceedance cur ves f or turbi di ty. F or the nearshor e

reef of P aluma Shoals, m ost notabl e i s a str ong non- li neari ty of

the exceedance curves. I n par ticul ar inter est i s that rel at ively li tt le

ti me occurs at mi d- range turbidi ty (15- 50 NT U) compared t o

lower ( 0- 15 NT U) or hi gher (50-200 NT U) levels. T his r elates t o

the energy characteristi cs of the sam pl ed ti me- period, and the

non- uni form natur e of the availabl e bed sedi ment. Both these

fact ors are regional i n scale. T he fi el d dat a can al so be used t o

infer t im e-ser ies of i nstantaneous rates of sedim ent accumulat ion

onto the sea f loor, which r ange up to 123 mg/cm 2/ day f or periods

of 2 hour s. This rate is 3- 4 order s of magni tude great er than the

aver age r ate of sediment accumul at ion over t he last 6- 7000 years

in t he ar ea, and indicat e t he over whelm ing domi nance of

sedi ment transpor t on the shelf, r elati ve to net accum ulati on.

CORAL COMMUNITIES IN TURBID AND

EUTROPHIC WATERS ON GULF OF TONKIN.

Latypov Yu. Ya. *, T. N. Dautova. Institute of Marine

Biology FEB RAS, Vladivostok, 690041, Russia. Email:

ltpv@online.marine.su

The originality coral reef of Gulf of Tonkin (South-China

Sea) is defined by influence of a drain rivers bearing turbid

and freshening of water. The salinity can be reduced up to

26 o /oo and temperature of water can fall to winter time up to

16 o C. The Red River have annual discharge of 137 billion m

water and 116 million ton suspended sediments. Directly on a

coral reef in usual time is besieged up to 70-100 g/m 2 of

deposits, which quantity during typhoons is increased by the

order. The distribution of corals is determined by intensity of

a turbidity of a deposit, both in the certain sites, and on all reef.

More 160 species of Scleractinia belonging to 45 genera were

identified. Acroporidae create the high coral diversity (26% of

species composition) as with the majority of Indo-Pacific reefs.

The reefs of Gulf of Tonkin have from 59.4 to 71.7% species

in common with reefs of South Vietnam. There was a

reorganization in composition and structure of communities

under influence constant turbidity and eutrophication of

waters. The Poritidae and the Faviidae was dominate in coral

community instead of branchy Acroporidae, characteristic for

the majority is reef. Its form not only a framework of a reef,

but also play an essential role in expansion of its area. A

passive colonization of new sites of a bottom occurs by

destruction massive colonies. The new organogenous

substratum is formed on a slope reef, on which the corals and

other representatives a phito - and zoobenthos can settle. These

factors are very important for Gulf of Tonkin with its shallow

water, abundance soft grounds and limitation of a firm

substratum with removal from coast.

SEDIMENT IMPACTS ON LAGOON REEFS WITHIN

DISCOVERY BAY, JAMAICA: CONSEQUENCES FOR

CORAL COMMUNITIES AND CARBONATE

PRODUCTION

Macdonald, I.A.* and Perry, C.T., *Department of

Environmental & Geographical Sciences, Manchester

Metropolitan University, Chester Street, Manchester, M1

5GD, U.K. Email: I.Macdonald@mmu.ac.uk

Sedimentation on reef corals is widely documented but

detailed case studies relating directly to sediment stress on reef

communities are limited. In addition, there is currently a

paucity of data relating to coral preservation processes under

such conditions, despite potential consequences for rates and

styles of carbonate accumulation. This study examines the reef

lagoon communities at Discovery Bay, Jamaica. In addition to

naturally turbid conditions additional fine grained bauxite

sediment accumulates in the south-west region of the Bay.

This anthropogenic stress has been present for over thirty years

and is not subject to large seasonal fluxes as reef systems in

the proximity of fluvial sources may be. The paper documents

initial studies into hermatypic coral communities (i.e. species

diversity, live coral cover, colony size) within this bauxite

impacted setting and comparisons are made with, 1) other less

impacted, but naturally turbid areas of the lagoon, and 2) data

from previous studies of sediment impacted systems. In

addition, ongoing work on carbonate sediment production

(carbonate content, sediment composition, grain size) and

coral/sediment preservation processes (bioerosion,

encrustation) will be discussed.

UPTAKE OF SUSPENDED AND DEPOSITED

PARTICULATE MATER ASSOCIATED NITROGEN BY

SCLERACTINIAN CORALS.

Mills, M.M. * , F. Lipschultz, and K.P. Sebens. *Department

of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park,

Maryland 20742, USA, Email: millsmatt46@hotmail.com

The uptake of suspended and deposited particulate associated

nitrogen by four species of scleractinians, utilizing suspension

or mucus feeding, was measured using stable isotopic tracer,

15 N. Particulate matter collected at a reef in Bermuda was split

into < 63µm and > 105µm size fractions and living organisms

labeled with ( 15 N-NH4 + )2SO4. The corals were incubated in

flow chambers with the labeled particulate matter in

suspension (< 63µm), or layered onto the surfaces of the corals

(> 105µm). The three mounding species, S. radians, M.

franksi, and D. strigosa, all showed uptake of particulate

matter nitrogen using both feeding modes, while the branching

species M. mirabilis had no particulate matter nitrogen uptake.

Only the coral host was enriched with 15 N with no tracer

appearing in the symbiotic zooxanthellae. Specific uptake

rates for the three corals ranged from 0.001h -1 to 0.015h -1 .

Corresponding particulate matter dry weight ingestion rates

ranged from 80 - 720 µgDW•cm -2 •h -1 . These results are the

first to quantify scleractinian nitrogen benefits from

heterotrophic uptake of suspended particulate matter or

particulate matter deposited onto coral surfaces. The present

results suggest that differences in colony morphology allow

some corals to take advantage of this potentially nutritious

food source more than other corals..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A10:Turbid Environments

64

REEF FLAT PHYSICAL PROCESSES AND SEDIMENT

TRANSPORT OBSERVATIONS: MOLOKA’I,

HAWAI’I.

Ogston, Andrea*, Michael Field, Curt Storlazzi School of

Oceanography, Box 357940, University of Washington,

Seattle, WA 98195-7940 Email:

ogston@ocean.washington.edu

An instrumented tripod was deployed off south-central

Moloka'i on the broad, shallow reef flat in approximately 1.3-

m water depth. The instrumentation was designed to examine

the physical processes and sediment transport regime as part of

the U.S. Geological Survey's Coral Reef project. Hourly

bursts of current, wave, suspended-sediment concentration,

salinity and temperature data are presently being obtained for a

year-long period. In the initial deployment, both tidal and

wind-driven currents were observed to contribute to the

circulation on this reef flat. During periods of stronger trade

winds, near-bed currents were predominantly offshore and to

the west. Near-bed orbital velocities due to both locally-generated

waves and incoming swell were strongly modulated

by tidal fluctuations of the water depth at the tripod location,

and were, at times, of high enough magnitude to suspend fine-grained

sediment. The near-bed flow and the presumed

direction of sediment transport on the shallow reef flat

appeared to be controlled by the interaction of tidal and wind-driven

currents and sea-level elevation which varies according

to tide height, and wind- and wave-generated set-up over the

reef flat. In the initial two-month deployment of the proposed

year-long record, the limited data suggests increased

suspended-sediment concentrations occurred during periods of

peak trade winds, due to resuspension, and at times of low tidal

elevation, possibly due to advection from the inner reef flat.

EVOLUTION OF REEF-BUILDING SCLERACTINIA IN

TURBID ENVIRONMENTS: A PALEO-ECOLOGICAL

HYPOTHESIS.

Potts, D.C. * . Institute of Marine Sciences, University of

California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA. Email:

potts@biology.ucsc.edu

Evidence is presented for radiations of reef-building corals

during periods of poor reef development in habitats resembling

those of modern, inshore shelves, rather than in more "typical"

oceanic habitats. Indications of a history of adaptation to

turbid environments include: 1.The Holocene is "atypical",

having one of the longest and highest periods of stable sea-level

since the mid-Pliocene; 2. Mean Plio-Pleistocene sea

levels (45-50m below present) approximated the average depth

of modern tropical shelves; 3. Hence, typical Plio-Pleistocene

coral habitats probably were shallow shelves exposed to high

frequency transgression-regression cycles; 4. Analogous

inshore habitats today are often close to sea-grass and

mangrove communities, and exposed to high terrigenous

organic, nutrient and sediment inputs; 5. Corals in such

habitats often have high growth rates, and assemblages may be

diverse, despite unusual species compositions and growth

forms; 7. Because they often grow on unconsolidated,

anaerobic muds with limited carbonate accretion, such

assemblages may not be recognized as "reefs" or studied by

"reef" scientists. It is proposed that turbid shelf environments

have always been common for corals, and more continuous in

space and time than oceanic habitats; that several scleractinian

radiations (e.g. Triassic, Paleocene, Oligocene) occurred

during reef hiatuses; and that adaptations for success in turbid

environments "pre-adapted" corals for success in oceanic

settings.

TISSUE THICKNESS: A METHOD TO ASSESS THE

PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE OF MASSIVE CORALS

TO SEDIMENT STRESS.

Rotmann, S.*. *Australian Institute of Marine Science,

Townsville, Qld. 4810, Australia; Email:

s.rotmann@aims.gov.au

Monitoring the health of living corals usually requires

complex and expensive physiological measurements. The

thickness of the tissue layer (TTL) in massive Porites alters

along environmental gradients, including gradients in sediment

stress. This paper presents preliminary results from an

investigation of TTL response to elevated sedimentation at

Lihir Island, PNG, where the third biggest gold mine in the

world has been in operation since 1997. TTL was measured

along an impact gradient due to disposal of large amounts of

soft waste. It was also measured at different depths along the

gradient and in different size classes of corals. TTL was

measured by removing small cores from the summit of

colonies. Results suggest that TTL of massive Porites

represents a simple and reliable indicator of coral health.

TURBIDITY AND SEDIMENTATION AS STRESSORS

TO FLORIDA REEF CORALS.

Szmant, A.M.* C. Yeung and K. Cohen. *Dept. of

Biological Science, University of North Carolina at

Wilmington, 1 Marvin K. Moss Rd., Wilmington NC 28403

USA; Email: szmanta@uncwil.edu

Recent Florida reef decline has been accompanied by claims

of increasingly turbid and silty reef waters as a cause of the

decline. Suggestions that the turbidity is related to nutrient

enrichment prompted an investigation of levels of

sedimentation stress and turbidity. Turbidity sensors and

sediment traps were deployed in the upper Florida Keys, from

Oct. ‘96 to March ‘98. Sedimentation rates of fine particles

were higher inshore and near coastal passes, while those of

coarser particles were higher offshore (more wave energy).

Sedimentation rates averaged >100 g/m2/day, a level

considered stressful to corals. N content of resuspended

sediments were higher inshore, were greater than the N content

of surrounding sediments, and were primarily associated with

finer fractions; however, P content was higher offshore, as well

as higher than surrounding sediments. These results suggest

that inshore areas are accumulating finer nutrient rich particles,

while offshore areas are being rid of such particles by storm

resuspension. Sediment resuspension rates were high

everywhere and likely a major stressor to Florida corals.

Spectral analysis of turbidity records were compared with

those of concurrent wind records, showing that most of the

turbidity in the area is due to resuspension during 13-day cycle

events. Florida coral reefs, at the northern limit of reef

development in the Western Atlantic, are exposed to greater

climate extremes than those in the Caribbean; it appears that

most of the documented sedimentation and turbidity stress is

climate related..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A10:Turbid Environments

65

PARTICULAR MATERIALS IN THE LARGE CORAL

REEF LAGOON OF MAYOTTE HIGH ISLAND (SW

INDIAN OCEAN): NATURE AND SEDIMENTATION

RATES

Thomassin, Bernard A*. *CNRS-UMR n° 6450 "Dimar",

C.O.M., Univ. de la Méditerranée, 13007 Marseille, France

& G.I.S. "Lag-May".Email: thomassi@com.univ-mrs.fr

Mayotte I. (N Mozambique Channel, 12-13°S) is an eroded

volcanic island (with the lagoonal islets: 376km 2 of lands)

showing a very jagged coastline (successions of caps and deep

bays). It is surrounded by a very large and deep coral reef

lagoon (surface near 1,500km 2 , up to 15km large, average

depth: near 40m, with 70-80m deep canyons) that belts a near

continous ribbon barrier reef system. Seasonal winds, NW-N

monsoon during the wet austral summer and SE-S dry

tradewinds during the winter, and secondarily a high tidal

range (up to 4m) are the main factors inducing water

movements inside this lagoon, according to the coastal

geomorphology and to the presence of functioning passages

through the narrow modern barrier reefs (up to 2km large) and

the drowned pleistocene fossil barrier reef platform (up to 7-

10km large in some areas, at 35-30m deep today). Monsoon

rainfalls above the lagoon vary between 500 up to 1500mm of

water per year; but coastal rivers show important swellings few

hours after storms, with huge sediment transport into the bays

and the lagoon. Tropical storms and hurricanes are uncommon,

but few were very catastrophic. Lagoonal waters can be

subdivided in two categories: (a), those landwards in the inner

areas which show neritic features, peculiarly in the bays with

mangroves, with the highest contents of suspension materials,

chlorophyll a and C, linked with the highest values of NH4 and

Si; (b) those seawards in the outer areas which show oceanic

features, with lowest values of these parameters.

Phytoplankton seems not very rich. To estimate the

sedimentation rate and the features of this decanting materials

on bottoms in a large bay and in front in the outer open lagoon

an experiment was conducted during the 1989-90 year, using

two kinds of traps, collected near every 12-14 days. So it was

recorded that: in the bay, near 12 kg of dry material*m -2 *y -1

decants in a rainy year (about 2600 mm of water on the nearest

land) while in the open outer lagoon near 6.8 kg of dry

material*m -2 *y -1 settles down. In the bay, most of this fine

materials (issued from lateritic alterites and detrital materials)

showed highest values of the degraded chlorophylls in

comparison to living chlorophyll a (average ratio chloro a /

phaeopigments = 0.02 to 0.3), low N content (average: 0,3% in

dry season up to 1,1% after rainfalls), highest values in lipids

and proteins during the dry season in comparison to the values

in rainy season. These results are analyzed with comparisons

of data from the other similar environments (high island

lagoons) opposed to different ones (low island or atoll lagoon).

CORAL COMMUNITIES OF NARIKEL JINJIRA,

BANGLADESH.

Tomascik, T.* and Paiker, S.A. Parks Canada, 300-300

West Georgia St., Vancouver, BC, Canada V6B 6B4;

Email: tomas_tomascik@pch.gc.ca

The present study was conducted on Narikel Jinjira, a small

island located about 210-km south-southeast of the

Ganges/Brahmaputra Delta. The objective of the study was to

conduct an environmental assessment of the island’s coral

reefs, and to identify major environmental threats to the future

sustainable use of coral reef resources. The weather and

coastal oceanographic processes in the area are heavily

influenced by a subtropical monsoonal climate that prevails

over Bangladesh. Seawater salinity during the dry season

(November/February 1997) fluctuated between 25.0‰ and

32.0‰, while SSTs ranged from 22°C to 29°C. The turbidity

of inshore waters, as measured by the Secchi disk, ranged from

1.5 m to 8.0 m. The results of this study refute previous studies

that documented an existence of coral reefs at Narikel Jinjira.

However, the rocky subtidal that extended from the seaward

margin of the intertidal to about 300 m offshore supported a

relatively diverse veneering scleractinian coral community. A

total of 66 scleractinian coral species, belonging to 22 genera,

were collected and recorded during the study. The genera

Porites, Favites, Goniopora, Cyphastrea, and Goniastrea were

the most abundant. Corals accounted for only about 8% of

substrate cover, while benthic macrophytes covered over 80%

of the available rocky substrate. The coral community

supported a diverse fish and invertebrate fauna characteristic

of coral reef ecosystems. Based on visual counts, there were 34

reef-associated fish families represented by 86 species. The

most abundant reef-associated fish herbivores were the

Pomacentridae, Scaridae and Acanthuridae.

GROWTH OF SIDERASTREA SIDEREA AND PORITES

ASTREOIDES IN CLEAR AND TURBID WATERS.

Torres, Juan L.*. *UPR, Dept. of Marine Sciences, PO Box

3210, Lajas, PR 00667 USA, Email: jltorres@caribe.net

The linear extension rates obtained from cores of the two

reef-building Caribbean coral species Siderastrea siderea and

Porites astreoides were measured and compared to

sedimentation rates prevailing at the different study sites.

Sedimentation rates as well as sediment composition were

significantly different between control and stressed sites. Data

revealed no significant differences in the linear extension rates

of S. siderea between clear and turbid waters suggesting the

high resistance of this species to sedimentation. In fact, the

growth of neither growth band (high or low density bands) was

statistically significant between sites. On the other hand, cores

from P. astreoides revealed an average growth of 2.30 ± 0.36

mm/yr, and a predominance of high density bands over low

density ones at all years. Considering the low growth rates of

this species, it not surprising that the greater part of the

skeleton is comprised to a high density level. Our results

compare to those reported in the literature for both species

even though this becomes the first study that takes into account

the differences in growth between the different density bands,

which seems to be a factor when considering different

sediment regimes..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A10:Turbid Environments

66

SEDIMENTATION RATE MEASUREMENTS:

EFFECTS OF TRAP DESIGN AND IMMERSION TIME.

van der Wateren, Peter*; Nacorda, Hildie, Maria E.;

Vermaat, Jan E. and Yap, Helen T. *The Marine Science

Institute, University of the Philippines, Diliman, 1101

Quezon City, The Philippines;. Email:

peterwat@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

Sedimentation rates are generally compared regardless of

trap design and trap immersion time. The aspect ratio of

tubular traps is often seen as the most important parameter in

describing the trap. For the present study two in situ

experiments with different sediment traps were performed.

Tubular traps with different diameters yielded significantly

different sedimentation rates (g dry weight.dm -2 .day -1 ). Smaller

traps yielded higher sedimentation rates. Differences in aspect

ratios (4, 5 and 6) had no effect on the amount of sediment

trapped. Four tubes of 1” diameter inside a pipe of 3” diameter

attached to a stake did not trap differently from 1” tubes that

were individually mounted to a stake. The average catch of

sediment (g dry weight.dm -2 .day -1 ) over a period of 14 days

differed significantly between traps that were emptied at

different time intervals (every 1, 3, 7, 14 days). Shorter

intervals resulted in higher catches. In addition, a coral surface

simulating trap is introduced. It consists of an acrylic disk

covered with a disk cut from a plastic doormat that features

polyp-like structures. Preliminary results using the disk-traps

are compared with the results from tubular traps.

SPECIAL HARDGROUNDS FOR THE INITIAL

DEVELOPMENT OF CORAL REEFS IN

NONCARBONATE ENVIRONMENTS.

Wang S.W. * and Dai C.F.. *Institute of Oceanography,

National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Email: wsw@nmns1.nmns.edu.tw

The Pleistocene coral reefs in SW Taiwan developed on

several local structural highs, which are characterized by: (1)

rapid facies change from underlying mudstones upward into

fossiliferous sandstones, then into the basement of reef

limestones, and (2) being located within a foreland basin and

in close association with anticlines and faults. However, it is

still uncertain that how these coral reefs built up in a

noncarbonate environment dominated by fine-grained

siliciclastics. Based on studies of 4 quarry outcrops and 21

drilling cores, we found localized lenticular dolomitic

mudstones, tubular dolomitic structures, and muddy

conglomerate which consists of dolomitic mudstone pebbles

and cobbles near or at the tops of “soft” mudstones. Besides,

we found abundant in situ lucinid bivalves in one of those

lenticular dolomitic mudstones, in which the upper parts

consist of encrusting coralline algae and scleractinian corals,

then overlaid by bioclastic limestone. Base on the tectonic

settings and special occurrences of those dolomitic mudstones

and fossil lucinids, we suggested that they are the so-called

“cold seep carbonates", which developed during the

shallowing of structural highs in SW Taiwan and served as the

hardgrounds for the initial development of coral reefs in

noncarbonate environments.

CLASTIC INFLUENCE ON DELTA-FRONT REEFS,

BORNEO

Wilson, Moyra E.J.* *Department of Geological Sciences,

University of Durham, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK, Email:

moyra.wilson@durham.ac.uk

Clastic sedimentation on shallow marine shelves is generally

thought to inhibit carbonate production. However, modern and

Neogene carbonates within the Mahakam Delta in Borneo

were affected by high clastic input. Studies of these modern

and ancient delta-front reefs shows that coral patch reefs

developed in less than a few tens of metres water depth on

delta-front mouthbars, whereas Halimeda dominates in deeper

water reefs. In outcrop the coral reefs consist of lithologies

dominated by platey, branching, head, branching and platey

corals passing successively up section from base to top of the

carbonate unit. These cycles represent apparent shallowing

then deepening of the depositional environment, inferred to be

related to amounts of clastic input. The development of these

delta-front reefs was controlled by a complex array of factors,

including climate, relative-sea level changes, oceanographic

factors, sediment and nutrient input. Carbonates buildups are

common along certain horizons and this study explores local

and regional factors which may have influenced the initiation

of carbonate production. This study has implications for the

interactions between clastics and carbonates in tropical marine

settings and shows that carbonate producers can thrive in areas

of high clastic input.

CHANGES IN ZOOXANTHELLAE DENSITIES AND

CHLOROPHYLL-A CONCENTRATIONS IN THREE

CORAL SPECIES AFTER SHORT-TERM SEDIMENT

BURIAL.

Wong, C.C.*, Yeung, K.P., P.O. Ang, Jr. *Department of

Biology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin,

N.T., HKSAR, China. Email: put-ang@cuhk.edu.hk

Responses of three common coral species were monitored

after full burial with sediment in two experiments at Tung Ping

Chau, Hong Kong from Oct 1999 to Jan 2000. In the first

experiment, colonies of Porites lobata, Goniopora columna

and Platygyra sinensis were buried in situ for 0 (control), 2, 6,

17, 24 and 48 h. Their zooxanthellae densities and chlorophyll-a

concentrations were assessed immediately after burial. In the

second experiment, changes in these two parameters were

monitored in colonies of G. columna before burial,

immediately after 24 h burial, 4 and 40 days after burial.

Goniopora columna has the highest mean density of

zooxanthellae (1.7 x 10 7 cells cm -2 ) and chlorophyll-a density

(95 µg cm -2 ). Platygyra sinensis has only 1/3, and Porites

lobata only 1/10 of these values. For all these corals,

increasing burial time generally caused a decrease in both

these values. However, statistically significant decrease was

found only in 48 h treatment with a 50% drop in these values

compared with those of the controls. All coral colonies

survived the sediment burial except those buried for 48 h. For

G. columna, 24 h burial did not change the zooxanthellae

density and chlorophyll-a concentration significantly. These

corals recovered within 4 days after being released from the

burial stress..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A10:Turbid Environments

67

REEF PRODUCTION IN A SHALLOW, TURBID

ENVIRONMENT

Yates, K.K.* and Halley, R.B. U.S. Geological Survey, St.

Petersburg, Florida, U.S.A. Email: kyates@usgs.gov

Agricultural practices on the island of Molokai in Hawaii

have resulted in increased erosion and transport of sediment to

reefs surrounding the island. Reef productivity (including

calcification, photosynthesis, and respiration) was measured on

representative substrate types of a shallow reef flat located on

Molokai’s southern coast. Measurements were made on coarse

sand, coral rubble, and patch reef substrata over 24-hour time

periods during increased turbidity using a large incubation

chamber (Submersible Habitat for Analyzing Reef Quality,

S.H.A.R.Q.) to isolate water over the substrate and measure

changes in key geochemical parameters. In addition, air:sea

CO2 gas fluxes were measured along a transect across the reef

flat, perpendicular to the shore. Preliminary results indicate

that rates of calcification and photosynthesis range from 0.002

to 0.196 g CaCO3/m 2 /hour and 0.01 to 0.06 g carbon/m 2 /hour,

respectively, during light hours. Net dissolution of carbonate

sediments was observed during dark hours with respiration

rates ranging from 0.07 to 0.12 g carbon/m 2 /hour. Productivity

rates are similar to those measured on reef flats unaffected by

increased turbidity in the western and southern Pacific. Gas

flux measurements correspond to zonation of the reef flat with

net uptake of CO2 over algae-covered coral rubble near shore

and net evolution of CO2 associated with patch reefs offshore

near the reef crest. These results suggest that light attenuation

resulting from turbidity in shallow reef environments may be

insufficient to reduce reef production..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A11: Bioerosion

Session A11: Reef Bioerosion

68

CORAL REEF BIOEROSION IN TIMES OF CRISES –

THE LATE TRIASSIC/EARLY JURASSIC EXAMPLE.

Bertling.M* * Geologisch-Paläontologisches Institut und

Museum, Pferdegasse 3, D-48143 Münster, Germany;

Email: markus.bertling@uni-muenster.de

A study across a major reef crisis in Earth history was

performed because data on the fate of borers after reef decline

seem to be lacking. Scleractinian reefs flourished during the

Late Triassic (Norian and Rhaetian) but corals suffered a major

extinction phase soon afterwards. No reefs are known from the

earliest Jurassic (Hettangian) but identical coral taxa

reappeared later. Hence, similar substrate conditions prevailed

for coral borers during these 5 million years of crisis, and

samples could be evaluated for macroborings quantitatively.

Norian reefs suffered almost no bioerosion (abundance of

borings less than 0.01 /cm_) in the Alps but in northern Iran,

they were moderately bored (0.14/ cm_) with ”worms’’

dominating over bivalves and cirripeds. Late Rhaetian reefs

independently of the environment were only slightly bored

(0.09-0.11/cm_) by the same borers. In the Pliensbachian,

”worms’’ still dominated over bivalves and cirripeds (0.08-

0.12 borings/ cm_). The pattern of coral reef macroboring

hence remained essentially unchanged across the major end-Triassic

extinction phase of corals. This becomes obvious

especially when viewed against the different situation

prevailing from the Middle Jurassic onwards. This indicates

that coral borers had evolved together with their substrate (co-adaptation?);

they suffered the same fate during reef crisis and

reappeared with the same corals during recovery. It was only

the changing Middle Jurassic coral fauna which triggered a

different suite of borers, not the extinction phase.

LAGOON SPONGES FROM THE BUNAKEN MARINE

PARK (NORTH SULAWESI, INDONESIA):

INTERACTIONS WITH SEDIMENTS

Cerrano Carlo*, Bavestrello, Giorgio Boyer, Massimo

Calcinai, Barbara Lalamentik, Laurentius Th. X. &

Pansini, Maurizio. * Dip.Te.Ris., Università di Genova,

Corso Europa 26, I-16132 Genova. Email:

cerrano@dipteris.unige.it

Sponges hold complex ecological roles in coral reefs. Our

study take in account two populations of lagoon sponges from

the island of Bunaken, that are charcterized by a unusual

psammobiotic habitus, which support different ecological

adaptations. The considered species are Aka sp., Oceanapia

amboinensis, Spirastrella solida, Biemna fortis and Acarnus

tortilis. The study by corrosion casts of the aquiferous system

of these species shows different strategies of filtration among

the different sponge groups. The simultaneous presence of

boring (Aka sp.) and engulfing (O. amboinensis; S. solida and

B. fortis) sponges leads to a reworking of the organic

carbonates: i) boring sponges destroy the coral rocks

contributing to the production of the overlaying sediments; ii)

massive sponges incorporate sediments (more than 80% of the

sponge dry weight) structuring a second hard substrata and

modifing the interstitial pore water nearby the buried sponge

body.

FORAGING BEHAVIOR OF TWO TRIGGERFISH

(BALISTIDAE) AND ITS RELATION WITH CORAL

REEF BIOEROSION AT GORGONA ISLAND,

COLOMBIAN PACIFIC.

Francisco V.* and Fernando A. Zapata Departamento de

Biología, Universidad del Valle, Apartado 25360, Cali,

Colombia. Email: vafranci@biologia.univalle.edu.co

The feeding activity of several fishes influence the process of

reef bioerosion. We studied the foraging behavior of Sufflamen

verres and Pseudobalistes naufragium to examine their impact

on reef bioerosion at Gorgona island, Colombian Pacific. Fish

foraged mainly on coral substrates searching for invertebrates

associated with coral. Coral rubble (mainly Pocillopora spp.)

was the preferred foraging substrate in both species. Mean

foraging rates were 0.91 bites per min. for S. verres and 0.78

bites per min. for P. naufragium. During their feeding activity,

the fish fragmented coral into small pieces or turned it into

sediment. Thus triggerfish facilitate the natural erosion of

reefs, accelerating the transformation of coral debris into

sediment. Triggerfish abundance at Gorgona is high compared

to other reefs in the eastern Pacific. Therefore, the contribution

of these fish to bioerosion is particularly important at Gorgona.

We obtained preliminary estimates of bioerosion rates for

these species in one reef based on estimates of the amount of

substrate removed per bite, foraging rates and fish density

(1.13 kg m –2 year –1 for S. verres and 0.62 kg m –2 year –1 for P.

naufragium). Bioerosion caused by triggerfish at Gorgona is

lower than that caused by parrotfish (1.6 kg m –2 year –1 ) and

higher than erosion caused by urchins (0.19 kg m –2 year –1 ).

Scarus ghobban BIOEROSION RATES IN A GORGONA

ISLAND CORAL REEF – COLOMBIA (TROPICAL

EASTERN PACIFIC).

Jiménez J. M. * and F. A. Zapata. *Universidad del Valle,

A.A. 25360, Cali – Colombia, S.Am. Email: :

jumajime@mailcity.com

To estimate the bioerosion rates by Scarus ghobban in a

Gorgona island fringing coral reef (Tropical Eastern Pacific)

indirect and direct methods reported in literature were

combined. Fish size, time of day and reef zone as well as the

foraging substrates were considered. Bioerosion turned out to

be greater at the backreef and diminished towards the slope,

following the distribution and abundance pattern of the species

within the reef. Small individuals showed the greater

bioerosion rates in the reef as a whole (1.2 kg m -2 Year -1 )

given their greater abundance. On the other hand, a large

individual eroded more sediment than a small one (123.6 Vs.

8.2 kg Ind. -1 Year -1 , respectively) showing that bioerosion

rates per individual are proportionally inverse to fish size.

High densities and large body sizes found for S. ghobban in

this reef resulted in greater bioerosion rates (1.6 kg m -2 Year -1

) than the rates found for other scraping species, but lower

than the bioerosion rates found for excavating species in other

oceans..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A11: Bioerosion

69

BIOEROSION OF EXPERIMENTAL SUBSTRATES ON

HIGH ISLANDS AND ATOLL LAGOONS (FRENCH

POLYNESIA)- FIVE YEARS OF EXPOSURE.

Peyrot-Clausade,M.*, Hutchings, P.A., and Pari, N.

*Centre D’océanologie De Marseille, Umr Cnrs 6540,

Université De La Méditerranée, Station Marine

D’endoume, Rue De La Batterie Des Lions, 13007-

Marseille, France. Email: PEYROT@COM.UNIV-MRS.

FR

Rates of losses of CaCo 3 from bioerosion (grazing and

boring) and gains from accretion were determined from

experimental coral substrates exposed for 5 years and laid in

the lagoons of high islands and atolls in French Polynesia.

Significant differences in rates of grazing and boring were

found between sites. Maximum rates of grazing and boring

were found in the atoll lagoons (9.53 kg CaCO3 m -2 .y -1 at

Tikehau, 3.47 kg CaCO3 m -2 .y -1 at Takapoto). A positive

correlation was found between the density of algal turf and the

intensity of boring by clionid sponges which reachs 1.04 kg

caCO3 m -2 .y -1 . Rates of grazing by echinoids and scarids were

also positively correlated with high biomass of microborers.

These results were compared with those obtained after 6 and

24 months of exposure at the same site and rates measured

experimentally elsewhere. These studies allow us to develop

models as to the interaction between rates of grazing and

boring and the protective role of accretion by coralline algae

and the types of factors which influence the net rates of

bioerosion on “healthy” and “disturbed” reefs.

BIOEROSION RATE OF THE SPONGE CLIONA

CELATA (GRANT 1826) FROM THE CORAL REEFS OF

NORTH BAHIA, BRAZIL.

Reis, Maria Alice* and Zelinda Margarida Leão.

Universidade Santa Úrsula, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas

e Ambientais, Rua Jornalista Orlando Dantas 59, Rio de

Janeiro 22231-010, BRAZIL, Email aliceusubr@apc.org.br

The nearshore bank reefs along the north coast of Bahia,

Brazil, are subjected to the influence of a continent derived

highly siliciclastic sediment influx and a nutrient enrichment.

In order to compare the degree of coral infestation by the

sponge Cliona celata (Grant 1826) with reefs within a

carbonate dominate province, massive colonies of the endemic

coral Siderastrea stellata (Verrill 1868) were sampled from the

intertidal shallow pools (0.2 to 0.6 m deep) of the emergent top

of two isolated reefs, from the surface of a bank reef, 5m deep,

and of a reef located at depths around 10 m. This coral species

was chosen because it is amply distributed along the entire

coast of Brazil, and is particularly abundant in shallow reefs.

Five roughly hemispherical and partially living coral heads,

with diameters ranging from about 10 to 20 cm, were

haphazardly collected from each selected zone. X radiographs

of sliced coral colonies were performed for estimating the

percentage of skeleton removed, and the rate of coral growth.

Traces of bioeroding animals were identified in the coral slabs

according to track characteristics. The boring activity of

sponges, in the studied area, coincides with that of worldwide

investigated reefs. It is controlled either, by characteristics of

coral host, i.e. coral growth rate and density, as well as by

some local environment parameters, such as high levels of

water turbidity and sedimentation.

EFFECT OF PREDATION ON LIVE CORAL BY

SPARISOMA VIRIDE AT THE TAYRONA NATURAL

PARK (COLOMBIAN CARIBBEAN).

Reyes-Nivia, M.C.*, J. Garzón-Ferreira & A. Rodríguez-Ramírez.

*Instituto de Investigaciones. Marinas y

Costeras, INVEMAR, A.A. 1016, Santa Marta, Colombia;

Email: catarey@invemar.org.co

The effect of predation by the stoplight parrotfish

(Sparisoma viride) as a coral mortality agent, was evaluated

within SIMAC (National Monitoring System for the Corals

Reefs of Colombia). The. Surface and volume of live coral

removed by bite (measured with Vernier calliper) and change

over time of the affected areas (using video-image analysis)

were estimated for several species of hard corals. Bites were

made principally by terminal and initial phase S. viride (sizes

20-40 cm fork length). The means of surface and volume by

bite on the different species were: 38.7 cm 2 and 355.5 cm 3 in

Colpophyllia natans, 22.5 cm 2 and 31.8 cm 3 in Montastraea

annularis, 25.7 cm 2 and 97.9 cm 3 in Montastraea faveolata,

21.9 cm 2 and 25.9 cm 3 in Porites astreoides. At the beginning

of study, 43 colonies showed a total recently grazed surface of

7336.7 cm 2 on 4000 m 2 of reef area (with live coral cover=

35%). During the next three months, 42% of these colonies

were bitten repeatedly, being C. natans suffered the highest

grazing rate (4.63 cm 2 d -1 ), followed by M. faveolata (0.13

cm 2 d -1 ), while P astreoides was the only that showed live

tissue recuperation. After five months, the total affected area

increased by 49%. These results show that S. viride is able to

originate rapid and considerable damages on live coral

surfaces of reefs especially on C. natans. This kind of tissue

loss by depredation is uncommon and has been observed

recently in the Caribbean Sea.

INTERNAL BIOEROSION OF MUSSISMILIA FROM

EXPOSED AND SUBMERGED REEF FLATS,

EASTERN BRAZIL

Santa-Isabel, L. M* . Z. M. A. N. Leão, M. C. Peso-Aguiar

and R. C. F. Assis * Universidade Federal da Bahia,

Instituto de Biologia, Departamento de Zoologia, Campus

Universitário de Ondina, s/n. CEP 40170-290, Salvador,

Bahia, Brazil. Email: ledama@ufba.br

The internal bioerosion of dead corals, belonging to the

endemic genera Mussismilia (M. braziliensis and M. hispida),

was analyzed in specimens collected from an exposed and a

submerged reef flat at Guarajuba Beach (Bahia). Twenty coral

colonies were sliced (80 replicates) and x-rayed to identify

internal bioeroders and to estimate the degree of bioerosion

produced by each group. The most representative borers are:

the bivalves Lithophaga bisulcata, Gastrochaena hians,

Spengleria rostrata and Gregariella coralliophaga, the

sipunculids Phascolosoma antillarum and Aspidosiphon

elegans, and polychaetes Eunice wasinensis and Lysidice

ninetta. Total bioerosion is significantly lower at the exposed

reef flat, where sipunculids is the most important group.

Boring bivalves dominate in the submerged reef. The

polychaete exhibit low level of bioerosion in both studied

reefs. The lowest level of internal bioerosion registered for the

exposed reef is reflected by the diversity, abundance and

population density of bioeroders, which may be controlled by

the sub-aerial exposure of the reef organisms, the

characteristics of the coral species, as well as the periodic

migration of sand on the exposed reef flat..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A11: Bioerosion

70

CHANGING ENVIRONMENTS AND SPONGE

BIOEROSION - IS THERE A CONNECTION?

Schönberg*. Carl von Ossietzky *Australian Institute of

Marine Science, PMB 3, Townsville MC, QLD 4810,

Australia. Email: christine.schoenberg@mail.uni-oldenburg.

de

Worldwide, reefs are suffering from destruction. Bioerosion

is a natural form of carbonate degradation, with sponges being

major agents of tropical reef bioerosion. However, little is

known about natural levels of sponge bioerosion and the

factors influencing them. It is unknown what factors may

increase natural sponge bioerosion to levels that disrupt natural

reef growth rates. Occasional field observations of increased

sponge bioerosion associated with elevated nutrient levels have

been reported, however, this has not been experimentally

tested. The Australian sponge Cliona orientalis is very

common on the inshore Great Barrier Reef and has been used

in several experiments to study growth and erosion

capabilities. Influences of nutrient levels, water movement and

substrate porosity were investigated. Results indicate that C.

orientalis growth is enhanced by increased water movement,

whereas high nutrient levels are detrimental. However,

bioerosion is enhanced by both factors. Porosity of natural

substrate, which in turn is influenced by nutrient levels and

water movement, is indirectly proportional to erosion by the

sponge. Varying levels of substrate porosity have little

influence on sponge growth itself, unless the substrate is very

dense, i. e. C. orientalis grew better in Tridacna shells than in

coral substrates. Results imply complicated interactions

between factors influencing growth of and erosion by C.

orientalis. Therefore it is very difficulty to predict how sponge

bioerosion will behave with changing environments.

ROLE OF THE BORING MICROFLORA AND

MEIOFAUNA COMMUNITIES IN THE DESTRUCTION

PROCESSES OF CORAL REEFS. VARIABILITY OF

BIOEROSION IN EXPERIMENTAL CORAL

SUBSTRATES ON THE GBR, AUSTRALIA.

Tribollet A. *, Decherf G., Hutchings P. and Peyrot-Clausade

M. *Centre d’Océanologie de Marseille, Station

Marine d’Endoume. Rue de la batterie des Lions, 13007

Marseille (France). Email: tribollet@com.univ-mrs.fr

Increasingly coral reefs world-wide are under considerable

stress and are experiencing damage. Dead corals are available

for colonisation by boring organisms and subsequently for

grazers, which both participate in reef destruction. Several

studies on bioerosion of coral substrates by macroborers and

grazers have been undertaken on the GBR. In contrast, very

little is known about the development of the microboring

communities through time and their bioerosion rate spatial

variability. Boring communities were studied after one year of

colonizing experimental coral substrates Porites lobata at six

different stations along a cross shelf transect from the coast out

into the Coral Sea, in far North Queensland. Dominant species

of microborers and subfamilies of boring meiofauna and

macrofauna were identified and counted. Their biomass and

bioerosion rates as well as bioerosion of grazers and accretion

rates were quantified in order to establish the calcium

carbonate balance sheet of the experimental substrate. External

erosion of these blocks varied considerably from 0.28 ± 0.12kg

of CaCO3 m -2 .y-1 on Snapper Island (coastal site) to 3.5 ± 0.5

kg of CaCO3 m -2 .y-1 on Ribbon Reef and Lizard Island. Such

significant between sites differences reveal the impact of

terrigenous inputs on the coastal sites and the influence of the

grazers on the microboring communities.

LONG TERM DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS OF

ECHINOMETRA MATHAEI ON SUVA BARRIER REEF,

FIJI.

Vuki, V.C* and Zann,L.P* *Marine Studies Programme,

University of the South Pacific, P.O. Box 1168, Suva, Fiji.

Email: Vuki_V@usp.ac.fj

Suva Barrier Reef lies between one and five kilometers off

the coast of Suva. It is one of the most polluted and overfished

reefs in the South Pacific. A narrow lagoon of about 10m deep

separates the reef from the city of Suva. Suva Barrier Reef has

experienced an almost continuous presence of E.mathaei since

1979. Large numbers of E.mathaei were observed at six sites

from 1979 to 1999. They are major bio-eroders on the reef flat

and contribute to changing the structure of the reef framework

from hard coral rock substratum to rubble and sand. The

occurrence of large numbers of E.mathaei is associated with

Acanthaster planci predation and high fishing pressure on

Suva Barrier Reef. It is possible that anthropogenic factors

contribute to the high densities of E.mathaei on Suva Barrier

Reef. Adults and juveniles are consistently more frequent here

than in any other Fijian reefs studied. The removal through

fishing and gleaning of predators must affect the high densities

of E.mathaei..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A12: Hydrodynamics

Session A12: Hyrdodynamics of Reefs and Modelling of Circulation in Lagoons

71

EFFECTS OF WAVES ON NUTRIENT UPTAKE INTO

THE BIOSPHERE 2 MESOCOSM.

Atkinson, M*, *Department Of Oceanography, University

Of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hi 96822, Usa. Email:

marlinatkinson@aol.com

…Waves increase nutrient uptake to an experimental coral reef

community. Biosphere 2 ocean is a self-contained, 850 m 2 ,

3.1 m-deep coral reef mesocosm, maintaining a mixed

community of macro-algae, corals, fish, and associated

invertebrate crytofauna. Water motion in the mesocosm is

controlled by a vacuum-driven wave machine, producing

waves 10 cm to 130 cm high . Waves propagate onto a reef-flat,

break and create back-reef currents. Nutrient uptake rates

were measured over a two year period by raising water

concentrations to 10 mM NH4 and 1 mM PO4 and then

measuring a decay in nutrient concentration to ambient

nutrient concentrations (NH4 ~ 0.2 mM, PO4 ~ 0.05 mM ).

Nutrient uptake rates were first-order

(Uptake=S[Concentration], with rate constants, S, similar in

magnitude (4.7 to 10.8 m d -1 ) to published rates for flumes and

for field measurements during Encore experiment). Wave

heights were varied and currents measured 10 cm above the

bottom at 20 locations within the mesocosm during a summer

and winter period. Rate constants, S, for NH4 and PO4 (4.7

–10.8 m d -1 ) were positively correlated to water velocities

(from 2.3-8.3 cm s -1 ) and consistent with mass transfer

relationships. These results are the first measurements of

increasing nutrient uptake from water motion created by

waves, supporting the contention that reef communities

residing in higher wave environments experience increased

metabolic exchange with the environment.

A 3D COUPLED PHYSICAL-BIOGEOCHEMICAL

MODEL TO SIMULATE INFLUENCES OF MAJOR

HYDRODYNAMIC FORCING ON THE EVOLUTION

OF PELAGIC ECOSYSTEM IN THE SOUTH-WEST

LAGOON OF NEW CALEDONIA.

Bujan S.*, Pinazo, C., Douillet, P., Grenz, C., Fichez, R..

*National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (

NIWA ) PO Box 8602 Christchurch New Zealand. Email:

s.bujan@niwa.cri.nz

Evolution of knowledge on physical processes and

biogeochemical cycling of the south-west lagoon of New

Caledonia bring enough material today to allow their

integration for the development of a determinist modelling for

this ecosystem. A 3D hydrodynamic model with 21 vertical

sigma levels and a spatial grid of 500 m was coupled with

biogeochemical equations. The resulting model was used to

calculate phytoplanktonic biomass and nutrient concentrations

in the 2000 km 2 wide south-west lagoon of New Caledonia.

Simulations were achieved for several wind driven

hydrodynamic conditions and as a function of : the light and

nutrient effects on pelagic primary production, the effect of

temperature on the biological processes, and the impact of

freshwater inputs during the rainy season. Several realistic

scenarios are established and results compared with field data

from the Ecotrope Program for the validation. Simulations

showed that the biological flows are very sensitive to the wind

with a general influence of south boundary conditions, in

concordance with the dominant trade wind. Even during the

summer rainy season, impact of terrigeneous nutrients on

pelagic ecosystem is reduced to shallow, wind protected bay

directly influenced by the main river (Dumbéa). The vertical

resolution of the model provide useful information to explain

seasonal variations in lagoon phytoplankton.

PHOSPHORUS SUPPLY FOR ATOLL BIOLOGICAL

PRODUCTIVITY

Charpy, Loïc* *IRD, COM, rue de Batterie des Lions

13007 Marseille, France lcharpy@com.univ-mrs.fr

Origin of phosphorus for whole atoll productivity is

discussed using biogeochemical data from Tikehau atoll

(French Polynesia), new concept on coral reef fractal

dimension and recent advances in modeling groundwater flow

in an atoll platform. The conclusion is that horizontal flow of

oceanic waters, in spite of low P concentration is largely

enough to sustain atoll productivity.

DETERMINATION OF THE HYDRODYNAMIC

CIRCULATION OF THE LAGOON OF SUVA (FIJI)

USING MODELISATION AND MEASUREMENTS.

Douillet P*, Kumar. *Centre IRD, BP A5, Nouméa, New

Caledonia. Email: douillet@noumea.ird.nc

The lagoon of Suva, Fiji, is subject to significant

anthropogenic and terrigenous inputs and a precisely

determining water circulation is a perquisite to a better

knowledge of the fate of such inputs. In coastal circulation and

environmental studies a high level of resolution is generally

needed and numerical modelling is the only satisfactory

method. 2-D and 3D modelling where used to calculate

instantaneous current in space and time. As tide, wind and

freshwater inputs represented the three major driving forces,

numerical modelling was associated to data collection of

current speed and direction, water levels, wind, river

discharge. Validation of the models, realised by the

comparison of computations and measurements, showed a

good agreement. From the instantaneous bi-dimensional model

used to determine tidal currents it was possible to calculate the

long term trajectories of water that represent the effective

displacement of the water masses resulting from several

complete tidal cycles. Wind driven currents calculated by the

three-dimensional model showed how circulation generate

specific vertical structure in the lagoon. The influence of

freshwater inputs by the Rewa river on the circulation is

presented and discussed.

BOUNDARY CURRENTS AND BARRIER REEFS.

Furnas, Miles *. *Australian Institute of Marine Science,

Townsville, Queensland 4810, Australia. Email:

mfurnas@aims.gov.au

Well organized boundary currents flow along the seaward

margins of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR: East Australian

Current), Ningaloo Reef (Leeuwin Current) and the Papuan

Barrier Reef (PBR: Kiri Current). Wind-stress along the

Ningaloo Reef system and the western PBR is strongly

favorable to Ekman upwelling. While upwelling can bring

large quantities of nutrients to the surface, stimulating

productivity, cold water from the thermocline would retard

coral growth. A dynamic balance between wind stress and

geostrophic pressure gradients in the Leeuwin and Kiri

Currents inhibits large-scale or continuous upwelling. Along

southern GBR, the geostrophic structure of the EAC favors

large-scale intrusive upwelling which is counter-balanced by a

cross-shelf pressure gradient set up by wind stress from the SE

trade winds. Intermittent upwelling has also been recorded

along southern Java and the Gulf of Panama. Barrier reef

development appears to be favored in settings which receive

episodic nutrient inputs from upwelling processes, but are not

continuously subject to low-temperature upwelled waters..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A12: Hydrodynamics

72

MODELLING GENE CURRENTS BETWEEN CORAL

REEF ISLANDS.

Hearn, C*, Black, R, Johnson, M, and Hatcher B,

Oceanography, University College, University of New

South Wales, ADFA, Canberra, Act 2600, Australia.

Email: C.Hearn@adfa.edu.au

This paper presents a model of the transport of larvae

between coral reef islands in the Easter Group of the Abrolhos

Islands off Western Australia. It investigates the relationship

between model inter-island hydrodynamic connectivity and

observed genetic connectivity. Its outcome provides new

information on the role of ocean dispersal in gene flow. This

basic question of the spatial scales over which ocean currents

can carry genetic information is critical to our knowledge of

the interdependence of marine systems, and the management

of biodiversity. The study involves two species of inter-tidal

snail, one a direct developer Bembicium vittatum and the other

a planktonic disperser, and spans spatial scales of hundreds of

metres to tens of kms. The numerical model SPECIES was

run for a period of one year using combined wind, wave, tidal,

and Leeuwin Current forcing with all of these forcing factors

varied seasonally. At first sight, B. vittatum, which has no

planktonic stage, might be thought to have no means of

moving between islands but the genetic variances point

strongly to the existence of such hydrodynamic connectivity

and this is presumably due to rafting of the egg masses. A

comparison is made between the observed genetic variance Gst

of B. vittatum, between various inter-island sites, and the

SPECIES model hydrodynamic connectivities based on the

dispersal of surface water between the same sites.

OBTAINING INFORMATION ON CORAL REEF

FRICTION AND SOME IMPLICATIONS FOR

NUTRIENT UPTAKE.

Hearn, C* and Atkinson, M. *Oceanography, University

College, University of New South Wales, ADFA, Canberra,

ACT 2600, Australia. Email: c.hearn@adfa.edu.au

Changing sealevel over a coral reef affects the strength of

wave-driven currents. This effect has the potential to provide

considerable information on the nature of friction and turbulent

energy dissipation on reefs. Current-depth (c-d) coefficients

are introduced that describe the fractional change of across-reef,

and lagoonal, current with change in depth of water over

the reef flat. The c-d coefficients can be easily measured by

tidal analysis of reef, or lagoonal, currents and have the

potential to provide information on some of the most poorly

understood aspects of reef hydrodynamics. This paper derives

c-d coefficients theoretically using both an analytical

hydrodynamic model, and the three-dimensional numerical

model SPECIES. Comparisons are then made with data from

two reefs. The first is Ningaloo Reef in northwest Australia,

which is a typical barrier reef with a narrow coastal lagoon,

and the second is Kaneohe Bay in Oahu, Hawaii, where the

reef is unusually wide. The analysis uses mixing length theory

based on various roughness lengths for different types of coral.

The modelled turbulent energy dissipation is used to determine

both the Stanton number (which measures the ratio of the

uptake of phosphorus to its net flux over the reef flat), and its

variation with the depth of water over the reef; comparisons

are made with Atkinson-Bilger roughness theory.

SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN DENSITY

DISTRIBUTIONS AND CIRCULATION PATTERNS AT

MAJURO ATOLL, THE REPUBLIC OF THE

MARSHALL ISLANDS.

Kraines, Steven*, Masahiko Isobe, Hiroshi Komiyama.

*Dept. Chemical System Engineering, University of Tokyo,

7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656 Japan. Email:

steven@prosys.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp

As a part of an ongoing project to study the negative effects

of human activities on coastal margin ecosystems and how

they might be mitigated, we have been investigating the

circulation patterns at Majuro Atoll. Majuro Atoll is

characterized by the nearly complete closure of the southern

atoll rim by US army engineers in the 1950’s. This closure of

exchange channels between the lagoon and the open ocean

may have altered the circulation and residence time of water in

the atoll lagoon. In order to clarify the mechanisms that

determine the circulation in the lagoon, we measured vertical

and horizontal distributions of temperature and salinity every

three months from April 1998 to June 1999, characterizing

density distributions for each season. We used a robust

diagnostic three dimensional residual currents circulation

model to simulate the circulation patterns for each of the

measured density distributions. The circulation patterns within

the lagoon, which have been shown to be driven primarily by a

combination of wind stress, wave induced radiation stress, and

density variations, varied significantly. Water exchange times

between the lagoon and the ocean ranged from 11.5 to 14.2

days. In conclusion, seasonal variations in wind, density and

wave height have non-negligible effects on the circulation

patterns at Majuro Atoll.

BOUNDARY LAYER MIXING AND CIRCULATION

OVER ROUGH TOPOGRAPHY: FLOW OVER CORAL

REEFS.

Monismith, S.G.*, M.A. Reidenbach, J.R. Koseff, A. Genin,

G. Yahel. Environmental Fluid Mechanics Laboratory,

Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-4020 USA.

Email: monismith@ce.stanford.edu

A field study was conducted in Eilat, Israel, the Red Sea to

study the role that bottom roughness plays on mixing and

turbulence in the overlying water column. The motivation for

this work is the fundamental role that turbulence plays in coral

reef ecology. Fluid flow acts to transport nutrients, larvae,

wastes and numerous other constituents to and from a reef. The

structure of the flow near the reef, within the turbulent bottom

boundary layer, is related to the complex structure of the

topography of a reef. This turbulent flow controls exchanges of

both mass and momentum between the corals and the

overlying water. In this study, flow measurements were made

using Accoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCP), Accoustic

Doppler Velocimeters (ADV), and Conductivity, Temperature,

Depth (CTD) probes. A detailed bathymetric study was also

conducted to capture the roughness of the reef. Three different

sites were measured, two over the reef system and, as a control

experiment, one site over a sandy bottom. To test the

relationship between form drag and skin friction, nylon

sheeting was also placed over one test section whithin the reef

to study the relative contributions of form drag and skin

friction. Detailed measurements of near-bottom turbulence

give a measure of Reynold’s stresses and bottom shear

stresses. Mixing coefficients were measured using calculations

of turbulence dissipation and shear. Combining these

measurements with velocity profiles throughout the water

column give us a complete picture of circulation in and above

the reef..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A12: Hydrodynamics

73

FIELD-OBSERVATION ANALYSIS OF PHYSICAL

ENVIRONMENTS OF A FRINGING REEF AT

ISHIGAKI ISLAND UNDER INFLUENCES FROM

INLAND AND OFFSHORE.

Nadaoka K.*, Y. Nihei, R. Kumano, T. Yokobori, T.

Oomija. Graduate School of Information Science and

Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 O-okayakma,

Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8552, Japan. Email:

nadaoka@mei.titech.ac.jp

To investigate the physical environments of a fringing coral

reef, especially possible influences both from inland and

offshore, we have conducted a field survey at Shiraho coast in

the Ishigaki Is., Okinawa, Japan, by deploying 16 moored

buoys in and around the reef, on which various sensors for

continuous measurements of water temperature, salinity,

turbidity and chlorophyll.a concentration were installed.

Several bottom-mounted current meters and wave gauges were

also. The results show, e.g., the abrupt decrease and increase of

the water temperature during the attack of a typhoon, resultant

temperature being about 1 degree lower than before. The main

cause of this abrupt change and the difference between inside

and outside the reef in the thermal response to the atmospheric

agitation are investigated. For normal atmospheric conditions,

the overall characteristics of currents in the coral reef is found

to be governed by the dynamic balance among tide, waves and

wind effects. Thermal environments in the reef are also

examined by a heat budget analysis, indicating that it is

influenced both by the atmospheric conditions and the

temperature difference between in and outside the reef. The

salinity and turbidity variations near the river mouth and their

cause are also investigated.

NEARSHORE WAVE MODELLING FOR BEACH

WITH CORAL REEFS ALONG THE RED SEA.

Rakha K.A. and Abul-Azm A.G.*. *Irrigation and

Hydraulics Dept., Faculty of Engrg., Cairo University,

Giza, Egypt. Email: ecma@access.com.eg

The Sahl Hasheesh development is located about 20 km

south of Hurghada City along the Red Sea coast in Egypt. The

shorefront is almost 12 km with a large sandy bay situated in

the middle of the development. A small island is located about

2.5 km east of the shoreline with a coral shoal (water depth of

6.0m) surrounding the island. This paper provides the

nearshore wave conditions calculated using the RCPWAVE

and the REF/DIF models. Both models are based on the Mild

Slope Equations (MSE) valid for bed slope up to 1:3. The

simulations performed showed that the RCPWAVE model is

not suitable for this specific site due to the complexity of the

bathymetry involved. The model produced spurious results at

areas with the waves propagating parallel to steep coral edges.

These spurious results increased for the cases with larger

angles between the direction of propagation and the wave

direction. Results obtained using the REF/DIF model showed

to be more realistic compared to those obtained by RCPWAVE

model. This paper shows that for areas with complex coral reef

formation -as in the Red Sea- more research is needed to

develop models capable of incorporating all the relevant

physical processes.

A LABORATORY STUDY OF FINE-SCALE MIXING

AND MASS TRANSPORT ABOVE A CORAL REEF.

Reidenbach*, M.A., J.R. Koseff, and M.A.R. Koehl.

*Environmental Fluid Mechanics Laboratory, Stanford

University, Stanford, California 94305-4020, USA. Email:

mar10@stanford.edu

Dissolved chemical cues have been shown in the laboratory

to induce settlement by the larvae of various benthic

invertebrates. One such species is the nudibranch, Phestilla

siboga, whose larvae metamorphose in response to a species

specific metabolite from its prey, the coral Porites compressa.

To determine how such chemical cues affect larval settlement

in nature, a detailed understanding of how dissolved cues

disperse in ambient water flow is needed. In this study, a

constructed reef made of P. compressa skeletons was placed in

a water flume capable of producing both a mean current and

surface waves. The flow environment in the flume was driven

to mimic the turbulent flow measured in the reef dominated by

P. compressa in Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii. Using laser-Doppler

anemometry (LDA), detailed flow fields above the constructed

reef were measured. The structure of the odorant field leaching

off the corals was studied using a planar-laser induced

fluorescence (PLIF) technique. In this technique, rhodamine

dye was spread over the surfaces of the coral and leached into

the water column. The dye was fluoresced with the laser, then

digitally photographed, and the resulting images were

interrogated to quantify the structure and mass transport of the

dissolved constituent. The fine scale spatial structure of

chemical filaments from the reef not only reveals the spatial

and temporal patterns of concentrations encountered by larvae,

but also sheds light on how rough reef topography affects

mixing processes.

EFFECTS OF ACROSS-SHELF HEAT TRANSPORT ON

SUMMERTIME REEF TEMPERATURES.

Smith, Ned P.* *Harbor Branch Oceanographic

Institution, 5600 Highway 1 North, Fort Pierce, Florida

34946 U.S.A. Email: nsmith@hboi.edu

A finite-difference computer model is used to simulate

across-shelf heat transport and the resulting temperature

fluctuations under upwelling and downwelling conditions.

Bottom topography and summertime weather conditions are

based on historical data from Lee Stocking Island, Exuma

Cays, Bahamas. Results suggest that advective heat transport

is highly sensitive to wind direction, and that temperature

changes occur over time periods of 1-2 days. In contrast, local

heating and cooling, primarily in response to incoming solar

radiation, net outgoing longwave radiation and evaporation,

occurs over time periods on the order of one week and longer.

Under normal midsummer weather conditions, advective

warming and cooling dominates local warming and cooling.

Heating under clear skies is significantly reduced if wind

directions are upwelling favorable and produce advective

cooling. Even for relatively cloudy conditions, near-bottom

heating at the reef can be significant if wind directions are

downwelling favorable and warm water floods onto the inner

shelf..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A12: Hydrodynamics

74

ALONG-REEF CURRENTS FORCED BY OBLIQUELY

INCIDENT WAVES

Symonds, G*. *School of Geography and Oceanography,

University College, ADFA, University of New South Wales,

Canberra, Australia.

Email g.symonds@adfa.edu.au

As normally incident waves break on the seaward facing reef

slope cross-reef gradients in cross-shore wave momentum

produce wave setup of order 0.1 to 0.5m and cross reef

currents of order 0.1 to 1m/s. The magnitude of the setup and

cross-reef currents depends on factors such as the incident

wave height, the depth over the reef, the width of the reef flat

and bottom friction. In addition to setup and cross-reef

currents, obliquely incident waves will also force along-reef

currents due to cross-reef gradients in the along-reef wave

momentum flux. The situation is similar to alongshore

currents on beaches forced by obliquely incident waves for

which numerous theoretical and observational studies have

been reported in the literature. In this paper some of these

models are applied to an idealised reef which differs from a

beach in that the bottom slope through the surf zone is

typically an order of magnitude larger and there is not

necessarily a shoreline. The steeper bottom slope produces

narrower surf zones and hence stronger along-reef currents

than the equivalent, less steep beach with the same incident

wave height. However, high friction coefficients on the reef

will reduce current speeds. The absence of a shoreline allows

strong cross-reef flows which, through non-linear interaction

with the along-reef flows, may provide an efficient mechanism

for lateral mixing of along-reef momentum. Analytic and

numerical results using both uniform and randomly distributed

incident wave fields will be discussed..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A13: Dust and Geoscience

Session A13: Dust and Caribbean-wide Coral Reef Decline: an Hypothesis and

Geosceintific Contributions to the Understanding of Coral Reefs

75

BALI AS A REEF HABITAT.

Borel Best M.* & Boekschoten, G.J. *National Museum

Natural History, Naturalis P.O.Box 9517, 2300 RA Leiden

The Netherlands. Email: Best@naturalis.nnm.nl

Geological and biological data on balinese reefs are

presented. The oldest reefs developed on top of neogene pillow

lava flows. From these, only travertine remains as redeposited

karstic infillings. Sections of early and late pleistocene reefs

are preserved in the bukit peninsula. Post glacial reef

originated in several submarine settings: along limestone cliffs

and denuded volcanic hardnecks, on lava outflows and on

residual boulder coasts washed by oceanic surfs from lahar

deposits. Because of a varied topography and the presence of

active volcanoes, reefs developed under a multitude of

different environmental stresses. Living reefs are discussed,

and compared to other reefs in indonesia in respect to coral

composition and biodiversity.

PLEISTOCENE REEFS IN THE SOUTHERN RED SEA

AS FORAGING HABITAT FOR HOMINIDS.

Bruggemann J.H.*, M.M. Guillaume, R. von Cosel, R.T.

Buffler, B. Negassi, S.M. Berhe, Y. Libsekal, R.C. Walter.

*Experimental Zoology Group, Wageningen University,

P.O. Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Email: henrich.bruggemann@morf.edc.wag-ur.nl

The discovery of early Middle Stone Age tools in primary

context within a raised Pleistocene reef terrace on the Red Sea

coast of Eritrea, dated to 125 +/-7 ka, suggests that early

humans were harvesting food from marine habitats during the

last interglacial (Walter et al. 2000). Sediment characteristics

and faunal compositions of these marine deposits are currently

under investigation to reconstruct potential resources for these

hominids in time and space. Vertical changes in sediment

facies represent a depositional cycle from the onset of the last

interglacial marine highstand to still stand. This transgressive

cycle begins with an oyster-bearing cobble lag deposit,

followed by a biostrome with molluscs, echinoids and

scattered corals, and concludes with the development of a

fringing coral reef. Lateral facies changes, especially in coral

growth form and position, suggest the remains of a complete

fringing reef sequence. Comparison with modern coral fauna

in the area indicates that it developed in an open-marine,

shallow and calm embayment. In the course of the

transgression cycle, food sources changed from oysters

attached to rocks to free-living, diversified molluscs and

crustaceans, related to the development of a coral reef

ecosystem. This change in potential food sources provides

clues to interpret the pattern of distribution of bifaces and

obsidian flakes and blades in the terrace, and to the adaptation

of early humans to marine habitats. Walter et al. (2000).

Nature 405: 65-69

CARBONATE DYNAMICS ON HIGH ENERGY REEF

FRONTS.

Chisholm J.R.M.*. *Observatoire Océanologique

Européen, Centre Scientifique de Monaco, Avenue Saint-Martin,

MC98000, Monaco; email:

j.chisholm@aims.gov.au

Reefs in high energy environments grow to sea level because

their shallow windward margins are dominated by coralline

algae, not by corals. Coralline algae have been likened to the

cement that binds together the bricks from which reefs are

built, inferring that their contribution to carbonate deposition is

substantially less than that of corals. Measurements of crustose

coralline calcification on the windward reef at lizard island,

northern gbr, indicate that low rates of vertical accretion are a

product of high rates of erosion, not of low rates of carbonate

deposition. Calcification was measured in situ by isolating

samples within an incubation chamber and then following

changes in the o2 concentration and ph of the surrounding

seawater induced by their metabolism using sensors connected

to a submersible respirometer. Removal of water samples

during certain experiments enabled determination of changes

in seawater total alkalinity (at). Incorporating the measured

changes in chemical parameters into equations describing the

seawater carbonate equilibrium enabled calculation first of the

metabolic quotients of samples and second of their rates of

carbonate deposition. Concomitant measurement of light

enabled calcification to be regressed against irradiance and

whole day net calcification to be estimated by integrating the

resulting equations with half sine curve models of the diurnal

change in solar irradiance. These calculations indicate that

coralline calcification can contribute up to 10.3 kg caco3 m -2 y -1

on reef crests that have a surface relief factor of 3.1 when

they cover 100% of the reef.

CORAL REEFS OF THE AMERICAS.

Cortés.J.* *Centro de Investigación en Ciencias del Mar y

Limnología (CIMAR), Ciudad de la Investigación,

Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, San José 2060,

Costa Rica. Email: jcortes@cariari.ucr.ac.cr

The American continent has three main coral reef areas:

Brazil, Caribbean and eastern Pacific. Brazilian reefs are

peculiar in their structure and coral composition. Caribbean

reefs are the best studied, most diverse, largest, and extensive.

Eastern Pacific reefs are small, isolated and built by a few

corals. The present day reef building coral species

composition is the result of tectonic events and ocean currents.

The opening of the south Atlantic and the uplift of the Andes

resulted in the separation of the Brazilian and the Caribbean

faunas, which is reaffirmed by the ocean currents. The

Caribbean and eastern Pacific were separated by the rise of the

Central American isthmus, and the present day fauna of the

eastern Pacific is the result of ocean circulation. The corals

and structure of these three areas are very different but the

impact of natural and anthropogenic disturbances are similar.

International cooperation is needed to study, protect and used

the coral reefs of the Americas..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A13: Dust and Geoscience

76

CORAL MICROATOLL SEISMOCHEMISTRY AND

THE GREAT TAMBORA ERUPTION OF 1815 AD.

Gagan, M.K. * , Sieh, K., Hantoro, W.S., Lynch, H.S.,

Edwards, R.L. and Zachariasen, J. Research School of

Earth Sciences, The Australian National University,

Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia. Email:

Michael.Gagan@anu.edu.au

We present a new method for reconstructing seismic uplift

associated with palaeo-earthquakes and volcanic aerosol-induced

reductions in solar irradiance using carbon isotope

ratios d

13

C) in Porites spp. microatolls. We tested the

hypothesis that d

13

C in Porites skeletons is sensitive to light

intensity by sampling a slab cut horizontally into a large, dead

Porites spp. microatoll from southwest Sumatra, Indonesia.

High temporal resolution measurements (bi-weekly) of d

13

C in

the coral skeleton show an abrupt increase in

13

C in response to

the 0.7 m co-seismic uplift of the coral during a magnitude 8

earthquake that rocked southwest Sumatra on 10 February

1797. The increase in coral d

13

C immediately following uplift

is a response to higher light intensity in the shallow water

where the coral continued to grow. We then established an

annual chronology using the clear annual cycle in the coral

d

13

C to see if we could detect any volcanic aerosol-induced

reduction in solar irradiance following the great 1815 AD

eruption of Mt Tambora in Sumbawa, Indonesia. The coral

d

13

C record shows sharply lower values for ~16 months

immediately following the eruption that equate to solar

irradiance levels lower than those during a typical cloudy

monsoon season. Microatolls appear to be extraordinary

natural instruments for extending the record of earthquakes

and volcanic eruptions into the pre-instrumental past.

NUTRIENT INFLUX FROM AFRICAN DUST AT

VIRGIN ISLANDS NATIONAL PARK.

Garrison, V.*, J. D. Ray, L. Ashbaugh and T. Cahill.

Biological Resources Division, U.S. Geological Survey, P.O.

Box 710, St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands 00831. Email:

ginger_garrison@usgs.gov

The Saharan Air Layer transports approximately one billion

tons of African dust annually to the Caribbean and Americas to

the west and the Mediterranean to the north. Originating in an

area stretching from Chad to Mauritania, the dust is composed

primarily of clay soil minerals and transports nutrients and

biological organisms to the oligotrophic waters of the

Caribbean. At Virgin Islands National Park (VINP) in the

northeastern Caribbean, mean aerosol (<2.5 _m)

concentrations are among the highest nationwide and reported

to exceed 21 _g/m 3 during dust events. In this study, we

estimate the annual influx of nutrients (ammonia, nitrate,

nitrite, and phosphorous) and trace metals (Fe, Hg, Pb) from

African dust to Virgin Islands waters and coral reefs, using

PRIMENET data from VINP.

NATURAL HYDROCARBON SEEPAGE: A CONTROL

ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF CARBONATE REEFS

AND BUILD-UPS IN AND AROUND THE MARINE

RESERVES OF CARTIER ISLET AND ASHMORE

REEF, NORTH-WEST SHELF, AUSTRALIA.

Glenn, Kriton & Geoffrey O’Brien Australian Geological

Survey Organisation, GPO Box 378, Canberra, 2601

Email: Kriton.Glenn@agso.gov.au

The newly declared Cartier Marine reserve and Ashmore

Reef (a Category ‘1’ marine park) are shelf edge coral reefs

located on Australia’s North-West Shelf, a prolific

hydrocarbon province. The reefs are situated at a major

geologic and oceanographic boundary, with the conjunction of

the Indonesian Through Flow (ITF) and the Indian Ocean

providing diverse genetic opportunities fed by significant

nutrient upwelling. Ashmore Reef (~150 km 2 ), and Cartier

Islet (36.3 km 2 ) rise from depths of >400m, harbour a wide

range of habitats, and are considered a vital regional genetic

‘bank’. Remote sensing studies (synthetic aperture radar,

geochemical sniffer, airborne laser fluorosensor and seismic

data) and sediment sampling have demonstrated that the

majority of reefs and build-ups in the area are associated

spatially with active and palaeo-hydrocarbon seeps. These

seeps are localised over either fault systems which tap the

reservoir, along migration fairways, or at the pinch-out of the

regional Cretaceous top seal. The data suggest that the reefs

and the build-ups formed via a sequential process. Firstly,

hydrocarbon seepage localised seafloor biological

communities, which formed topographically positive features.

DUST TO DUST: IRON AS THE FUNCTIONAL LINK

BETWEEN EOLIAN DUST AND MARINE

INFECTIOUS DISEASES.

Hayes M.L.*, E.A. Shinn and R.T.Barber. *Duke

University Marine Laboratory, 135 Duke Marine Lab Rd.,

Beaufort, NC USA. Email: mhayes@duke.edu

Recent variability in climate (NAO and Sahelian

precipitation) and eolian dust transport have been well-documented

in the scientific literature. Observations of recent

increases in the outbreak rate of marine infectious diseases

have also been widely documented. Analysis of climate, dust

and disease time series suggests that significant changes

occurred in the early to mid-1970s, particularly between 1972

to 1976. We propose that the mid-1970s climate shift

increased the amount of iron supplied to the oceans via

atmospheric deposition of dust, thereby altering the

micronutrient (iron) supply that under normal climatic

conditions limits growth and virulence of pathogenic microbes.

In order to test this iron/virulence hypothesis, we developed a

mesocosm infectious disease model based on the temperate

scleractinian (stony) coral Oculina arbuscula and confirmed

bacterial pathogens. This model allows controlled inoculation

experiments with pathogens grown under varying

micronutrient conditions. These experiments specifically test

whether iron-replete growing conditions can increase virulence

enough to alter the dose/response curve of the pathogen-coral

mesocosm. We have mechanically generated pseudo-eolian

dust from sediments collected in the Lake Chad Basin of the

African Sahel (N’Djamena, Chad). The geochemical

similarity of this pseudo-eolian dust to Caribbean eolian dust

samples confirms the connection between Lake Chad supply

source sediments and the material actually deposited in the

Caribbean Basin..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A13: Dust and Geoscience

77

COMPOSITION AND DISTRIBUTION OF

RELATIVELY FINE-GRAINED SEDIMENTS OFF

MIYAKO-JIMA, RYUKYU ISLANDS, JAPAN.

Iryu, Yasufumi* Takayuki Ogoshi, and Yoshihiro Tsuji.

*Institute of Geology and Paleontology, Graduate School of

Science, Tohoku Univ., Sendai 980-8578, Japan. Email:

iryu@dges.tohoku.ac.jp

Examined were composition and distribution of relatively

fine-grained (< 4 mm in diameter) sediments in reef to shelf

areas off Miyako-jima, Ryukyu Islands, Japan. The sediments

from selected 50 sites were embedded in an epoxy resin and

then made into thin sections. Composition of organic skeletons

(benthic foraminifera, planktonic foraminifera, corals,

bryozoans, molluscs, coralline algae, Halimeda, and other

bioclasts) and intra-/extraclasts were determined by point

counting method. Eight sedimentary facies were discriminated

by Q-mode cluster analysis. They are: coralline algal-molluscan

facies (no particular environment), coral facies

(reef), intra-/extraclast facies (shelf edge to upper shelf slope),

benthic foraminiferal gravelly facies (outer shelf), benthic

foraminiferal sandy facies (reef to inner shelf), planktonic

foraminiferal facies (shelf slope), fine bioclast facies (shallow

(< 50 m) restricted environment and deep (> 200 m) shelf

slope), and coarse bioclast facies (shelf to upper shelf slope).

SUPRATIDAL AND INTERTIDAL LITHIFICATION

ON RAINE ISLAND, NORTHERN GREAT BARRIER

REEF, AUSTRALIA.

Jell J.S.*. *Department of Earth Sciences, The University

of Queensland, St Lucia 4072, Australia. Email:

j.jell@earth.uq.edu.au

Raine island lies 620 km north-northwest of cairns on a

detached reef of the northern great barrier reef. Raine island

has a suite of geomorphic features which, in combination, are

not reported from reef islands elsewhere on the great barrier

reef. The dominant geomorphic feature is a phosphate rock

platform which forms the island core. The phosphate rock is a

classical example of a recent insular phosphate deposit that has

formed by cementation and replacement of holocene carbonate

sands by phosphate leached from a superficial blanket of avian

guano. The main phosphate mineral is dahllite, which occurs

as microlaminated grain coatings and as bioclast replacement.

Whitlockite occurs as minor pore-fillings. The platform is

surrounded by a scarp which is indicative of a period of

significant island erosion. Surrounding the phosphate platform

is a broad swale zone, which is underlain at shallow depth by

lithified beach sediments with carbonate cements mainly as

thin fringes of aragonite loosely coating the grains.

A CLASSIC CARIBBEAN ALGAL RIDGE, HOLANDES

CAYS, PANAMA: AN ALGAL COATED STORM

DEPOSIT.

Macintyre Ian G., Peter W. Glynn, and Robert S. Steneck.

National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian

Institution, Washington, DC 20560 USA. Email:

Macintyre.Ian@NMNH.SI.EDU

Holandes Cays, Panama, long considered a classic Caribbean

algal ridge, can no longer be classified as such because

crustose coralline algae have played a very minor role in the

formation of its relief. Six core holes drilled across the outer

ridge of Holandes Cays indicate that the relief was formed by

storm deposits. In addition, the crustose coralline flora is more

characteristic of coral reefs than that associated with algal

ridges. Twenty-seven radiocarbon dates reveal that these

deposits accumulated 2,000 to 3,000 years ago. The present-day

surface of this ridge is extensively bioeroded and is

dominated by a thin cover of crustose coralline algae, but little

substrate accumulation has occurred over the past 2,000 years.

HOLOCENE SEDIMENTS OF THE HERON-WISTARI

REEF PLATFORM: A NEW MODEL FOR PLATFORM

REEF EVOLUTION.

Opdyke, Bradley N.* David A. Ryan, & John S. Jell, *The

Australian National University, Department of Geology,

Canberra ACT 0200. Email: Bradley.Opdyke@anu.edu.au

The combination of core and seismic data from the Heron-Wistari

reef platforms have allowed the development of a new

conceptual model for the evolution of carbonate facies on the

antecedent platforms during the Holocene. Rather than the

fore-reef, reef, back-reef and lagoon facies growing straight up

to sea level, as is illustrated in most text books, these facies on

the Heron and Wistari platforms change dramatically. During

the post-flooding "catch-up" phase of reef growth most of the

surface of both platforms was covered with coral growth.