9ICRS Plenary Addresses

PLENARY ADDRESSES

1

ROLE OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS IN CORAL

REEF PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT.

Alcala, Angel C.* *Silliman University–Angelo King

Center for Research and Environmental Management,

Marine Laboratory, Bantayan, 6200 Dumaguete City,

Philippines. Email: suakcrem@fil.net

Coral reefs are now under severe stress from both natural and

human-induced environmental changes causing considerable

damage. Many of the human activities directly or indirectly

impacting coral reefs are driven by socio-economic factors.

Foremost among these factors is poverty. In developing

countries the need for sources of subsistence living, of

livelihood, and of income through tourism and exploitation of

economically important species is great. As a result, coral reefs

have been mined, blasted, poisoned, overfished or otherwise

subjected to misuse and abuse. There must be a way to utilize

socio-economic values of and benefits from coral reefs as

incentive for their protection and sustainable management. To

do this, successful approaches to conservation such as

establishment of marine protected areas, community-based

coastal resource management and integrated coastal zone

management as well as other useful management tools should

be applied to current efforts at coral reef conservation. Indeed,

experience has shown that such approaches may be our last

option to stop the degradation of coral reefs and coral reef

resources heavily impacted by man.

ECOMORPHOLOGY OF REEF FISHES:

TRANSCENDING BARRIERS IN SPACE AND TIME

Bellwood, David R.*. *Dept Of Marine Biology, James

Cook University, Townsville, Qld. 4811, Australia. Email:

david.bellwood@jcu.edu.au

Coral reefs support a staggering diversity of species and

forms. This grabs our attention but challenges our attempts to

describe the system or the biology of the component species.

We now have a workable taxonomic description for most reef

fishes and corals. Quantitative and experimental studies have

added to this knowledge to provide a picture of the factors

shaping local populations. The challenge now is to look

beyond individual species and reefs to patterns and processes

operating at larger scales. Recent descriptions of congruent

global biogeographic patterns in reef fishes and corals point to

processes that operate beyond species and population levels,

and highlight the need to consider reefs systems in a global

context. Furthermore, observations of the abilities of

individuals emphasises the critical importance of

understanding the function or role of individuals in reef

systems. Ecomorphology provides a basis for evaluating

individual abilities which transcends space and time, a method

based on a description of abilities alone. I will provide

examples from reef fishes which describe how this approach

may help us to understand the significance of abilities in

shaping assemblages and in describing the roles of reef fish

among habitats, between oceans and back through time to the

reef fish assemblages of the Eocene, Jurassic and Triassic. This

approach offers a common language as relevant to marine

parks managers as to palaeontologists where abilities, not

names or numbers, are important.

CORAL REEF CONSERVATION IN PALAU: A

SUCCESS STORY

Idechong, Noah* Palau

No abstract

HOMAGE TO STYLOPHORA PISTILLATA: AN

IMPORTANT CORAL IN CORAL REEF RESEARCH.

Loya Y., Department of Zoology, The George S. Wise

Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv

69978, Israel. Email: yosiloya@post.tau.ac.il

Stylophora pistillata (Esper 1797), one of the most

important hermatypic species on a global scale, has been used

for many years as a key species for coral research in many

fields, including Coral Biology, Ecology, Physiology,

Biochemistry, Geochemistry, Immunology, Evolution,

Paleoecology, Biogeography and others. This paper highlights

some of the major contributions made in coral reef research

using S. pistillata as a model species, from the community

level to the cellular and molecular levels. Studies concerning

regional variations at the population level include population

structure and dynamics, life history strategy, growth and

regulation of populations, regeneration, competitive networks

and reproductive strategy. The accumulated information has

served studies contributing to coral reef conservation and

restoration strategies. Major contributions have been made to

our knowledge of the physiology of corals, especially in

advancing our understanding of the symbiotic relationship

between the coral host and its symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae),

such as environmental effects (biotic and/or abiotic factors) on

photosynthesis, respiration and calcification mechanisms,

energy budgets (autotrophy vs. heterotrophy), carbon

partitioning and utilization, adaptive mechanisms of algal

regulation and causes and effects of coral bleaching. Other

studies concerning symbiotic relationships between the coral

host and animals associated with it (sponges, other cnidarians,

molluscs, crustaceans, worms echinoderms and fish) discuss

obligatory, mutualistic or parasitic relationships affecting the

life history of the coral and its symbiotic organisms. Seminal

studies have been performed on marine pollution effects (crude

oil, sewage and phosphates) at the

CORAL REEFS OF INDONESIA: PAST, PRESENT AND

FUTURE

Nontji, Anugerah., Indonesian Institute of Science,

Jakarta. Email:aanontji@indosat.net.id

The geographic setting of Indonesia, situated in the tropics

between Asia and Australia, and between the Pacific and the

Indian Ocean, has made this archipelago an ideal place for

coral reefs to grow. Coral reefs are found along the coast of

many of the islands in various formations e.g. fringing reefs,

barrier reefs, and atolls. Coral reefs have been long known to

provide various uses for the coastal community, such as for

food, building materials, trades, etc. Recent development has

confronted the reefs to an increasing threat because of the

detrimental impact of human activities, such as from

destructive fishing techniques (dynamiting, poisoning, etc),

over exploitation of resources, pollution, etc. The total area of

coral reefs in Indonesia is estimated roughly about 85,700 km 2 .

Recent surveys indicated that only about 6 % of the Indonesian

reefs is still in excellent condition, and the rest are in various

stages of destruction. There is a strong need to rehabilitate and

manage the coral reefs in proper way so as to maintain their

sustainability. A Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management

Program (COREMAP) was launched in 1998, to respond to

this issue. This multi-sectoral program is planned for 15 years

(until 2013) and will be executed in ten provinces in Indonesia.

The first phase (1998-2001) however, will be executed in four

provinces (Riau, South Sulawesi, Papua, and Nusa Tenggara

Timur) and financially supported by the World Bank, Asia

Development Bank, and AusAID..9ICRS Plenary Addresses

2

CORAL REEFS AND CORAL REEF STUDIES IN

JAPAN

Omori M.*. *Department of Aquatic Biosciences, Tokyo

University of Fisheries, 4-5-7 Konan, Minato-ku, Tokyo

108-8477, Japan Email: makomori@tokyo-u-fish.ac.jp

Japan has a long history of coral reef research. Japan was

even a leading nation in the world in this research at one time.

In June 1934, the Japanese Society for the Promotion of

Scientific Research established the Palao Tropical Biological

Station in Koror Island, Palau, which was then governed by the

Japanese Mandate of the League of Nations. The war

unfortunately stopped all studies there in 1943. In spite of the

short life span of the station, the research activities by Prof. S.

Hatai and 29 young Japanese scientists contributed

significantly to studies on coral reefs. The return of the

Ryukyu Archipelago to Japan in 1972 allowed researchers

access to coral reefs once again. The University of Ryukyus

began research at the Sesoko Marine Science Center. The

Akajima Marine Science Laboratory, which is a small non-governmental

research station, was established at Akajima

Island in 1988. Scientific research on coral reefs is being

conducted at various institutions in Japan today. Japanese

Coral Reef Society was established in 1997, and is actively

promoting exchange of information and public awareness

through research, training, and publications. The coral reefs in

the Ryukyu Archipelago will be shown by video.

AGENDA 21, INTERNATIONAL CORAL REEF

INITIATIVE AND THE NEW MILLENIUM:

PROGRESS AND PROSPECTS FOR CORAL REEFS

Salvat, B.* *EPHE, ESA CNRS 8046, Université de

Perpignan, France. Email : bsalvat@univ-perp.fr

1929 (Sir Maurice Yonge), the first International Coral Reef

Symposium - ICRS - in India, 1969 , and the launching of the

International Society for Reef Studies- ISRS - in 1980 (David

Stoddart) and the International Coral Reef Initiative - ICRI - in

1995 (USA)… these are landmarks of the increasing interest

in, and concern for, coral reefs. An analysis of what has been

done and why is presented in the general context of political,

economic and social evolution over these last decades :

research for improved knowledge and management of

resources; activities at local, national, regional and global

levels; and creation and activities of international organisations

(governmental and nongovernmental) and large international

conferences. Several decades ago, the major concern focussed

on the question of what are coral reefs and how they function.

The main concern today is how to manage human activities

affecting coral reef ecosystems. The present situation -global

view of the reef ecosystem and the effects of global economic

expansion - raises the challenge of what action must be

undertaken at the beginning of the new millenium. Can we

predict what will happen and how to react at different levels

and in different fields of activities with the willingness to

preserve coral reefs for the benefit of mankind ?

RETICULATE EVOLUTION: THE ALTERNATIVE

PARADIGM.

Veron J.E.N.*. *AIMS, PMB 3, Townsville MC 4810,

Australia. Email:

For most marine organisms, ocean currents are the vehicles

of larval dispersal and are therefore the pathways of genetic

connectivity. These paths repeatedly and continuously change

over time, creating changes to the distribution ranges and

genetic compositions of species. Geographic space and

evolutionary time interact: species break apart, then re-form

into different units. For corals, this creates ‘reticulate’ patterns

in both geographic space and evolutionary time. In geographic

space, species are typically distinct in any single region but

loose their identity as definable units over very great distances.

When these patterns are envisaged in evolutionary time,

species have no time or place of origin and there are no

distinctions between geographic (sympatric) and non-geographic

(allopatric) concepts of origination. Differences

between species and subspecies taxonomic levels and between

species and ‘hybrids’ are arbitrary and/or unrecognisable.

Importantly, reticulate evolution is driven by environmental

parameters, not biological competition. Rates of evolution and

extinction (which occurs through fusions as well as

terminations of lineages) are similar over long geological

intervals. Reticulate evolution gives the overall impression of

punctuated equilibria, as is frequently observed in fossil

records.

JOURNEY TO CENTRE OF THE CENTRE: ORIGINS

OF HIGH MARINE FAUNAL DIVERSITY IN

CENTRAL INDONESIA FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF

AN ACROPOROLOGIST.

Wallace, Carden C. Museum of Tropical Queensland,

Townsville, Australia 4810. Email: carden@mtq.qld.gov.au

The reef coral mega-genus Acropora has been shown to have

had its likely origins in Africa or Europe, far from the current

“centre of diversity” of marine life, and its own location of

greatest diversity, in the Wallacea region of Indonesia. How

did this genus come to reach its current diversity focus? The

most likely explanation involves historical tectonic and

eustatic events, including partitioning of the old Tethys

Seaway during the events of the Miocene period, as well as

extinctions of a broader Pacific fauna during the more recent

eustatic periods of the Plio-Pleistocene. The continuous

presence of an open passageway through Wallacea, even

during eustatic periods, through to the present day, has ensured

that this area has retained its deepwater fauna as well as being

open to settlement by shallow water Pacific species. The

relevance of these events is collaborated by a morphological

phylogeny of the genus: a revision of these ideas, using genetic

characters, is not far behind.9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A1: Large Scale Ecology

Session A1: Large Scale Ecology of Coral Reefs: Linking Biogeography, Meta

Communities and Local Ecological Dynamics

3

SCALING THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE

CORALLINE ALGAE HYDROLITHON ONKODES TO

THE CALCIFICATION OF TWO REEFS USING IN

SITU AND REMOTE SENSING DATA.

Andréfouët Serge * , Claude Payri, J.R.M Chisholm, J.

Jaubert, H. Ripley. *University of South Florida, Dept. of

Marine Science, 140 7 th Ave. South, Saint Petersburg, Fl.

33701, USA. Email: serge@carbon.marine.usf.edu

Hydrolithon onkodes is the dominant coralline algae on the

reef flats of atoll rims in the Tuamotu archipelago and can

occupy as much as 80% of the reef surface. Conversely, on

barrier reefs in the Society islands, H. onkodes is scarce,

accounting for less than 3% percent of the total cover.

Calcification on the reef flats of Rangiroa Atoll (Tuamotu) and

Moorea Island (Society) is estimated to average 7 kg

CaCO3.m -2 .y -1 . Acquisition of multispectral (10 bands between

425-785 nm) remote sensing data using a Compact Airborne

Spectrometer Imager in 1998, enabled the distribution of H.

onkodes on these reefs to be mapped on scales of several km 2

at a spatial resolution of 1 m 2 . The oceanic margins of the atoll

reef flats were dominated by H. onkodes, interspersed with

patchy communities of encrusting corals and turfs. At Moorea,

it was necessary to combine airborne data with ground surveys

in order to map the density of algae, as this could not be

determined directly from airborne data. Considering that H.

onkodes produces 8.5-11 g CaCO3.m -2 .d -1 , its contribution to

reef flat calcification on both reefs can be compared. However,

some precautions are necessary when comparing these

contributions to the total calcification measured along entire

reefs. We discuss the hypotheses necessary to perform such

comparisons and the limits of this multi-scale exercise.

THE LENGTH OF THE LARVAL PHASE IN CORALS:

NEW INSIGHTS INTO PATTERNS OF

CONNECTIVITY.

Baird A.*. *School of Marine Biology & Aquaculture,

James Cook University, Townsville Q. 4811, Australia.

Email: andrewbaird@ozemail.com.au

One of the major goals in marine ecology is to establish the

degree of connectivity between local populations. To test the

likelihood of localised recruitment and whether or not the

geographical range of corals is influenced by dispersal ability I

compared the larval longevity of five species of acroporid

corals of contrasting distributions. Pronounced differences

were apparent among species in the capacity to delay

metamorphosis. The larvae of Acropora valida remained

competent for 90 days, compared to 60 days for A. millepora

& A. gemmifera and 14 days for A. pulchra. Furthermore, the

larvae of wide spread species settled more rapidly with peak

settlement in A. valida & A. humilis occurring on day 4

compared to day 7 for A. millepora & A. gemmifera and day

10 for A. pulchra. Successful colonization of remote locations

seems therefore to depend on both larval longevity and on

rapid settlement to enable populations to become established.

GENETIC POPULATION STRUCTURE OF A SOFT

CORAL WITH SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL MODE OF

REPRODUCTION.

Bastidas* C., Uthicke S., Fabricius K., Benzie J.A.H.

*Australian Institute of Marine Science PMB No. 3

Townsville QLD 4810 and James Cook University

Townsville QLD 4811, AUSTRALIA. Email:

c.bastidas@aims.gov.au

Many anthozoans combine sexual and asexual reproductive

modes, with dispersal between reefs being achieved by sexual

propagules, whereas asexual division of colonies is suggested

as an important mechanism to gain space in the reef. This

study aimed to investigate the relative importance of sexual

and asexual reproduction, and gene flow, between 12 reef

populations of Sinularia flexibilis (Octocorallia, Alcyoniidae)

along the Great Barrier Reef (maximum of 1300 km apart).

This widely distributed Indo-Pacific species is a gamete

broadcaster that can achieve large aggregations in near shore

reefs in the GBR. The results of electrophoretic analyses of 9

polymorphic allozymes indicated that genotypic frequencies

for each population did not differ significantly from those

expected from Hardy-Weinberg predictions. This demonstrates

a dominant role of sexual reproduction in these populations,

i.e. clones do not extend considerably beyond the minimum

spatial sampling scale in the study (5 m). However, significant

genetic differentiation between some populations (FST),

indicates that gene flow is restricted between some reefs and

even sites within a reef. Nevertheless, there was no

relationship between geographic separation and genetic

differentiation. Analysis comparing groups of populations

showed no significant differentiation on a north-south gradient

or across the shelf (in relation to distance to the coast) in the

GBR.

LARVAL COMPETENCE PERIODS INFLUENCE IN

CORAL CONNECTIVITY AND SETTLEMENT: A

MODELLING APPROACH.

Blanco-Martín, Bernardo*. *School of Marine Biology and

Aquaculture, James Cook University, Townsville QLD.

4811, Australia. Email: Bernardo.Blanco-Martin@

jcu.edu.au

Coral ecology, recovery from disturbance, biogeography and

evolution are to a certain extent determined by the dispersive

larval phase connecting their populations on different reefs.

Various factors have been identified as driving dispersal,

including the spatial properties of reefs, hydrodynamics and

larval biology. Larval competence curves describe the relative

amount of larvae available for settling at different times from

release. A study of their influence in the connectivity and

settlement in coral populations using a spatially realistic model

is presented presented. A G.I.S. coverage of the Great Barrier

Reef was employed to create an spatial representation of the

Capricorn Bunker Group in a Cellular Automata Model. The

models were run using five different larval competence curves

(three brooders Stylophora pistillata, Pocillorpora damicornis

and Seriatopora hystrix and two spawners Acropora valida

and Acropora millepora) and two different current sets

(random and south trend). The larval outputs and inputs for the

whole system and six selected reefs were investigated. The

earlier peak in the curves presented by the brooders is

translated in a larger number of larvae settling per larvae

produced in all current conditions. The longer tail in the curves

for spawners allows them to have a higher connectivity under

random currents but not under southern flow in this reef

system. Individual reefs and coral species present very

different behaviors, particularly in their connectivity..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A1: Large Scale Ecology

4

RARITY IN COMMUNITIES OF CORAL REEF

FISHES.

Caley J.R.*, Geoffrey P. Jones, and Philip L. Munday.

*School of Marine Biology and Aquaculture, James Cook

University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia.

Patterns of rarity in biological communities reflect the

interactions of processes operating on local ecological scales

and regional and biogeographic scales. A species may be rare

either in terms of its numerical abundance or its geographic

range. Its status as rare or common has important implications

for local ecological interactions and for conservation and

management issues. The study of rarity in terrestrial species

has developed rapidly in the past two decades. In comparison,

issues of rarity for marine species are poorly understood. Here

we report on analyses of rarity in coral reef fish communities.

Our analyses confirm that some patterns of rarity in these

communities are consistent with patterns previously identified

for terrestrial species while inconsistent with others. These

analyses have also highlighted the generally poor availability

of data for marine organisms with which to do such analyses.

TURBIDITY AND SEDIMENTATION EFFECTS ON

LARGE-SCALE PATTERNS OF OCTOCORAL

BIODIVERSITY.

Fabricius K.* and Glenn De’ath. *CRC for the Great

Barrier Reef World Heritage Area, Australian Institute of

Marine Science, PMB No. 3, Townsville MC, Qld 4810,

Australia. Email: k.fabricius@aims.gov.au

Patterns of octocoral biodiversity were determined from

extensive reef surveys along and across the whole GBR.

Species inventories and estimates of octocoral abundances

were assessed on 361 sites (161 reefs), each covering 1000 to

4000 m 2 between 0 and 18 m depth. Mid-shelf reefs north of

Latitude 16_ are the centre of octocoral biodiversity on the

GBR. Overlapping distribution ranges of near-shore and off-shore

taxa maximise richness on mid-shelf reefs. Taxonomic

richness decreases with increasing latitude, and is low and

relatively even across the shelf south of 21__lat. Richness is

strongly affected by water clarity, and to some extent by

sediment deposits: at any given position across and along the

shelf, the generic richness is greatest in areas of low turbidity

and high sediment deposits. Percent cover of hard corals and

octocorals are poorly explained by physical and spatial

variables. There are two major management implications of

these findings: (1) Turbidity and sedimentation, which increase

with run-off from disturbed soils, affect the generic richness of

octocorals. The reefs with highest octocoral richness are < 20

km off the coasts, and thus well within the range of terrestrial

run-off, indicating potential loss of diversity through

expanding land use. (2) Taxonomic composition is more

strongly related to environmental conditions than are total hard

and soft coral cover; taxonomic inventories are thus better

indicators of human impacts than is assessment of total cover.

THE ROLE OF ENDEMISM IN CORAL SPECIES

DIVERSITY.

Douglas Fenner.* *Australian Institute of Marine Science,

Townsville, Australia. Email: d.fenner@aims.gov.au

Endemic species have been proposed to contribute to high-diversity

coral communities. Endemic species are those with

restricted biogeographic distributions. However, in lists of

endemic corals in areas such as Indonesia, most of the endemic

species listed were described quite recently. A list of all

Acropora species described in the past 30 years shows that

most were known from one area when first described, but are

now known from several areas. In this report, new records of

coral species are given for the Philippines, Indonesia, and

Australia, some of which were previously considered endemic

to another country. Additional newly published records

indicate very low numbers of endemic species, such as only

two endemic corals now known from the Philippines,

representing only about 0.5% of the coral species known there.

A comparison of different areas around the globe indicates that

the number of endemic coral species in most areas is about 0-6

species, and that the number of endemic species does not vary

with the total species diversity in an area, over a range of two

orders of magnitude of total species diversity. Thus,

endemism does not contribute to the high coral species

diversity seen on some coral reefs.

SOURCE/SINK POPULATION STRUCTURE OF

CORAL REEF FISH: THE IMPORTANCE OF PATCH

QUALITY VERSUS PATCH LOCATION AND

IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT.

Figueira W.F.*. *Duke University Marine Lab, 135 Duke

Marine Lab Rd., Beaufort, NC 28516. Email:

wff@duke.edu

Populations of fish on individual patches of coral reef are

typically thought of as open sub-populations, dynamically

coupled via larval dispersal to a larger network of patches. In

such systems, successful management using spatial closures

requires identification of areas that contribute

disproportionately to the overall metapopulation. The coral

reef literature generally considers the spatial location of a

patch to be most important, with the term “source” applied to

upstream patches due to their ability to seed downstream

(“sink”) patches with larval recruits. There is, however,

considerable evidence that factors of habitat quality within a

patch can significantly impact the demographic rates of

resident fish. In this study I use a spatially explicit computer

simulation model of a generalized reef fish to evaluate how

patch contribution to the metapopulation is affected by these

two patch characteristics: 1) relative location; and, 2)

demographic rates. Previous modeling suggests that

understanding the relative contribution of both factors can be

central to designing successful reserves, and that uninformed

placement of reserves has the potential to negatively affect the

population by displacing fishing effort onto source areas.

Conditions such as the magnitude and direction of currents,

spatial geometry of the metapopulation, and relative

differences in demography that may cause one or the other

patch characteristic to dominate are discussed with special

attention paid to the extent of local recruitment..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A1: Large Scale Ecology

5

POPULATION DYNAMICS OF REEF FISHES AT

LARGE SCALES: USING COMPUTER SIMULATIONS

TO MAKE LARGE-SCALE INFERENCES FROM

SMALL-SCALE DATA.

Forrester G.E.*, Richard R. Vance and Mark A. Steele.

*Dept. of Biological Sciences, University of Rhode Island,

Kingston, RI 02881-0816, USA. Email address:

gforrester@uri.edu

Field demographic data collected from fish occupying small

patch reefs (a few m 2 in area) were used to parameterize a

model that describes fish abundance on a collection of several

hundred such patches of reef (which we call a

mesopopulation). Small-scale spatial density dependence

causes the relationship between settlement and mesopopulation

abundance to become nonlinear. Under many conditions

simulated, however, the nonlinearity is very slight, suggesting

that abundance measured at large scales in the field will often

be strongly correlated with settlement rates. Overall, though,

the model establishes that density dependent interactions on

small patches of reef strongly influence population dynamics

at larger spatial scales. In all cases considered, demographic

rates that are density dependent on individual reefs also prove

density dependent on the scale of the entire reef array, and

demographic rates that are independent of density at small

scales remain so at large scales. Furthermore, observed

mesopopulation-level demographic rate functions strongly

resemble approximations generated by “scaling up” the rate

functions that apply to individual reefs. Changes in between-reef

migration rate alter the magnitude but not the qualitative

nature of these mesopopulation properties.

SPATIAL PATTERNS IN THE AGE STRUCTURE,

DEMOGRAPHY AND ABUNDANCE OF A CORAL

REEF FISH, Acanthurus triostegus.

Halford, A. R.* and Meekan, M. G. *The Australian

Institute of Marine Science, P.O. Box 264, Dampier, WA,

6713, Australia. Email: a.halford@aims.gov.au

Few studies have examined spatial patterns in the

demography of coral reef fishes at scales from 10’s to 100’s of

km. Information that is currently available is either derived

from a single locality or from localities spread across large

spatial scales (>100km). In the latter case, such studies focus

on species that are the targets of fisheries and as a result,

demographic parameters are confounded by differences in

fishing effort among localities. Here, we examine variation in

the demography, age structure and abundance of a common

surgeonfish at localities spread 200km along the length of

Ningaloo Reef, WA. As this species is not fished, demographic

patterns can be compared without confounding effects of

fishing effort. Abundances were estimated using underwater

visual census while collections of adult fish provided otoliths

for age analysis. Abundances, age structures and growth and

mortality rates were compared among localities. In addition,

we attempted to identify peaks in age structures corresponding

to successful year-classes and examined the spatial coherency

of these events.

LOCAL AND REGIONAL PATTERNS IN THE

COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF CORALS.

Hughes, T.P*., H.V. Cornell, M.J. Caley, R.H. Karlson,

C.C. Wallace, J. Wolstenholme. *Department of Marine

Biology, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811,

Australia. Email: terry.hughes@jcu.edu.au

Community ecologists now recognize that to understand

patterns of biodiversity, there is an urgent need to synthesize

large-scale phenomena with local processes. This demands a

multi-scale or hierarchical approach. We have begun a multi-scale

study of the composition and relative abundances of

corals along the pacific diversity gradient, from indonesia to

french polynesia. Our goals are to examine how local diversity

responds to variation in the size of the regional species pool,

and to quantify the relative variation in community

composition at different scales (ie. Among adjaSchleyer cent

zones, sites, islands and regions). So far, we have sampled 52

sites on 14 islands within four regions (png, the solomon

islands, samoa, and french polynesia), a total of 1,560 x 10m

transects. Most variation in diversity and community structure

occurs at the smallest and largest scales - among depth zones

(the reef flat, crest and slope) and among geographic regions -compared

to adjacent sites and islands that are much more

homogeneous. Surveys of juvenile corals reveal major

differences in the underlying dynamics of different regions.

For example, over half of the coral recruits in png and the

solomon islands belong to genera that are absent entirely in

samoa and french polynesia. Widespread species typically vary

in abundance among regions by an order of magnitude or

more, highlighting the need to quantify biogeographical

patterns using ecological as well as taxonomic data.

BENTHIC HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS OF REEF

FISHES IN THE FLORIDA KEYS: COUPLING OF

HABITATS AND FISH DISTRIBUTIONS VIA GIS

TECHNOLOGY.

Jeffrey, C.F.G.*, C. Pattengill-Semmens, K. Buja, J.D.

Christensen, M. Coyne, M. E. Monaco, and S. Gittings.

*National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,

National Ocean Service, 1305 East-West Highway, SSMC-IV,

N/SCI-1 Room 9222, Silver Spring MD, 20910. Email:

chris.jeffrey@noaa.gov

The spatial trends in the distribution of fish assemblages

within the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary were

examined as part of a collaboration between the Biogeography

Program and Marine Sanctuaries Division of the National

Ocean Service and the Reef Environmental Education

Foundation (REEF). The objectives were to map and model

the abundance and large-scale distribution patterns of reef

fishes among benthic habitats, examine correlations between

habitat diversity and fish community structure, and test

hypotheses of non-uniform fish distribution patterns among

benthic habitats. The Shannon-Weaver Diversity function, _pi

ln pi, where pi is the proportion of each benthic habitat, was

calculated from digitized (Arc View GIS) habitat data. GIS

maps showing the distribution patterns and benthic habitat

associations of fishes were developed from presence-absence

fish data. Fish species richness was non-uniform among

benthic habitats. Fish distribution and abundance varied among

benthic habitats, and fish-habitat associations differed among

several reef fish taxa. Probability maps and spatially-explicit

GIS prediction models of fish-habitat associations across large

spatial scales show that benthic habitat may determine reef fish

assemblage structure and large-scale patterns of reef fish

distribution..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A1: Large Scale Ecology

6

CHANGES IN FISH AND CORAL COMMUNITIES

ACROSS AN OCEANOGRAPHIC BOUNDARY IN THE

GULF OF ADEN.

Kemp, Jeremy*. *Department of Biology, University of

York, York YO1 5DD, UK. Email: jmk100@york.ac.uk

The seas of the Arabian peninsula are characterised by high

levels of endemism in coral reef associated taxa such as

shorefishes, and by highly varied ecological communities in

the shallow sublittoral. These patterns have been attributed in

part to the presence of one of the worlds five great coastal

upwellings, occurring seasonally along the Arabian Sea coast

of the peninsula. A study of fish and coral communities on the

Gulf of Aden coast of the Republic of Yemen, at the western

boundary of the upwelling, reveals that this boundary

coincides with changes in fish assemblages and coral

communities, and with a hybrid zone in angelfish. This

supports the hypothesis that the upwelling is of central

importance to the marine biogeography of Arabia.

CONCEPTUAL CHALLENGES OF HURRICANE

ECOLOGY.

Kerr, Alexander M.*. *Osborn Memorial Laboratories,

Yale University, PO Box 208106, New Haven CT 06520-

8106 USA. Email: alexander.kerr@yale.edu

Cyclones, typhoons, and hurricanes are ecologically

instantaneous terawatt events and the most acute form of

disturbance to coral reefs likely to be observed in a human

lifetime. Still, they can occur over twice a year on some

western pacific reefs. Early empirical studies of cyclone effects

assisted in shifting the focus from equilibrium-based models of

community structure to those incorporating stochastic events.

Conclusions from most later studies, though, have been

speculative or, when qualitatively robust, rather obvious. This

history has had two results: 1) continued ignorance about how

cyclones affect variation in community structure at all but the

smallest spatial and temporal scales and 2) a widely held belief

that cyclones are unimportant ecologically because they are

infrequently observed and their effects are locally

unpredictable. The latter impression is based on a surprisingly

limited sample of opportunistic and geographically biased

studies. Still, the few large-scale observations to date suggest

increasing predictability with increasing scale. Moreover, a

considerable body of theory from fluid mechanics exists to

guide hypothesis testing. Here, i demonstrate a mean-field

approach based on linear wave theory for studying the

ecological effects of cyclone waves at local to global scales.

Shallow-water significant wave characteristics are produced

for any given reef, incorporating the effects of shoaling and

refraction on deepwater waves estimated from archived

meteorological data. I find an unanticipated wave climate that

may be useful for isolating the long-term effects of cyclones

on coral-reef community structure.

MULTI-SCALE VARIATION IN THE SIZE

STRUCTURE OF CORALS IN THE WESTERN-CENTRAL

PACIFIC.

Kospartov, Marie C. * and Terence P. Hughes. *Dept.

Marine Biology, James Cook University, Townsville,

Queensland 4811, Australia. Email:

Marie.Kospartov@jcu.edu.au

The size structure of a population is a product of its rates of

recruitment, growth, mortality, and in the case of modular

organisms, partial mortality, fission and fusion. Spatial

variation in the size structure of populations of a taxon can

therefore indicate the spatial scales at which the rates of these

demographic processes differ. We examined spatial variation

in the size structure of five coral taxa, at scales ranging from

tens of metres to thousands of kilometres. For each taxon

(Galaxea fascicularis, Montastrea curta, Pocillopora

meandrina, P. verrucosa and massive Porites spp.), variation

was greatest between depths, with populations on reef crests

having a greater proportion of small colonies and smaller

maximum sizes than reef slope populations. Regional-scale

differences (between Papua New Guinea, east Australia and

French Polynesia) also accounted for substantial amounts of

variation in size structure, whilst there was very little variation

among neighbouring sites or reefs nested within regions.

Demographic modelling indicates that these patterns are

created by modest differences in rates of recruitment and

survival. The results of this study suggest that small-scale

variation in demographic processes often exceed differences

among regions, but both can have an important influence on

population dynamics.

COLONY SIZE FREQUENCIES, MORTALITY, AND

RECRUITMENT OF ACROPORA PALMATA AND

MONTASTRAEA ANNULARIS, ANDROS ISLAND,

BAHAMAS.

Kramer, Patricia R.*, Kramer, P.A., Ginsburg, R.N.

*Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science,

University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway,

Miami, FL, 33149. Email: pkramer@rsmas.miami.edu

The population dynamics of two reef building corals,

Acropora palmata (n=2052) and Montastraea annularis

complex (n=1445) were investigated at 60 sites along the semi-isolated,

extensive (>150km) reef system of Andros Island,

Bahamas. Aerial photographs and Landsat TM imagery were

used to stratify and map reef distribution and select appropriate

spatial scales (150km and <10km) to compare the variability of

population parameters. Population data analyzed included

colony size frequencies, the amount of partial mortality (recent

and old), and the number of coral recruits. On shallow reefs

Acropora palmata comprised 65% of the adult population, 9%

of the recruits, and averaged 120-140 cm in diameter. On deep

fore reefs, M. annularis complex comprised 70% of adults, 6%

of recruits and averaged 40-50 cm. Average old mortality for

A. palmata was 38%, 27% for M. annularis and for both

species, mortality increased with size up to the mode of the

population. The variation of these parameters between local

populations is influenced by local and large-scale processes

such as wave energy, presence of coastal creeks, grazing

pressure, habitat availability and macroalgal competition.

Consequences of two recent disturbance events (bleaching and

disease) that resulted in significantly depressed local

populations are discussed. We hypothesize the Andros system

is fairly isolated from other large populations, but is well

connected between local populations..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A1: Large Scale Ecology

7

SPATIAL VARIATION IN ADULT DEMOGRAPHY

AND REEF FISH POPULATION DYNAMICS: A

SIMULATION STUDY.

Kritzer J.P.*, C.R. Davies. *CRC Reef Research Centre,

James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia.

Email: Jacob.Kritzer@jcu.edu.au

An important debate in the history of reef fish ecology has

focused on the relative importance of recruitment intensity and

its modification by post-settlement events in structuring

populations. The role of adult populations in generating

recruitment events, and therefore in structuring future states,

has been largely overlooked. This study explored the

implications of spatial variation in adult demography for

population dynamics by simulation of hypothetical reef fish

metapopulations. We considered the baseline case of a

metapopulation with homogeneous demographic traits, then

introduced progressively larger subpopulations with lower

mortality or higher asymptotic sizes based upon empirical data

for a tropical lutjanid. Exact results varied with underlying

assumptions, but in general relatively small areas with lower

mortality or larger body sizes had a pronounced effect on the

stability of the system. However, the magnitude of the effect

was strongly reliant upon the degree of stochasticity in the

reproduction function, R. For example, the frequency with

which the overall population collapsed was negligible under

more static conditions (C.V. of R = 0.5) irrespective of spatial

structure. Yet, under greater stochasticity (C.V. of R = 0.8),

the baseline population collapsed in, on average, 44% of

simulation years in contrast with 19% when 25% of reefs

enabled fish to grow 10% larger.

THE PERCEPTION OF TROPHIC STRUCTURE OF

REEF FISH ASSEMBLAGES AT DIFFERENT SCALES.

Kulbicki, Michel*, Ferraris, Jocelyne. *IRD - BP. A5 -Noumea

- New Caledonia. Email: kulbicki@noumea.ird.nc

The trophic structure of reef fish assemblages is dependant

of local and large scale factors. Among local factors one may

cite reef type, substrate, coral or algae cover and among large

scale factors are island type, island size and biogeographical

region. The question is to know what dictates similarities or

differences among reef fish assemblages. In the present study

the species composition and the trophic structure of several

reef types submitted to a range of factors were analysed. Reefs

were selected from a very large data set (FISHEYE data bank).

As a first step different reef types (fringing and inner barrier

reefs) were selected within the same area (New Caledonia) and

their fish assemblages considered for similarities in species

composition and trophic structure. Then fish assemblages of

inner barrier reefs from different island types (high island and

atolls), island sizes (small, medium and large) and

biogeographical regions (West and Central Pacific) were

considered. Linear analyses (nested MANOVAs) were

performed to test if trophic structure changed within reef type,

within island or within region. Multiple factorial analysis were

then made to compare simultaneously the grouping of these

fish assemblages according to species composition and trophic

structure. The aim was to detect which factors were the most

significant in structuring these assemblages. In particular, we

wanted to test if there was a convergence in the factors

determining species composition and trophic structure. For

each reef the same number of transects was selected, based on

the relationship between species number and sampling effort.

LINKING BIOTIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL

INFLUENCES ON REEF COMMUNITIES AT

DIFFERENT SPATIAL SCALES IN BELIZE.

McField, Melanie D.* *Department of Marine Science,

Univ. of South Florida, 140 Seventh Ave South, St.

Petersburg, FL, 33701, USA, Email:

melanie@marine.usf.edu

A stratified, random (haphazard) video-based monitoring

scheme has been established at 17 windward fore-reef sites

throughout Belize's 250 km barrier reef and three off-shelf

atolls. The sites were chosen to provide the greatest

geographical coverage and to represent the widest possible

assortment of ranked environmental influences on community

structure on various spatial scales. Sites were classified by five

different environmental and management-linked influences

(fishing pressure, scuba diving pressure, proximate coastal

development, fluvial influence and wave exposure).

Multivariate analysis techniques, including non-metric multi-dimensional

scaling (MDS) plots, were then used to discern

the relative importance of various environmental influences on

reef community structure by determining the optimal set of

environmental influences which “best explain” the biotic

community structure. These comparisons can be made on sub-sets

of sites with varying spatial resolution, determining which

spatial scale is most relevant to particular environmental

influences. Understanding the interaction of different

environmental and biotic influences on varying spatial and

temporal scales represents a challenge to reef managers with

limited jurisdictional authority and illustrates the need for

more regional coordination of management efforts.

MODELING THE RECOVERY PROCESS AFTER

MASS BLEACHING.

Muko, Soyoka*, Kazuhiko Sakai, and Yoh Iwasa.

*Department of Biology, Kyushu University, JAPAN.

Email: muko@bio-math10. biology.kyushu-u.ac.jp

In coral communities, the composition of morphological

types is very different in each habitat. In Okinawa, Japan,

"branching Acropora spp." dominated the protected site, whilst

"tabular Acropora spp." were abundant at the exposed site

before mass bleaching occurred in 1998. The study of recovery

process provides us an opportunity to understand the

demographic processes, i.e., larval settlement, growth, and

death, which form the observed patterns. We formulate a

simple model incorporated the space-limited recruitment and

growth for the dynamics of coverage of the two morphotypes.

The result shows that recovery process after catastrophic event

has three phases. [1] In the beginning, the relative abundance

of the two types is controlled by the ratio of larval settlement.

[2] When vacant space becomes occupied, both settlement of

larvae and growth of settled colonies affect the dynamics of

coverage. [3] After free space is depleted, both larval

settlement and growth become very small. Now the slow

process of colony death comes to have an influence and causes

the final convergence to the equilibrium composition. The

dominance of table-like corals at the exposed site is often

regarded as the morphological adaptation for the severe wave

action. However the same pattern can be explained by larger

recruitment rate of table-like corals, if the total amount of

recruitment is large. In order to distinguish the two hypothesis,

we are investigating the demographic processes of the two

morphotypes at three different sites in Sesoko Island,

Okinawa..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A1: Large Scale Ecology

8

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL SCALING OF PROCESSES

ON CORAL REEFS.

Mumby, Peter J* *Centre for Tropical Coastal

Management Studies, Ridley Building, The University,

Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK. Email:

p.j.mumby@ncl.ac.uk

Coral reefs are hugely complex environments governed by

physical and biological processes which act over a wide range

of spatial and temporal scales. Attempts to model reef

processes, such as productivity or larval connectivity, are

hindered by this complexity because the scales at which many

processes occur are poorly understood, and it is neither

computationally tractable nor biologically realistic to simulate

many processes, acting at different scales, in the same model.

Consider, for example, the problem of modelling

metapopulation dynamics of corals among reefs. A spatial

model of larval transport may need to represent mesoscale

oceanic circulation of 100s km whereas the processes

determining larval settlement space (e.g. herbivory, exposure)

may act at scales of 0.001 km - 1 km. Clearly, metre-scale

processes cannot be incorporated easily into a model that

represents millions of metres. However, a better understanding

of the scale-dependency of physical and biological processes

will not only improve the modelling of such processes, but it

may provide a hierarchical framework in which multiple

models can be nested according to scale. Here, I discuss how

geostatistics, cartographic models, field survey, and remote

sensing might be integrated to create a hierarchical model of

reef structure and associated physical environments.

A FUNCTIONAL-GROUP APPROACH TO THE

DIVERSITY OF CORALS ON MULTIPLE SCALES.

Murdoch, Thaddeus J. T.* and Richard B. Aronson.

*Dauphin Island Sea Lab, 101 Bienville Blvd., Dauphin

Island, AL 36528, USA. Email: tmurdoch@disl.org

Phylogenetic classifications do not reflect the ecological

functions of benthic marine organisms. An alternative is to

classify benthic organisms by adaptive strategy. This approach

has been successfully used by plant ecologists in addressing

issues of biodiversity and ecosystem function. Coral reefs are

exposed to environmental processes that covary over a wide

range of spatial and temporal scales. Coral taxa that share

morphologies and reproductive strategies should respond to the

physical and biotic environment in similar, predictable ways.

Two studies in the Western Atlantic demonstrate how

functional groups of corals differ in distribution and adaptive

strategy. First, in a survey of the Florida reef tract, we

detected high variability in coral cover from reef to reef, but

very low variability between sites within each reef. Only one

functional group was responsible for this pattern. The

differences in distribution were a direct result of differences in

morphology and reproductive mode. Second, the recent

demise of Acropora cervicornis in Belize from white-band

disease indicates that not all corals respond to environmental

change in the same manner. When A. cervicornis was

eliminated, only one functional group increased

opportunistically in abundance in response to the relaxation of

competition. These results can be used to predict what coral

reefs of the Caribbean will look like in the next millenium.

THE INTEGRATED GROWTH RESPONSE OF CORAL

REEFS TO MONSOON FORCING: MORPHOMETRIC

ANALYSIS OF REEFS IN MALDIVES.

Naseer, Abdulla* and Bruce G Hatcher, *Dept of Biology,

Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 4J1,

Canada, Email: anaseer@is2.dal.ca

Reefs of Maldives display asymmetric geomorphologies in

their arrangement on the atoll rims and within atoll lagoons. In

this study we seek empirical relationships among patterns of

coral reef growth, morphology and environmental forcing in

Maldives. Reefs on the oceanward rims of atolls have wider

and more continuous reef flats than those lining the rims facing

the sea between lines of atolls. These characteristics reflect

broad-scale spatial variation in time-averaged, physical-biological

control of reef growth, but have not been quantified.

We hypothesize that monsoon forcing interacts with

antecedent reef platform arrangements to produce

characteristic growth configurations and predictable reef

morphologies. The hypothesis is tested by the classification of

LANDSAT-7 ETM+ imagery to measure hundreds of reefs

along the N-S and E-W axis of the archipelago, and to

calculate morphometric indices (e.g. ratio of reef flat to lagoon

area). Well-defined gradients in monsoon forcing (i.e. swell

and wind wave fields, surface currents, upwelling and

precipitation) and antecedent platform structure are quantified

along the same dimensions, and related to the morphometrics

with multivariate techniques. Preliminary results determine the

scales of similarity between asymmetries in reef

geomorphology and monsoon forcing. The relationships can be

used to infer patterns of reef development during the

Quaternary, and to predict reef growth responses to global

climate change in a sensitive atoll nation.

THE BENTHIC COMMUNITIES OF THE GREAT

BARRIER REEF: A LANSCAPE ECOLOGY

APPROACH.

Ninio R. * *Australian Institute Of Marine Science, Pmb

3, Townsville, Qld 4810 Australia.

R.NINIO@AIMS.GOV.AU

At a large spatial scale, the Great Barrier Reef is a mosaic of

patches formed by clusters of reefs with comparable histories

of disturbance. Within each patch, reefs display similar

temporal trends in cover of hard coral, soft coral and algae.

The overall dynamics of this ‘patchwork mosaic’ will depend

on the size and frequency of disturbance and resultant rates of

recovery. We use data collected by the Australian Institute of

Marine Science as part of the Long Term Monitoring Program

to examine the effects of three different types of disturbance

(cyclones and storms, Crown of Thorns Starfish and bleaching

of hard corals) and the composition of benthic communities on

the dynamics of this mosaic. We investigate the spatial scales

at which each of these disturbances operates and how

community composition influences the outcomes of these

disturbance events..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A1: Large Scale Ecology

9

PERSISTENCE IN CARIBBEAN CORAL

COMMUNITIES OVER BROAD SPATIAL AND

TEMPORAL SCALES.

Pandolfi, John M.*. *Department of Paleobiology, National

Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution,

Washington D.C. 20560-0121, USA. Email:

pandolfi.john@nmnh.si.edu

The degree to which coral reef communities are largely open,

with com-position depending upon the regional species pool,

or are partially closed, with limited species membership, is a

key component in understanding their ecological dynamics. I

examined the structure of Pleistocene Caribbean coral

communities using a hierarchical sampling design at broad

spatial and temporal scales. Significant differences in the

composition of coral communities from the leeward reef crest

among three islands (San Andrés, Curaçao, and Barbados)

during the last interglacial, 125 ka (thousand years) ago, were

driven by variability in the relative abundance of the same 4 or

5 abundant taxa. At Barbados, coral composition remained

constant from 220-125 ka, but differed during the 104 ka reef-building

episode. However, the 104-ka community was closer

in composition to older coral communities from Barbados than

it was to communities from San Andrés or Curaçao.

Remarkably, separate analyses on the composition of the rare

taxa (data compiled using 1 hr searches) and those of the

common taxa (data compiled using 40-m transects) gave

highly concordant results, suggesting the composition of the

rare taxa is correlated with that of the common, structurally

dominant corals. These Pleistocene data point to a high degree

of order in coral communities over broad spatial and temporal

scales and support the importance of local influences in

determining reef coral community structure.

ECOLOGICAL VERSUS EVOLUTIONARY LIMITS TO

DIVERSITY: SPECIES PACKING ON CORAL REEFS.

Roberts, Callum M.* *Environment Department,

University of York, York, YO10 5DD, UK. Email:

cr10@york.ac.uk

Studies of coral reef diversity in the 1970s and 1980s

focussed on mechanisms promoting co-existence of species

within habitats. Much of this research examined ecological

constraints on species packing, such as the degree to which

species were specialized in resource use. While such studies

were conducted in many parts of the world, one interesting

pattern that most overlooked was the considerable regional

variation in species richness throughout the tropics. Some

regions have much larger species pools than others, offering

fertile material with which to explore constraints to species’

coexistence. I explore differences in species-packing (within-habitat,

or alpha diversity) among reefs in the Caribbean (Saba,

Bonaire, Belize), Red Sea (Egypt) and Pacific Ocean (Palau).

These reefs differed widely in the size of their species’ pools

(gamma diversity). At each site, fish were censused from the

same habitat (outer slope at 15m deep), by the same observer

using the same method (stationary point counts). Alpha

diversity increased linearly with the size of the species pool

suggesting that, on outer slope habitats, levels of species

packing increase directly with the number of species present.

Evolution and biogeography trump local ecological effects.

These results contrast markedly with findings in the literature

that similar-sized patch reefs in the Caribbean and on the Great

Barrier Reef had similar levels of species packing despite

widely different species’ pools. Possible reasons for these

differences will be explored.

LARGE SCALE ECOLOGY AND IMPROVED REEF

MANAGEMENT

Sale, Peter F.* *Great Lakes Institute for Environmental

Research & Dept. of Biological Sciences, University of

Windsor, Windsor ON Canada N9B3P4. Email:

sale@uwindsor.ca

There is growing awareness that coral reef communities may

be interconnected at quite large spatial scales, and that their

management should take account of this fact. Their inter-connection

arises both from transport of nutrients and

pollutants, and from that of propagules, however, the

propagules of many taxa are proving to be far more than

passive particles and this complicates the story. Current

ecological research onrecruitment dynamics of fish, and to a

lesser extent, corals, is beginning to provide evidence of the

correct spatial scale at which to view coral reefs as inter-connected

by larval dispersal. New techniques are being

proposed that may facilitate estimates of the extent of this

inter-connection. I will briefly review what is known about the

large scale ecology of coral reef community dynamics, and

then outline an approach to bring studies of recruitment

dynamics into the baseline-building process when

implementing sustainable management at regional scales.

Examples from the Caribbean and from the Great Barrier Reef

will be considered.

SPATIAL VARIATION AND PATTERNS IN BENTHIC

COMMUNITY STRUCTURE IN THE FLORIDA KEYS

Swanson, D.W. M. Chiappone and S.L. Miller*. *The

National Undersea Research Center, University of North

Carolina at Wilmington, 515 Caribbean Drive, Key Largo,

Florida, 33037, USA. Email: dwswanson@hotmail.com

To better understand how communities are structured at

multiple spatial scales in the Florida Keys National Marine

Sanctuary (FKNMS), a two-stage stratified, random sampling

design was initiated in 1999. Design features include sampling

multiple sites within no-take zones or reserves and reference

areas, and comparison of sites within and among benthic

habitat types, and among regions. One-hundred and four sites

were surveyed, spanning over 200 km. The number of sites

sampled within each habitat type was optimized based the

existing benthic habitat map of the FKNMS, and pilot studies

that used sample design statistics to assess spatial variation in

measured parameters. Rapid assessment surveys included

measurements of cover and species richness of sessile marine

organisms, stony coral (adult and juvenile) and octocoral

abundance, and stony coral size and condition. Significant

regional, habitat, and reef differences were apparent. For

example, scleractinian coral and octocoral abundance, species

richness of cnidarians and sponges, and the frequency of algal

overgrowth of live coral tissue causing lesions varied

significantly among regional sectors within the 8-12 m habitat

type. Juvenile coral density and coral cover, however, were

similar among regions. Many reserves differed significantly

from reference areas, due mostly to bias in original siting of

the reserves. Data from the program establish a baseline to

monitor community structure at multiple spatial scales..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A1: Large Scale Ecology

10

SPATIAL VARIATION IN CORAL BIODIVERSITY AT

INTERMEDIATE SCALES: EXAMPLES FROM

OCEANIC ISLANDS.

Spalding, Mark D.*. *Cambridge Coastal Research Unit,

Department of Geography, Downing St, Cambridge, UK

Email: mark.spalding@wcmc.org.uk

Patterns of biodiversity on coral reefs are increasingly well

understood at the fine resolution of the reef profile. At the

other extreme, increasing amounts of information are

becoming available describing biodiversity patterns, at global

and regional levels. Between these two extremes, an

understanding of patterns in reef diversity is more limited. In

this paper the existing knowledge of spatial variation over

scales of 1 to 100km is examined in more detail. New data are

presented for coralline and high-island reef systems in the

central Indian Ocean which show considerable variation in

spatial patterns of reef fish communities between different reef

systems. Communities in the Chagos Archipelago show

considerable homogeneity between locations and between

atolls, by contrast the low island reefs of the southern

Seychelles show considerable variation both across and

between atolls and other reef structures. Fringing reefs in the

high islands of the northern Seychelles reveal event greater

spatial variation in reef fish community structures. A

theoretical framework to explain these patterns is presented.

Finally the implications of these patterns for the design of

protected areas systems are considered

THE CORAL REEFS OF BALI, BEFORE THE 1998-

BLEACHING EVENT: A PHASE SHIFT CAUSED BY

EUTROPHICATION OR REGIONAL UPWELLING.

van Woesik, Robert*. *Department of Chemistry, Biology

and Marine Science, The University of the Ryukyus,

Senbaru 1, Nishihara, Okinawa 903-0213, Japan. Email:

b984138@sci.u-ryukyu.ac.jp

There was a major change to the coral reefs of southeastern

Bali, Indonesia, between September 1992 and September

1997. The coral reefs changed from being dominated by corals

to being dominated by macroalgae, sponges and other filter

feeders. In 1992, the upper reef slopes of Sanur and Nusa Dua

supported >30% coral cover and a high coral diversity. The

average diameter of Acropora spp. and Seriatopora spp.

colonies, the dominant corals in terms of abundance, was 17 to

42 cm. The same reefs in 1997 supported 2-3 cm colonies and

approximately 15% coral cover, dominated largely by

encrusting Montipora, Porites spp., faviids, macroalgae,

sponges and zoanthids. Such a change immediately evokes a

response of 'local eutrophication'. Although local

eutrophication is not discounted as a contributing factor, a

regional upwelling may have exacerbated the effect through

the provision of nutrients. Evidence of a regional upwelling

was found along the southeast coast of Bali at the time of the

survey using SEAWIFS satellite imagery and proxy cues in

Porites samples (i.e., elevated Ba/Ca ratios). This upwelling

and regional phase shift occurred one year prior to, and

possibly not independent of, the 1998 ENSO.

THE EFFECT OF EL NINO ON THE DISTRIBUTION

OF REEF-ASSOCIATED LABRID FISHES IN THE

EASTERN PACIFIC OCEAN.

Victor, Benjamin* Gerard Wellington, D. Ross Robertson.

*GSM, University of California, Irvine, CA 92604 Email:

ben@coralreeffish.com

We surveyed the labrid reef fishes at multiple sites in the

eastern Pacific Ocean before, during, and after the recent El

Nino-Southern Oscillation event (ENSO). The only prominent

changes in labrid biogeography noted were the extension of

two tropical eastern Pacific species into Baja California

(Thalassoma virens and Stethojulis bandanensis) and a

massive ENSO-associated settlement of S. bandanensis onto

the Galapagos Islands where the species was previously rare.

Analysis of daily otolith increments revealed that the pelagic

larval duration of the new arrivals of S. bandanensis was

relatively short (about one month) and no different from the

pelagic larval duration for the species recorded at other

locations in the eastern Pacific Ocean before and during ENSO

as well as from the western Pacific Ocean at Palau and the

Cook Islands. The results suggest that a one month pelagic

larval duration was sufficient for spread among isolated island

groups in this region. Adults of this species were present at

some of their new locations during the subsequent cold La

Nina period.

REJUVENATION OR RUN-DOWN? THE LONG-TERM

RESPONSE TO DISTURBANCE OF FIVE CORAL

COMMUNITIES AT LIZARD ISLAND, GBR.

Wakeford, M. * and T.J. Done. *Australian Institute of

Marine Science, PMB 3, Townsville MC, Townsville,

Queensland, 4810, Australia. Email:

m.wakeford@aims.gov.au

Following disturbance to corals (eg crown-of-thorns starfish

outbreaks, coral bleaching and cyclones) there is potential for

fundamental changes in the benthic community, such as phase

shifts and alternate states. Large-scale and long-term shifts

from reef building to non-reef building communities are of

particular concern. We investigated a long-term photographic

record (1981 – 1999) of coral communities at Lizard Island for

evidence of such changes. Stereo-photographs taken of five

permanent sites were analysed to gauge fine-scale community

dynamics over time. During the study period, Lizard Island

was affected by a cyclone, coral bleaching and two outbreaks

of crown-of-thorns starfish. Diversity, species composition

and age/size frequency distribution were monitored at each site

and used to assess changes in the structural extent and

complexity of the reef. The trajectories of the coral

communities were characterised by varying degrees of

rejuvenation and run-down following disturbance. At one

extreme, there was no tendency for changes in the coral

composition and cover. However, a reduction in the maximum

colony size reached by Acropora plates reflected a decrease in

the interval between disturbances. This suggests that colony

size of plate Acropora may be a useful indicator of site

resilience. At the other extreme, one site had been transformed

into bare pavement supporting very little coral due to poor

recruitment and survival..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A1: Large Scale Ecology

11

EARLY LIFE HISTORY TRAITS, ADULT BODY SIZE,

AND EXTENT OF GEOGRAPHIC RANGE IN GULF OF

CALIFORNIA REEF FISHES.

Zapata, Fernando A.*. *Department of Biology,

Universidad del Valle, Apartado Aéreo 25360, Cali,

Colombia. Email: fazr@biologia.univalle.edu.co

Because adult reef fishes are sedentary and reef

environments are patchily distributed, reef fishes are dispersed

mostly by currents during their early life history (ELH). ELH

traits are thus considered to be determinants of dispersal

capability and extent of geographic distribution. This view,

however, has not been adequately demonstrated. To examine

whether egg type (P = pelagic, NP = non-pelagic) and

presence/absence of a pelagic prejuvenile stage (PPS) affect

extent of geographic distribution, I classified Gulf of

California reef fishes (N = 196) into four categories with

combinations of the above traits. Species endemic to the

Mexican Pacific had a greater proportion of species with NP

eggs than non-endemic species. Whereas 50% of the species

with NP eggs and no PPS were endemic, < 1% of the

remaining species were geographically restricted. On average,

fishes with NP eggs and no PPS also had smaller geographic

ranges than other species. Because species with NP eggs and

no PPS are smaller than other species, the effects of ELH traits

are confounded with those of adult body size. Large species

should have greater dispersal potential because fecundity is

positively correlated with adult body size. In fact, size of

geographic range was positively correlated with maximum

adult length, but only in species with NP eggs and no PPS.

Partitioning of the confounding effects of ELH traits and adult

body size by a two-way ANOVA confirmed that species with

NP eggs and no PPS were the most geographically restricted,

and that there was neither a significant effect of body size nor

a significant interaction between the two factors. This study

thus provides evidence that ELH traits influence extent of

geographic distribution in marine reef fishes..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A2: Planktonic Food Webs

Session A2: Planktonic Food Webs in Coral Reef Waters: trophic Structure,

Functioning and Interactions with Benthic and Pelagic Communities

12

PARTICULATE ORGANIC CARBON BUDGET AND

POC FLUX IN A FRINGING CORAL REEF AT

MIYAKO ISLAND, JAPAN.

Casareto B.E.* K. Yoshida and Y. Suzuki. *Laboratory of

Aquatic Science Consultant Co., LTD, Meishin BLDG.,

Kamiikedai 1-14-1, Ota-ku, Tokyo 145-0064, Japan. Email:

CASARETOBE@aol.com

The composition and the concentration of particulate organic

matter were comprehensively investigated on a fringing coral

reef area at Bora Bay of Miyako Island, Japan. Particulate

organic carbon and nitrogen (POC, PON), plankton

abundance, specific composition and its daily variation were

studied for seven size classes (0.8 to 8 µm, 8 to 22 µm, 22 to

53µm, 53 µm to 0.106 mm, 0.106 mm to 0.5 mm, 0.5 to 1 mm

and > 1mm) within the bay and in an outer influenced area.

Based on the species composition, plankton was classified as

“reef-lagoon” and “open ocean” plankton with the purpose to

evaluate POC fluxes towards the open ocean. Main POC

contribution within the bay was due to larval stages of benthic

fauna (120 µgC.l -1 ), nanoplankton composed by epiphytic

microalgae (pseudoplankton) and filamentous cyanobacteria

(124 µgC.l -1 ), and picoplankton flagellates (65 µgC.l -1 ). Faecal

pellets and detritus were also very abundant reaching 82 µgC.l -1

. The organic carbon budget within Bora bay (477 µgC.l -1 )

was slightly higher than that of the outer influenced area (437

µgC.l -1 ). Plankton originating from the bay influenced the

outer area, being also significantly transported to deep layers.

All these features showed that there is a net flux of organic

matter from bay towards the open ocean. The amount of this

flux as net organic carbon was estimated to be 8 to 17 kgC day -1

. A degradation experiment carried out during 150 days

indicated that 1 to 5 kgC day -1 of the exported amount of

organic carbon are of refractory nature.

IMPORTANCE OF PICOCYANOBACTERIA IN

CORAL REEF AREAS: A REVIEW

Charpy Loïc*, Blanchot Jean IRD, COM, rue de Batterie

des Lions 13007 Marseille, France Email:

lcharpy@com.univ-mrs.fr

Picocyanobacteria contribution to phytoplankton biomass

and production was studied during the last decade in Pacific

coral reef areas. Compiled data from literature show that

Synechococcus were mostly dominant in coral reef waters,

even when nitrogen is totally depleted like in Tuamotu atoll

lagoons. The switch in dominance from Prochlorococcus in

open ocean to Synechococcus in coral reef lagoons does not

seem to be related to N availability. Interpretation of such

results relies probably on differences in top-down control by

benthic and planktonic grazers and/or on the ability of some

strains of Synechococcus to fix N2.

THE NEED FOR TAXONOMIC EXPERTISE IN

FUNCTIONAL ECOLOGY OF CORAL REEF

PHYTOPLANKTON

Delesalle B*. EPHE - ESA CNRS 8046, 52 Av. de

Villeneuve, F-66860 Perpignan Cedex. Email: bd@univ-perp.

fr

It is a cliché to state that taxonomy was not favoured during

the past 20 years. This situation especially applies to

phytoplankton ecology in coral reef waters. In fact, taxonomy

requires an extensive background knowledge and is often

deterrently time consuming. Consequently, phytoplankton

studies were often restricted to the 'easy' and rapid

measurement of the chlorophyll a concentration, roughly

considered as a good estimate of the phytoplankton biomass. A

better insight in the phytoplankton composition was gained

with the development of advanced techniques such as size

fractionation, epifluorescence microscopy or flow cytometry.

However, these techniques were mainly applied to

picophytoplankton whereas the nanophytoflagellates remained

understudied. Several recent studies conducted in French

Polynesian atolls has proven the functional importance of this

compartment. Firtsly, the selective feeding of the pearl oyster

Pinctada margaritifera was demonstrated using an elegant

approach combining optical microscopy and HPLC pigment

analysis. Secondly, taxonomic surveys undertaken within the

frame of studies on harmful algal blooms showed the presence

of several unknown species, some of them belonging to

potentially toxic genera, e.g. the Haptophyte

Chrysochromulina or the diatom Pseudonitzschia. Obviously,

the identification of the phytoplankton species will be needed

in future ecological studies of the planktonic foodwebs in coral

reefs, using advanced techniques such as SEM, TEM and

molecular biology.

LINKAGE BETWEEN BACTERIOPLANKTON AND

CORAL REEF BENTHOS: SMALL SCALE SPATIAL

VARIATION IN DOC, INORGANIC NUTRIENTS AND

BACTERIOPLANKTON GROWTH.

van Duyl F.C.*, G.J. Gast. *Netherlands Institute for Sea

Research, P.O. Box 59, 1790 AB Den Burg, The

Netherlands. Email: duyl@nioz.nl

This study focuses on the links between coral reef contact

water characteristics with respect to dissolved organic carbon

(DOC) and inorganic nutrients (DIN, DIP) and

bacterioplankton growth. At 5 reef stations along the SW coast

of Curaçao (Netherlands Antilles) 6 different water types were

sampled and analyzed for DOC, DIN, DIP, bacterial

production and abundance: 4 reef water types (live coral

surface contact water (CS), reef crevice water (RC), reef

bottom water (RB), reef overlying water (RO)) and 2 reference

water types collected offshore from each station at 2 and 8 m

depth. Within stations consistent patterns in the different

variables were found. DOC distribution suggests that live

stony corals are the major source for the enhanced DOC

concentrations over reefs. DIN was highest in RC water

suggesting that crevices and not the sandy sediments between

corals are the major net N regenerating spaces. Enhanced DIP

concentrations suggest net P regeneration in RC and CS water.

Highest specific growth rates of bacterioplankton were

established in the CS water. Growth in crevices was also

significantly enhanced compared to growth in reference water.

Significant coupling between bacterioplankton growth and

DIN suggests N-limitation of bacterial growth in CS and RO

water. In RC and RB water, available DOC might be the

growth limiting factor..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A2: Planktonic Food Webs

13

IMPORT AND EXPORT OF NET-ZOOPLANKTON TO

AND FROM CORAL REEFS.

Hamner, William M.* and Colin, Patrick L. *University of

California Los Angeles, Dept. Organismal Biology, Ecology

& Evolution, Box 951606, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1606,

USA, E-mail: hamner@biology.ucla.edu

The so-called “coral reef paradox” contrasts coral reefs as

oases of high biomass and diversity surrounded by oceanic

waters supposedly devoid of nutrients and plankton. We

review the literature on zooplankton near the windward reef

face and conclude that there is probably sufficient input across

the windward reef from net-zooplankton alone, irrespective of

net input from micro-zooplankton, phytoplankton and bacteria,

to account for the high biomass and diversity of coral reefs.

We then present new data from Palau where enormous

quantities of fish eggs and invertebrate larvae are exported

seaward from windward reefs on falling tides. Surprisingly,

although exported larvae are advected rapidly seaward, many

exported larvae do not disperse into oceanic currents but

instead they are retained in an island boundary layer separated

from oceanic currents by coastal shelf fronts. On rising tides,

boundary layer water and previously exported larvae return to

and reenter the reef complex. Flux between oceanic, boundary

layer and lagoon waters near coral reefs must be reevaluated.

ORGANIC INPUTS TO REEF ECOSYSTEMS

CONTRIBUTE TO NEW PRODUCTION. – HOW

MUCH? – SO WHAT?.

Hatcher B.G.* *Department of Biology, Dalhousie

University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, B3N 1G8. Email:

Bhatcher@is.dal.ca

The new production of an ecosystem is that proportion of its

net primary production during an ecological cycle that utilizes

allochthonous nutrients in the synthesis of organic material.

The remainder is recycled production that utilizes

autochthonous nutrients. The ratio of new to recycled

production (i.e. the f-ratio) reflects the relative importance of

nutrient inputs from outside the ecosystem, and is a function of

the degree of system closure. Large discrepancies between the

theoretical and operational definitions of new production

challenge the application of the theory to coral reef

ecosystems. The conceptual model of production for coral

reefs portrays them as relatively closed ecosystems with

efficient recycling, and low levels of dependence on external

nutrient inputs for primary production. Net ecosystem (i.e.

excess) production as defined by inorganic carbon and nutrient

fluxes has been estimated to approximate zero, suggesting that

reefs have little capacity for sustained export of organics. This

model is compromised if new nutrients supplied through the

capture and remineralization in situ of advected particulates

are recognized as contributing to new production. Calculations

based on a growing body of measurements of organic inputs to

reefs indicate that the new production of reef ecosystems in

hydrodynamically open and nearshore environments exceeds

excess production by 100% to 1000% (corresponding f-ratios

may exceed 0.2). The high export production implied by these

parameter values can reconcile large losses of detrital material

from reefs, but do not necessarily inform the estimation of

extractable yields from reef fisheries.

PLANKTON-BENTHOS COUPLING ON A

CARIBBEAN FRINGING REEF.

Land L.S.*, R.A. Eustice, J.C. Lang and S.A. Macko. *P.O.

Box 539, Ophelia, VA 22530, USA. Email: JandL@rivnet.net

Trophodynamic processes on coral reefs are complex and

poorly understood in detail. Near Discovery Bay, Jamaica,

particulate organic matter (POM–a mixture of phytoplankton

and other suspended organic particles), net zooplankton, some

planktivorous benthic invertebrates, and most benthic algae,

are more depleted in 13 C than most zooxanthellate cnidarians

(Millepora, octocorals, scleractinians, corallimorphs,

zoanthids), other reef animals, cyanobacteria and the seagrass

Thalassia (å N = 290 ¶

13 C analyses). Organic matter released

by the zooxanthellate cnidarians, probably as mucus and

dissolved organic exudates, may constitute a significant source

of carbon for many (especially non-planktivorous) reef

animals. In contrast, POM and net zooplankton, along with

most reef invertebrates and reef-associated fishes, are

generally more enriched in 15 N than benthic photosynthesizers,

such as cyanobacteria, algae, Thalassia, and the zooxanthellate

cnidarians (å N = 190 ¶

15 N analyses). Hence, much of the

nitrogen present in the tissues of zooxanthellate cnidarians on

this reef system probably originates as dissolved inorganic

nitrogen that is initially utilized by their symbiotic microaglae,

and which overwhelms the nitrogen derived from POM and

zooplankton ingested by the animal hosts.

PICOPHYTOPLANKTON AND HETEROTROPHIC

PROTISTS CONTRIBUTION TO THE DIET OF THE

PEARL OYSTER PINCTADA MARGARITIFERA IN THE

TAKAPOTO ATOLL (TUAMOTU ARCHIPELAGO,

FRENCH POLYNESIA).

Loret, P. Blanchot L.P.* J, Delesalle B, Le Gall S,

Jonquières G, Pastoureaud A, Dupuy C, Caisey X. Antenne

*IRD Station Biologique de Roscoff, BP 74, F-29682

Roscoff, France Email: blanchot@sb-roscoff.fr

The pearl oyster Pinctada margaritifera is principally reared

in atoll lagoons where picophytoplanktonic biomass and

production is dominant. It was shown that under in situ

conditions, P. margaritifera do not efficiently retain these

picoparticles. The retention efficiency was negligible for

Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus and only 30%.

Pico/nanoeukaryotes were retained. Grazing experiments

showed that pearl oyster retain efficiently ciliates (>90%) and

dinoflagellates (99%). The ciliate Protocruzia was isolated

from the lagoon. The maximal growth was obtained with the

Synechococcus isolated from the lagoon. This ciliate was used

as a picoplantonivorous model. The hypothesis of a trophic

link between picoplanktonic communities and bivalves was

tested. After being biolabelled with the autofluorescent

Synechococcus isolated from the lagoon, the ciliate

Protocruzia was offered as a prey to the pearl oyster. The high

densities of ciliates observed in the stomach contents

demonstrated that it was ingested by the bivalve. As a

consequence, heterotrophic protists significantly contribute to

the diet of the pearl oyster whereas picocyanobacteria play a

minor role in the diet of this bivalve. From our experiments we

concluded that heterotrophic protists play a significant role in

the diet of the pearl oysters and can be considered as a

valuable trophic link between picophytoplankton and the

bivalves..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A2: Planktonic Food Webs

14

FEEDING AND MOVEMENT IN NOCTURNAL

PLANKTIVORES:

IMPLICATIONS FOR THE TROPHO-DYNAMICS OF

CORAL REEFS.

Marnane M.J.* Department of Marine Biology, James

Cook University, Townsville, Qld. 4811. Australia. Email:

Michael.Marnane@jcu.edu.au

Cardinalfishes (Family Apogonidae) form the major

component of nocturnal planktivore assemblages on Indo-Pacific

reefs. Their high abundances coupled with fast

population turnover rates suggest that cardinalfishes are likely

to play an important role in reef tropho-dynamics. To

investigate this role, feeding and foraging movements were

quantified in seven common species of cardinalfishes from the

One Tree Reef lagoon, Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Of fish

collected at dusk, 5% to 36% had identifiable material in their

stomachs compared with 64% to 93% of fish collected at

dawn, suggesting predominantly nocturnal feeding in all

species. Stomach content analysis revealed generalised,

overlapping diets in most species, consisting largely of benthic

prey and emergent plankton. At night cardinalfishes moved

into a range of habitats to feed and displayed a striking degree

of spatial segregation between species. During the day species

shared restricted resting sites on the reef. Fish displayed a

strong fidelity to diurnal resting sites, with tagged individuals

returning to within an average of 35 to 67 cm of resting

positions daily over periods of up to 18 months. These results

suggest that cardinalfishes play a functionally different role to

that of diurnal planktivores, concentrating energy and nutrients

from a range of reef habitats into restricted sites on the reef.

This accrual of resources, in the form of fish biomass and

faeces is likely to have important consequences for predator

and detritivore communities.

PHYTOPLANKTON PRODUCTIVITY AND

HYDROLOGY OF ROCAS ATOLL (BRAZIL).

Nascimento Feitosa, Fernando Antônio do, de Oliveira

Passavante J.Z.* *Departament of Oceanography UFPE

Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil. Email: zanon@npd.ufpe.br

The Rocas Atoll a Biological Brazilian Reserve is located at

the South Atlantic Ocean at 3º51’30’’S and 33º49’29’’W,

around 265km offshore from Natal City Rio Grande do Norte

State. This Atoll ocupies a 3km 2 area being an arid and of

calcareous formation free of anthropic influence. This study

was carried out in order know the area hydrology and the

phytoplankton community production. In January/99 diurnal

sampling were made at surface at low tide in three natural

pools inside the Atoll( Tartarugas, Âncoras and Barretão) and

one collection out side to measure the in situ productivity by

the 14 C method and the biomass by the spectrophotometric

method. Concurrent hydrological data(salinity, temperature,

pH, dissolved oxygen, nitrite, nitrate, phosphate and silicate)

were obtaind for comparation with the phytoplankton. The

results showed that the area is free of pollution with oxygen

saturation over 100%, the pH is alcaline and salinity of

35,29‰, the silicate varied from 8,91 to 16,51µmol.l -1 , nitrate

from 0,66 to 1,34µmol.l -1 , nitrito from 0,04 to 0,06µmol.l -1 e

phosphate from 0,01 to 0,02µmol.l -1 and the chlorophyll a

concentration varied from 0,64 to 1,10mg.m -3 .

FIELD AND NUMERICAL STUDY OF THE

PLANKTONIC FOOD WEB IN TAKAPOTO ATOLL

LAGOON (FRENCH POLYNESIA): IMPLICATIONS

FOR THE FARMING OF PEARL OYSTERS.

Niquil N.*, Stéphane Pouvreau, Asma Sakka, Louis

Legendre, Bruno Delesalle. *Univ. La Rochelle, F-17042 La

Rochelle Cedex 1. & EPHE-ESA CNRS 8046, F-66860

Perpignan Cedex. Email: nniquil@univ-lr.fr

The structure and functioning of the planktonic food web of

the lagoon of Takapoto Atoll (French Polynesia) is described

in order to assess the impact of farmed pearl oysters. Field data

provided a quantification of the plankton carbon stocks and of

some of the flows: net particulate primary production, DOC

exudation, bacterial production, grazing by protozoa on

different compartments, sinking rate of particles. The grazing

of farmed pearl oysters on the different size classes of plankton

was also quantified. All these data were combined in a carbon

food-web model. The missing flows were estimated by inverse

analysis. This combination of field and numerical approaches

highlighted several characteristics of the functioning of the

plankton community in the lagoon. As expected, primary

production which is the single entry of carbon in the food-web,

is mainly achieved by picophytoplankton. The overall flows

were dominated by a high production of non-living matter,

especially as dissolved organic carbon, and the trophic flows

were dominated by protozoa. The plankton consumption of

farmed bivalves was very low compared to the plankton flows

and the effects of bivalves on the planktonic food-web can be

considered as insignificant, at the scale of the whole lagoon.

PEARL-OYSTER GROWTH RATE IN

OLIGOTROPHIC WATERS. PRELIMINARY

RESULTS.

Pagès J.* & V. Prasil . *Centre I.R.D. de Tahiti. B.P. 529.

Papeete (French Pölynesia). Email: pages@ird.pf

Pearl oysters ( Pinctada margaritifera ) are being farmed in

increasing numbers in several lagoons of French Polynesia.

The location of a farm in a given lagoon could determine

growth performances through water renewal rate and trophic

level. To explore this, we installed a number of oysters in 32

sites among 13 lagoons. On two successive years, we

monitored gross shell weight (P) and shell height (H) during

12-15 months. In parallel, we monitored dissolved organic

matter (as assessed by U.-V. light absorption, A254) and

planktonic chlorophyll (Btot). We find that A254 (site average; n

= 32) is negatively correlated with growth rate, either in shell

weight (YP ; r_ = 0.42) or in shell height (YH ; r_ = 0.54). The

scarcer Btot data (n = 17) exhibit the same negative trend

against YP (r_ = 0.51) and YH (r_ = 0.54). This counter-intuitive

result can be interpreted on the basis of previous data gathered

in comparable atoll lagoons. We had found that oligotrophic,

well flushed environments showed a higher proportion of i)

particulate organic phosphorus in "large" (10 - 60 µm),

chlorophyll-less particles, ii) meso-zooplankton (>35 µm), and

iii) heterotrophic flagellates. It would then appear that confined

waters offer a qualitatively poorer diet despite high total

particulate (phytoplanktonic) content. Further data are still

being gathered. If the present results are confirmed, they mean

that oyster growth, at least for pearl production, is not limited

by carrying capacity as determined by bulk parameters. The

qualitative (i.e. taxonomic) set-up of the whole trophic web

should be considered..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A2: Planktonic Food Webs

15

ADVECTION AND CONSUMPTION OF

ZOOPLANKTON IN A RED SEA CORAL REEF.

Richter, Claudio *, Mohammad I. Badran, Alexander E.

Voigt and Riyad Manasreh. *Center for Tropical Marine

Ecology, Fahrenheitstrasse 1, D-28359 Bremen, Germany.

Email: crichter@uni-bremen.de

A six-week investigation was carried out to assess the lateral

influx and consumption of zooplankton into a fringing coral

reef in the Jordanian sector of the Gulf of Aqaba (Red Sea). A

current meter deployed near the coral reef at 10 m depth over

70 m bottom, revealed a net shoreward transport of water, with

a stronger onshore component during the cold than during the

warm hours of the day (1.16±0.08 versus 0.54±0.08cm s -1 ,

respectively; mean±SE). Shoreward advection was driven

mainly by the cross-shore component of the wind, and by the

added effect of nearshore cooling during the night.

Zooplankton collected every second day near the reef showed

high densities (1389±171 ind m -3 ) and biomass (266±37 mg

wet mass m -3 ) during periods of onshore flow. Offshore

flowing water, by contrast, was depleted by 34% in terms of

zooplankton abundance and by 61% in terms of biomass,

indicating selective feeding on large-sized zooplankton by the

reef biota. We calculate a net zooplankton uptake by the reef

community of ~1 g C m -2 d -1 , equivalent to 25% of the gross

community metabolism of the fringing reef system.

LINKS BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL

COMPONENTS IN SMALL CAVITIES ON A CORAL

REEF SLOPE.

Scheffers S.R.*, F.C. van Duyl, R.P.M. Bak, J. de Goeij.

*Carmabi Ecological Institute, P.O. Box 2090, Willemstad,

Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles. Email: corals@cura.net

Hard substratum surface of crevices and cavities constitutes a

major habitat in coral reefs (up to 90% of the total surface

area), but there are few studies on their biological and physical

characteristics. We studied these cryptic habitats on the reef

slope (12-15 m) in Curaçao. Spatial characteristics of cavities

were explored with a new method, “the cave–explorer”.

Cavities (n=12) had a volume of 100-200 l, were

approximately 1 m wide, 0.5 m high, 1 m deep. They have a

sandy bottom, a highly irregular inner structure with small

openings in the side and back of the cavity. We used a cave-cam

(video) to study the macrofauna distribution in the front,

middle, and back compartments of cavities related to light-intensity

and water movement. Approx. 80% of total surface

area was covered: demosponges 39-53%, bryozoans 10-12%,

ascidians 7%, polychaetes 2-8%, coralline algae 17-27%.

Demosponge cover and species increased towards the back,

while ascidians only shifted in species composition. Highest

bryozoan cover occurred in the front and highest polychaete

cover in the middle compartment. This highly heterogenic

macrofauna composition is also reflected in a-biotic

parameters. Light intensity decreased with a factor 10 from

front to back. Water motion is highest in front of the cavity,

decreasing towards the middle, slightly increasing in the back

again. Video-tracking of suspended particles showed water to

enter the cavity via the “back-openings”, leaving through the

front opening of the cavity. Links between the distribution of

biological components and physical characteristics are studied.

A COMPARISON OF THE ROLE OF

APPENDICULARIANS AND SMALL COPEPODS IN

THE CYCLING OF CARBON THROUGH A COASTAL

SUBTROPICAL FOOD WEB.

Scheinberg R.D. * , Albert Calbet and Michael R. Landry.

University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1000 Pope Road, Honolulu,

HI 96822, USA, Email: rebeccas@soest.hawaii.edu

The role of appendicularians and small copepods in the

cycling of carbon through a coastal food web was investigated

in Kaneohe Bay, an oligotrophic subtropical embayment

located on the northeastern coast of O'ahu. The

appendicularians Oikopleura fusiformis and O. longicauda and

the small copepods Acrocalanus inermis, Parvocalanus

crassirostris, Oithona nana and O. simplex are associated with

patch reefs in Kaneohe Bay and potentially serve as a direct

link between the dominant bacteria-sized primary producers

and higher trophic levels in these waters. To evaluate the role

of these organisms in the cycling of carbon, grazing rates were

measured in situ using flow cytometric and epifluorescence

microscopic analysis of cell decline during feeding. Weekly

net tows and water collection were performed in the bay to

distinguish the temporal and spatial variability of the plankton

community. Results indicated that the mean transfer of carbon

through both food webs was relatively inefficient (3-13%).

However, the inefficiency of the appendicularian-mediated

food web was due in large part to the loss of carbon to the

environment in the form of particulates (82%). Therefore, the

most significant impact of appendicularians or copepods in this

system appears to be the contribution of appendicularians to

particulate carbon flux rather than the ability to efficiently

transfer carbon through the food web.

210 Po AND 210 Po BALANCE ASSOCIATED WITH

PARTICULATE MATTER BEHAVIOR IN CORAL

REEFS.

Tateda Y.* K. Kurosawa, Y. Suzuki, K. Iwao, M. Ouya. K.

Shimoike, H. Taniguchi, and K. Yamada. *Abiko

Laboratory CRIEPI, 1646 Abiko Chiba 270-1194 Japan.

Email: tateda@criepi.denken.or.jp

210 Po concentrations in oligotrophic water are controlled by

zooplankton density, which has high 210 Po affinity and removal

from surface water by downward transport of 210 Po rich fecal

pellet originated to zooplankton defecation. Contrary, the 210 Po

is released from organic matter under decomposition process

of biogenic debris in mid water. Therefore the 210 Po

concentration in water column can be proxy of organic matter

removal from surface water and degradation in deeper layer of

ocean. In coral reefs, 210 Po is expected to be removed from

water column by suspended organic matter consumption and

released from degradation of organic matter by reef

heterotrophic community. Thus imbalance between residence

times of 210 Po in reef water and surrounding coastal waters are

expected to be good information of organic particle inflow to

reef from open water and consumption by reef habitat. We

analyzed the 210 Po and POC/N concentrations in coral reef

waters at Bora Bay in Miyako Island and Akajima in Kerama

Islands. By box model calculation we estimate the 210 Po

residence times in the water column in and around the coral

reef, and calculate the balance of 210 Po to evaluate the POC

and PON behavior in coral reefs. The result suggested that

210 Po in water is positively correlated with particle matter in

reef water, however it also increased during degradation phase

of organic matter in reef..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A2: Planktonic Food Webs

16

ROLE OF BACTERIOPLANKTON IN REEF

ENVIRONMENTS.

Torréton, Jean-Pascal. IRD-Université Montpellier II,

UMR-CNRS 5556, Case 093, Montpellier Cedex 05,

France. Email: torreton@mpl.ird.fr

Detrital fluxes are known to be important in reef ecosystems

and the heterotrophic bacterial production is a key process

integrating the various pathways of detritus decomposition.

This literature based review investigates the importance of

bacterioplankton biomass, production and carbon demand, the

coupling between possible sources and bacterial growth, and

the fate of bacterial production. Bacterioplankton represents

the dominant C, N and P biomass in reef waters as in other

oligotrophic marine waters. Hence bacterioplankton represents

an important standing stock capable to reduce the nutrient

limitation of benthic organisms in these nutrient-poor

environments. This trophic potential is supported by in situ

studies. Indeed, over the reefs, bacterioplankton turnover rates,

and exoenzymatic activities are higher than in lagoon and

oceanic waters. Bacterioplankton production can reach values

in the range of planktonic primary production. These

characteristics suggest that bacterioplankton growth is fuelled

by organic matter released by benthic communities. On the

other hand, bacterioplankton abundance is lower over the reefs

than in surrounding waters. This latter phenomenon, the

elevated bacterioplankton turnover rates, and the short resident

time of waters show that bacterioplankton is very actively

consumed by benthic organisms. This trophic coupling has

been actually repeatedly assessed in laboratory experiments.

Establishing more quantitatively the trophic coupling between

bacterioplankton and other – either planktonic or benthic –

communities, using the study of temporal and spatial variations

of bacterioplankton parameters, in conjunction with

hydrodynamics, will require the use of new tools with high

acquisition rates in order to reach an acceptable resolution.

TROPHIC SUBSIDIES IN THE TWILIGHT ZONE:

ZOOPLANKTON COMMUNITY PATTERNS AND

FOOD WEB STRUCTURE OF DEEP REEF FISHES IN

THE NORTHEASTERN GULF OF MEXICO.

Weaver D.C.* U.S. Geological Survey, Biological

Resources Division, Gainesville, FL, USA. Email:

doug_weaver@usgs.gov

The food web structure of deep (50-110m) reef fishes in the

northeastern Gulf of Mexico was examined. Fish communities

on high-profile topographic features are numerically

dominated by two species of streamer basses (Serranidae:

Anthiinae): the roughtongue bass, Pronotogrammus

martinicensis, and the red barbier, Hemanthias vivanus.

Stomach content analysis revealed that calanoid copepods,

pteropods, pelagic tunicates, and invertebrate larvae dominate

the diets of both species, and that these small planktivores

serve as primary prey for many larger reef predators. To

compare diets of reef fishes with prey availability and

encounter rates, stationary plankton tows (0.5m, 335_ nets)

were made in the water column at surface (2m), midwater

(35m) and near-reef (60-70m) depths. Preliminary results

indicate high flow rates (3-24cm/sec) and high prey

availability (0.2 to 3.0 zooplankters/m 3 ) in the vicinity of deep

reef features. Estimates of the relative abundance indicate that

99% by number and 90% of the biomass of resident reef fishes

are small, planktivorous taxa, and 65-90% of their diets are

comprised of calanoid copepods, forming the main link to

water column productivity and the primary source of prey for

the reef fish community..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A3: Molecular Phylogeny

Session A3: Molecular Phylogeny and Population Genetics in Coral Reefs

17

GENETIC MARKERS AS ESSENTIAL TOOLS IN THE

REGIONAL MANAGEMENT OF CORAL REEFS: AN

INITIATIVE IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA.

Ablan, M.C.A.*, McManus, J.W., Tsao, K.S., Chen,

C.A.,Bell, J.D., Cabanban, A.S.,Tuan, V.S., and Arthana,

I.W. *ICLARM, No.10 LL6 Equatorial Hotel Office Block

1 Jalan Bukit Jambul Penang, Malaysia 11900. Email:

m.ablan@cgiar.org

Coastal water systems depend on a fluid medium to transport

recruits for replenishment of populations. In coral reefs,

currents may carry propagules of many species over large

distances. The resulting connectivity among reef systems leads

to situations where different groups harvest the same stock.

Thus, management regimes in one area may be ineffective if

there are no restrictions on harvests, or safeguarding of

habitats, elsewhere. We report the use of genetic markers to

evaluate connectivity among populations from selected coral

reefs in Malaysia, Indonesia, Taiwan, the Philippines, Vietnam

and Solomon Islands. This initiative, also known as Population

Interdependencies in the South China Sea (PISCES), aims to

determine the extent of unit stocks in the South China Sea

region, to indicate the need for joint management of reef

fisheries. The project uses a model based on 15-24

polymorphic loci in 13-15 isozyme markers of four coral reef

species. Data were interpreted with information from current

patterns, life-history characteristics and some macroecological

correlates. Concordant results were obtained between this

study and another on VNTR in the mtDNA and isozymes of

the same D. trimaculatus individuals. The project is the result

of collaboration between ICLARM and several national

research institutions and is expected to facilitate the

formulation of recommendations for the regional management

of coral reef fisheries.

LEARNING FROM THE PAST: PERSISTANCE OF

HISTORICAL GENETIC BOUNDARIES INDICATE

LIMITS OF CONTEMPORARY LARVAL DISPERSAL.

Barber, P.H.* and Palumbi, Stephen R. *Dept.

Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University,

Cambridge MA 02138, Email: pbarber@oeb.harvard.edu

Many coral reef organisms have pelagic larval phases that

are believed to facilitate dispersal. It is commonly assumed

that duration of larval period is an important predictor of

dispersal potential and that realized dispersal can be estimated

through combining larval period duration with ocean current

data. To examine the relationship between larval period, ocean

currents, and realized dispersal, we examined patterns of

population genetic structure for three species of mantis shrimp

with 4-6 week larval periods from populations throughout

Indonesia. Although strong oceanographic currents predict

extensive dispersal, striking patterns of regional genetic

differentiation were observed in all taxa. Phylogeographic

patterns among taxa were largely concordant and mirrored

ocean basins that were more isolated during periods of lowered

sea levels. Although the observed patterns likely have

Pleistocene origins, the failure of dispersal to disrupt these

historical associations during 10,000 years of modern

oceanographic conditions forces us to conclude that

contemporary dispersal is much more limited that predicted.

The recovery of concordant regional patterns of genetic

structure suggests that our understanding of larval dispersal

behaviors and/or ocean currents may be over simplistic and

highlights the need for fine scale population genetic studies in

marine systems.

THE GENETIC STRUCTURE OF THREE WIDELY

SEPARATED POPULATIONS OF Chlorurus sordidus.

Bay L.*, Christine Dudgeon and Prof. J Howard Choat,

*School Marine Biology and Aquaculture, James Cook

University Townsville Qld. 4811, Australia. Email:

line.bay@jcu.edu.au

The effective management of coral reef fisheries depends on

the identification of local populations and levels of

connectivity amongst these. Recent advances in molecular

techniques have provided reef fish biologists with the tools to

examine the genetic structure of geographically separated

populations and levels of gene flow amongst these. The

majority of reef fishes have a bipartite life history where larvae

spend some time in the pelagic environment before returning

to the reef environment. During this phase larvae may disperse

away or return to the natal reef. Recent studies have failed to

find conclusive evidence of a relationship between genetic

subdivision of geographically separated populations and length

of larval life. It is possible that not only the duration of the

larval phase but also behavioural capability of larvae may

affect the dispersal ability and hence the level of genetic

subdivision amongst geographically separated adult

populations. We examine the genetic structure of the common

reef fish Chlorurus sordidus. C. sordidus larvae spend ~30

days in the pelagic zone but are undeveloped compared to

larvae of other reef fish species. We compare mitochondrial

DNA sequence data amongst three widely separated

geographic populations. Samples from the northern Great

Barrier Reef are compared with samples taken ~ 3000 km to

the west (Abrolhos Islands, WA) and those sampled ~1000 km

to the north (Kavieng, PNG). Results are interpreted with

respect to larval attributes and the geological history of the

region.

CORALLIMORPHARIA (CNIDARIA, ANTHOZOA):

AN ORDER, A CORAL, OR A SEA ANEMONE?

Cappola V.A. and D.G. Fautin*. *University of Kansas,

Division of Biological Sciences, Haworth Hall, Lawrence,

KS 66047. Email: fautin@ukans.edu

The anthozoan order Corallimorpharia is currently

considered equivalent in rank to the Scleractinia (hard corals)

and Actiniaria (sea anemones). Does Corallimorpharia merit

ordinal status and, if not, does it belong in the scleractinians or

actiniarians? This study is the first cladistic analysis of these

anthozoan orders based on both morphology and molecules.

Morphological and anatomical evidence (nematocysts,

structure of mesenterial filaments, structure of the mesoglea,

absence of siphonoglyphs, sphincter muscle feeble or absent,

acrospheres) support the Corallimorpharia and Scleractinia

being closely related, but the form of this relationship is

unresolved. The corallimorpharians have variously been

hypothesized to be corals without skeletons, representatives of

the ancestral anemones from which skeleton-producing polyps

diverged, the sister group to Scleractinia, and a suborder of

Scleractinia. Published molecular data of 16S mitochondrial

DNA and 18S ribosomal DNA support the corallimorpharians

within the scleractinian clade, but data from 28S ribosomal

DNA support corallimorpharians being more closely related to

actiniarians. Monophyly of the corallimopharians has not been

established by these molecular studies. We use morphological

and molecular evidence both independently and combined to

present a complete picture of the phylogenetic status of

Corallimorpharia..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A3: Molecular Phylogeny

18

EVIDENCES FOR HIGHER RATE OF CYTOCHROME

B EVOLUTION IN THE SCLERACTINIAN CORAL

GENUS ACROPORA IN THE FAMILY ACROPORIDAE.

Chen C.A. * and Carden C. Wallace. *Institute of Zoology,

Academia Sinica, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan. Email:

cac@gate.sinica.edu.tw

The fundamental discipline of molecular evolution is to

estimate the divergence rates of molecules (DNA sequences or

proteins), and apply the rate to infer absolute divergence times

between species. The latter relies on well-preserved fossil

records and evolutionary rate of the molecules which are

approximately constant over time in all evolutionary lineages

(i. e., molecular clock hypothesis). Recent advances in

characterizing the mitochondrial genome of Acropora and

phylogenetic relationships in the family provide an opportunity

to examine the molecular evolution of mitochondrial genome

in scleractinian corals. In this study, we apply the likelihood

ratio test (LRT) and relative rate test (RRT) to examine the

patterns of rate heterogeneity in the family Acroporidae at two

mitochondrial genes, cytochrome b (cyt b) and ATPase 6.

Based on both LRT and RRT, we find significant evidence of

rate heterogeneity among evolutionary lineages of the family

Acroporidae at cyt b gene, but not at ATPase 6. The effects of

rate heterogeneity at Acropora cyt b gene in inferring the

divergence time and phylogenetic relationships of the family

Acroporidae are discussed.

DEMOGRAPHIC AND LIFE-HISTORY DIFFERENCES

IN REEF FISHES IN THE GREAT BARRIER REEF

LACK A GENETIC BASIS.

Dudgeon C.*, Nicholas Gust and David Blair. *James

Cook University, Dept. of Zoology, Townsville, QLD,

Australia, 4811. Email: Christine.Dudgeon@jcu.edu.au

Two species of parrot fish, Chlorurus sordidus and Scarus

frenatus are known to exhibit demographic and life history

differences across the continental shelf of the northern Great

Barrier Reef (GBR). Mitochondrial control region sequences

were analysed to test whether there was a genetic basis to the

observed ecological differences. Analysis of molecular

variance (AMOVA) revealed high levels of gene exchange for

both species at a local scale between reefs on mid and outer

continental shelf positions (20 km apart) and at a broader scale

along the length of the GBR province (>1000 km apart),

indicating that local differences in life history characteristics

on the northern GBR do not have a genetic basis. Rather it

appears more likely that phenotypically plastic responses to

prevailing social and environmental conditions explain

differences in the life history characteristics of both taxa.

However, analysis of genetic variability and historical

demography revealed striking differences between the two

species suggesting S. frenatus has undergone a population

expansion between 20 000 to 80 000 years ago whilst C.

sordidus has maintained equilibrium over this time. These

patterns could also reflect differences in the metapopulation

sizes or generation times between taxa. This study illustrates

contrasting ecological and genetic information which may

have implications for fisheries management.

REEF CONNECTIVITY IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA

AND SULU SEA, PHILIPPINES, INFERRED FROM

ALLOZYME ANALYSIS OF TWO REEF FISH

SPECIES.

Endriga M.A.* Mamauag S.S, Menez M.A.J., Alino P.M. .

*Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines,

Diliman, 1101 Quezon City, Philippines. Email:

marla@upmsi.ph

Allelic variation in 4 populations of Pterocaesio tile and 12

populations of Chromis margaritifer at 12 to 14 polymorphic

loci was analyzed to compare levels of genetic structuring and

determine the extent of gene flow in the South China Sea

(SCS) and Sulu Sea. Fish were collected from the Kalayaan

Island Group (KIG) and Western Luzon (WL) coast in the SCS

and reefs in the Sulu Sea. Average heterozygosity was highest

in P. tile (H = 0.421) compared with 1998 (H = 0.391) and

1999 (H = 0.362) populations of chromis. It was highest in

Sulu Sea populations of both species, lowest at the NE

Investigator Shoal of the KIG among chromis, and lowest in

WL among caesionids. Overall Fst was significant in both

species (Fst = 0.1473 for P. tile; 0.1732 for C. margaritifer),

suggesting that these are highly structured populations.

Effective number of migrants per generation (Nem) are 1.4 for

P. tile and 1.2 for chromis. Genetic affinities were closest

between KIG and Sulu Sea populations of P. tile (D = 0.112)

which differed significantly from the WL population (D =

0.158). Cluster analysis on chromis populations yielded two

major clusters: the KIG and WL-Sulu Sea clades. Pair-wise

comparisons showed that each chromis population was

significantly different from the rest (D = 0.069-0.127) included

in the study. In general, proximate sites had higher affinities

with one another, with some exceptions.

GENETIC STRUCTURE OF LINCKIA LAEVIGATA

AND TRIDACNA CROCEA POPULATIONS IN THE

PALAWAN SHELF AND SHOAL REEFS.

Juinio-Meñez, Marie Antonette*, Richard Magsino,

Eizadora T. Yu. *Marine Science Institute, College of

Science University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon

City 1101 Philippines. Email:

meneza@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

Allozyme variation of 10 populations of Linckia laevigata at

8 polymorphic loci, and 12 populations of Tridacna crocea at

6 polymorphic loci were analyzed to compare genetic

variability and determine genetic affinities among shoal and

shelf reefs of Palawan, Philippines. Heterozygosity was

highest in populations from the shelf of Palawan and lowest in

the shoal reefs of KIG in the South China Sea for both species.

There were highly significant variations between populations

in 3 loci of L. laevigata and 5 loci of T. crocea. Overall Fst for

both species (L. laevigata, 0.049 and T. crocea, 0.1403) were

significant indicating genetic structuring among shelf and

shoal reef populations in Palawan. The estimated average

number of effective migrants per generation (Nem) between the

reef populations was 1.5 individuals for T. crocea and 5

migrants for L. laevigata. Nei’s unbiased distance for L.

laevigata was smaller than that for T. crocea. Cluster

analysis based on genetic distance generally showed groupings

of reefs that were geographically close to each other with a few

exceptions. Highly significant pairwise comparisons (Fst) of

the different reef groups indicate genetic substructuring of

these reef invertebrates between and within the four

geographic areas in Palawan..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A3: Molecular Phylogeny

19

PCR AMPLIFICATION OF 16S MITOCHONDRIAL

GENE OF ZOANTHUS SOCIATUS (ZOANTHIDEA,

ANTHOZOA) USING HETEROLOGOUS PRIMERS

Longo, L. L. * ; M. C. Arias & E. Schlenz *Departamento

de Zoologia Instituto de Biociências Universidade de São

Paulo São Paulo, SP, Brazil Caixa Postal 11461 CEP:

05422-970 Email – lllongo@ib.usp.br

The Zoanthidea order (class Anthozoa) is comprised mainly

of colonial cnidarians that do not secrete a skeleton, but some

of them have an assimilation mechanism of sediments within

their tissues. Most of the species have zooxanthellae

endosymbionts. The morphological identification of

Zoanthidea species has been very difficult due to the plasticity

of polipo and colony morphology. Although this group of

Cnidaria is very abundant, studies involving its biology and

taxonomy are rare. Histological sectioning has been used in an

attempt to determine characters that can be useful for

taxonomic purpose. Allozime analysis has been the only

molecular tool applied so far to Zoanthidea taxonomy.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis has been used

successfully in taxonomic and evolutionary studies of several

organisms. The main goal of our study is to test primers for

mtDNA regions derived from different organisms in Zoanthus

sociatus. As this species presents zooxanthellae

endosymbionts, it is crucial to have DNA extractions free of

this contaminant and also primers showing high specificity to

Cnidarians. Primers for the 16S mtDNA gene, described for

Hydra vulgaris, were inittially tested. The PCR product

obtained was a unique fragment of 1022 pb. This fragment was

cloned and sequenced.

GENETIC RELATIONSHIP OF COLOR ECOMORPHS

OF THE REEF STARFISH LINCKIA LAEVIGATA

(LINNEAUS) IN THE KALAYAAN ISLANDS GROUP

(KIG), WEST PALAWAN, PHILIPPINES.

Magsino, Richard M. *, Rachel G. Ravago, Marie

Antonette J. Meñez. *Marine Science Institute University

of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City 1101 Philippines.

Email: rickym@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

The coral reef starfish Linckia laevigata is an organism with

a high potential for dispersal due to its 28d planktonic larvae.

In the Kalayaan Island Group (KIG), Philippines, color morphs

of blue, orange and combinations of both colors exist

sympatrically. Genetic variation at 8 polymorphic loci for 3

reef populations in the KIG based on allozyme markers was

examined. Data for 163 individuals (85 blue and 78 orange)

showed highly significant genetic grouping for all populations

(Fst=0.086) of L. laevigata. Pairwise comparisons between

blue and orange ecomorphs of the species (Fst=0.079) revealed

lower but significant genetic variation. In two reefs where both

blue and orange L. laevigata occurred, significant Fst suggests

genetic differentiation of color ecomorphs within sites. Cluster

analysis revealed two genetically different groups of blue and

orange populations. Comparison of DNA sequences of the COI

segment of the mitochondrial DNA of the different color

morphs show considerable variation among individuals.

Results obtained were consistent with a previous allozyme

study on the population genetics of L. laevigata color morphs

in Pacific and Indian Ocean populations. Phenotypic and

genetic structuring of color variants of L. laevigata within the

KIG may reflect effects of the very variable and complex

hydrographic regimes and habitats in the shoal reefs that

affects recruitment dynamics of Linckia populations.

POPULATION GENETICS OF THE SEA URCHIN

TRIPNEUSTES GRATILLA ALONG THE WESTERN

COAST OF LUZON ISLAND, THE PHILIPPINES.

Malay, Maria Celia D. *, Marie Antonette Juinio-Meñez,

and Cesar Villanoy. Marine Science Institute, University

of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City 1101 Philippines.

Email: machel@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

The sea urchin Tripneustes gratilla is a fishery resource of

high commercial value and is intensively harvested throughout

much of Northwestern Luzon. However, the fishery is

primarily unregulated, which has led to the steep decline of

spawning stocks in many areas, notably in Bolinao,

Pangasinan. Preliminary hydrographic larval dispersal models

indicate that larval exchange within this region is influenced

by monsoonal shifts in circulation patterns. The genetic

structure of T. gratilla in Western Luzon, the Philippines is

being investigated using allozyme electrophoresis to provide

the basis for the formulation of coherent management plans for

regional sea urchin resources. Samples of T. gratilla intestines

were obtained from one batch of cultured sea urchins from the

UP-MSI Bolinao Marine Laboratory and 4 “wild” populations

in Western Luzon: Sta. Maria, Ilocos Sur; Bolinao,

Pangasinan; Masinloc, Zambales; and Lian, Batangas. Seven

polymorphic enzyme loci (MDH-1, MDH-2, SOD, GPI, MPI,

PGM, and LT) and 2 monomorphic loci (IDHP and LP) are

being screened to determine genetic variations between

populations and estimate larval dispersal and gene flow

between the different localities sampled. Baseline information

on population genetic structure will also be useful in

monitoring the impacts of enhancement efforts using cultured

sea urchins on the genetic structure of natural populations of T.

gratilla.

RETICULATE EVOLUTION IN THE ACROPORA

HYACINTHUS GROUP: RESULTS FROM

MITOCHONDRIAL AND NUCLEAR MARKERS.

Marquez L.M.*, M.J.H. van Oppen, B.L. Willis and

D.J.Miller. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, *James

Cook University, Townsville 4811, Australia. Email:

Luis.Marquez@jcu.edu.au

Two species in the Acropora hyacinthus group, A.

hyacinthus and A. cytherea, hybridise in vitro with up to 100%

fertilisation success, however, it is unclear whether this

potential for hybridisation has led to introgression and

reticulate evolution. Here, we present DNA sequence data for

three independent markers: rDNA ITS and 5.8S, the Pax-C

46/47 intron and the putative mtDNA control region for these

two species and for A. tenuis. The latter species was used as

an outgroup in phylogenetic analyses, as it appears to be

reproductively isolated from the former two through a

difference in spawning time. We found high levels of

variability in rDNA regions, with up to 55% variability for

ITS1. ITS sequences were shared between the two species in

the A. hyacinthus group suggesting that introgression occurs.

No ITS sequences were shared with A. tenuis. Phylogenetic

analyses of molecular data for samples of A. cytherea and A.

hyacinthus from sites along the length of the Great Barrier

Reef and from the Ningaloo Reefs in Western Australia

indicate that these two species do not constitute monophyletic

groupings. Moreover, phylogenies showed no clear

biogeographic patterns. Comparisons of phylogenies based on

the three different markers will be discussed..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A3: Molecular Phylogeny

20

ECOLOGICAL AND GENETIC DIFFERENCES

BETWEEN EASTERN PACIFIC PANAMANIAN

CORALS. AGARICIIDAE (Pavona varians, P. frondifera

AND Pavona sp. a)

Maté JL*. University of Miami, RSMAS-MBF, 4600

Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149, USA; and

Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Unit 0948, APO

AA 34002, USA. Email: matej@naos.si.edu

Pavona is a common and conspicuous coral genus with a

distribution that ranges from the Red Sea and western Indian

Ocean to the far eastern Pacific. Three of six species reported

for the Panamanian Pacific (Pavona varians, P. frondifera and

Pavona sp. a) show strong development of colines that set

them apart from the others. I studied the ecological and

genetical differences among these three species to determine

their boundaries. Ecological information consisted on species

distribution, habitat preferences, tissue coloration, reproductive

ecology, and tolerance to bleaching. Genetical information

consisted on the analysis of the 10 allozyme loci. Pavona

varians and Pavona sp. a are sibbling species. Pavona varians

is the most widely distributed of the three species, found in

both reef and non-reef environments in the Gulf of Chiriquí

and the Gulf of Panamá.

COMPARING MITOCHONDRIAL AND NUCLEAR

GENE SEQUENCES : CRITICAL TOOLS TO DETECT

NATURAL SELECTION, CRYPTIC SPECIES

BOUNDARIES, AND RETICULATE EVOLUTION IN

REEF SPECIES.

Palumbi, Stephen R. *, Paul Barber, Laura Geyer, Shane

Lavery, and Steve Vollmer, *Dept. Organismic and

Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge MA

02138, Email: spalumbi@oeb.harvard.edu

Collection of gene sequence data to measure population

structure can now make use of information from multiple

independent loci to test hypotheses about the origin and

maintenance of genetic variation within closely related species.

The signature of selection on gene frequencies, typically

ignored in studies of single loci, can be tested by comparing

genetic structure of several loci. In the Indo-West Pacific sea

urchins in the genus Echinometra, allele frequencies of at the

locus responsible for egg-sperm recognition, the gene bindin,

differ strongly among localities even though neutral intron

variation does not. These patterns suggest selection driven by

mate recognition acts within populations. In addition,

comparison of phylogenetic patterns from multiple loci can 1)

test for genetic barriers between sympatric, cryptic species,

such as in comparisons of Indonesian stomatopods, 2) show

the history of population exchanges, such as in Indo-West

Pacific Penaeid shrimp, 3) and provide a robust framework for

evaluation of patterns of reticulate evolution in corals.

(GACA)n SIMPLE SEQUENCE REPEATS IN THE

NUCLEAR GENOME OF SEA ANEMONES

(CNIDARIA: ACTINIARIA AND

CORALLIMORPHARIA): ANALYSIS OF

POPULATION STRUCTURE AND SPECIES

DIVERSITY

Pinto, S.M.*, F.M.C. Fernandes-Matioli and E. Schlenz.

*Depto. de Zoologia, IB, Universidade de São Paulo, CP

11461, 05422-970. São Paulo, SP, Brazil. Email:

suzanamp@ib.usp.br.

DNA microsatellites molecular markers could be useful for

addressing evolutionary questions in sea anemones, and may

clarify the phylogenetic relationships among genera and

species, which do not differ throughout the morphological

characters. In this study, we show that PCR (polymerase Chain

Reaction) amplification using primers based on microsatellite

sequences are effective to address the genetic variability in 12

species of sea anemones. A total of 150 individuals belonging

to 11 species of sea anemones, Aiptasia pallida, Anthothoe

chilensis, Anthopleura krebsi, Bellactis ilkalyseae, Carcinactis

dolosa, Calliactis tricolor, Diadumene sp, Haliplanella

lineata, Paratelmatactis roseni, Telmatactis rufa, Tricnidactis

errans, and one species of corallimorpharian, Discosoma

carlgreni were examined. All species were collected from the

Brazilian coast. Specimens were collected during low tide

periods and SCUBA diving at depths bet ween 1 and 16 m . Total

genomic DNA was extracted from living, and 100% ethanol-preserved

sea anemones. DNA extracted from samples was

used as a template in PCR amplifications with the SPAR

technique using (GACA)4 as primers.

PHYLLOGEOGRAPHY OF CORAL REEF FISHES

THROUGHOUT THE PACIFIC OCEAN INFERRED

FROM GENETIC SURVEYS

Planes S.* *EPHE - ESA CNRS 8046 University of

Perpignan, 66860 Perpignan cedex - France. Email :

planes@univ-perp.fr

The geographic range of a species is mostly determined by a

succession of historical accidents. Althrough the idea is

simple, the combination can be infinite because species are

formed at different times, barriers to migration appear and

disappear through time. The Indo-Pacific area has been

recognised as the most diverse biogeographic area among

marine ecosystems. This diversity shows gradient with higher

diversity in the Indonesia-Philippines area and decrease of

species richness going East in the Pacific islands. Three major

theories (center of origins, center of accumulation, and center

of overlap) have proposed mechanisms that lead to higher

diversity in the Indonesian-Philippines area. We investigate

genetic approach as a new tool that could give evolutionary

perspective in biogeography. The rationale of such an

approach is that genetic diversity has been found to be

correlated to species richness. Three species (Acanthurus

triostegus, Forcipiger flavissimus and Zanclus cornuttus) that

are found althrough the Indo-Pacific area from Baja California

to South Africa were surveyed..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A3: Molecular Phylogeny

21

ASSESSMENT OF CRYPTIC REEF FISH SPECIES IN

BRAZIL USING MOLECULAR MARKERS

Rocha, Luiz A. and Brian W. Bowen. *University of

Florida, Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences,

7922 NW 71 st Street, Gainesville, FL 32653 USA. Email:

rocha@gnv.ifas.ufl.edu

In the last few years the growth of interest in reef fish

systematics among Brazilian ichthyologists has generated a

growing number of faunal surveys and, consequently, species

descriptions. Many of the unknown species being found can be

described based solely on morphology, but others seem to

differ from Caribbean sister taxa in just a few characters such

as color or size, what usually is not enough for establishing a

species identity. Examples of those so called “cryptic” species

are several grunts (Haemulidae), wrasses (Labridae) and

damselfishes (Pomacentridae). One of the first species

accessed during this study is the puddingwife Halichoeres

radiatus. It has a green-yellow body with four white spots

along the dorsum in the Caribbean, and a blue-orange body

without white spots in Brazil, but no significant difference was

found when comparing their morphology. In an attempt to

solve long debated questions about the identity of such

Brazilian taxa we are now applying molecular genetic

techniques and testing hypothesis of gene flow and population

structure between Brazilian and Caribbean reefs, which are

separated by freshwater discharges of big rivers such as the

Amazon and Orinoco in northeastern South America.

Preliminary data on sequences of Halichoeres radiatus

mitochondrial DNA indicate deep separations between

locations on the Brazilian coastline, offshore islands, and the

Caribbean.

MOLECULAR TOOLS FOR ASSESSING GENETIC

VARIATION WITHIN SCLERACTINIAN CORAL

SPECIES.

Romano, S.L.* and R.H. Richmond. *Marine Laboratory,

Univ. of Guam, UOG Station, Mangilao, Guam 96923 USA.

Email: sromano@uog9.uog.edu

Developments in molecular techniques have made it feasible

to use genotypic characters for analyses of relationships among

coral species, genera, and families. However, gene regions that

are useful for detecting genetic differences within and among

closely related species of many different organisms do not

demonstrate genetic differentiation on a similar scale for coral

species. Recent work has shown those molecular methods that

sample throughout the genome, such as RAPDs, AFLPs and

ISSRs, may provide the necessary resolution for analyzing

intraspecific variation in corals. Randomly amplified

polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers have been used as a

means of relatively easily, rapidly, efficiently and

inexpensively assaying genetic variation, from the level of the

individual to the species, in a wide variety of plants and

animals. While RAPD markers successfully differentiate

species within the genus Acropora, preliminary data indicate

that they may not be useful for assessing genetic variation

within scleractinian coral species. DNA extracted from

azooxanthellate coral sperm from 45 colonies of Acropora

surculosa was amplified with four different RAPD primers.

Analysis of 27 loci generated from these primers demonstrates

no population differentiation among four populations separated

by as much as 50 km. Mean genetic distances within

populations are 25-32% and between populations are 26-31%.

Continuing research is being conducted to determine whether

this result is due to lack of genetic variation within A.

surculosa or to lack of variability in coral RAPD markers.

LOW LEVELS OF MITOCHONDRIAL SEQUENCE

VARIATION IN SCLERACTINIAN CORALS.

Snell, Tonya L.*. *University at Buffalo, Dept. of

Biological Sciences, Buffalo, NY 14260 USA, Email:

tlsnell@buffalo.edu.

Mitochondrial 16S ribosomal RNA and cytochrome b gene

sequences often exhibit unexpectedly low sequence divergence

among some scleractinian corals. In this study, sequence

variation of another mitochondrial gene, cytochrome c oxidase

subunit 1 (COI), was investigated to determine whether this

trend was exhibited throughout this region of the

mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Approximately 700 base pairs

of the COI gene from Caribbean coral species in several

scleractinian families were sequenced and analyzed for intra-and

interspecific nucleotide and amino acid variability. Levels

of variability were extremely small (or zero) among colonies

within a species, even when samples were collected from

distant geographic locations (>3000 km). Among some

species, nucleotide divergence and amino acid divergence

were also very low. Phylogenetic relationships based on this

COI region support the placement of genera within families,

and the relationships among families were generally

concordant with those hypothesized using 16S mitochondrial

sequence data. Although mtDNA sequences are commonly

used to assess population structure and estimate divergence of

closely related species, low levels of mitochondrial nucleotide

substitution rates in scleractinian corals inhibit the use of these

markers for such purposes.

THE SCLERACTINIAN CORAL PAVONA CACTUS

EXHIBITS HIGH LEVELS OF GENETIC

POLYMORPHISM: A NEW GENETIC MARKER FOR

CLONAL POPULATION STUDIES.

Smith,C.R.*, Willis, B.L., Miller, D.J. and Chen, C.A.

*Australian Institute of Marine Science PMB No. 3

Townsville MC QLD 4810 Australia. Email:

c.smith@aims.gov.au

The prevalence of asexual reproduction in the life history of

scleractinian corals highlights the need for good genetic

markers to assess clonal population structure. In order for

genetic markers to be useful they must be easily assayed and

exhibit sufficient polymorphism to address the question at

hand. The ribosomal intergenic spacer region (IGS) is a region

with considerable potential for use as a genetic marker in

population level studies of scleractinian corals. A rapid, cost

effective method of assaying variation within the ribosomal

IGS region was developed for the agariciid coral Pavona

cactus. Possible contamination from symbiotic zooxanthellae

was avoided by the development of an assay which

preferentially amplifies host coral DNA rather than

zooxanthellae DNA through the use of the polymerase chain

reaction (PCR). This PCR based technique was able to rapidly

distinguish 17 distinct genotypes within a clonal population of

P.cactus at Eclipse Island, Great Barrier Reef, Australia.

Allozyme electrophoresis, the more traditional genetic assay

for hard corals, resolved only 12 genotypes within the same

sample set. The high level of polymorphism observed within

the IGS region of P.cactus (as compared with that observed in

a clonal marine gorgonian, Junceella fragilis) may be

explained by the presence of internally repeated DNA

elements (subrepeats) in the P.cactus genome..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A3: Molecular Phylogeny

22

REPRODUCTIVE AND MORPHOMETRIC

CHARACTERS OF CARIBBEAN CORALS IN THE

GENUS ACROPORA ARE CONSISTENT WITH A

HYBRID ORIGIN FOR A. PROLIFERA

Stockwell, B., B. Willis.* and A. Morse. *Department of

Marine Biology, James Cook University, Townsville,

Qld.4811, Australia. Email: Bette.Willis@jcu.edu.au

Caribbean species in the coral genus, Acropora, comprise

two common species, A. palmata and A. cervicornis, and a

rarer species, A. prolifera, whose intermediate colony

morphology and lack of genetic distinctness have lead to

speculation that it may be of hybrid origin. We present

evidence that, in addition to colony morphology, both corallite

morphology and reproductive characters of A. prolifera are

intermediate between those of the other two species. Mean

egg volume and polyp fecundity are both distinct and

intermediate for A. prolifera, with A. cervicornis being

significantly more fecund and A. palmata having significantly

larger eggs. Multivariate analyses of corallite characteristics

(maximum calice diameter, calice roundness, corallite length,

and corallite wall thickness) clearly separated all three species

and indicated that corallite dimensions of A. prolifera are

intermediate between those of A. palmata and A. cervicornis .

Evidence that A. palmata and A. cervicornis may spawn

concurrently, coupled with congruence in the intermediacy of

A. prolifera for both reproductive and morphometric characters

is consistent with suggestions that A. prolifera may have

originated as a hybrid between A. palmata and A. cervicornis.

GENETIC CONNECTIVITY OF CORALS AMONG

WESTERN PACIFIC REEFS.

Takabayashi, M. * , Carter, D.A., Hoegh-Guldberg, O.

*Centre for Marine Studies, The University of Queensland

QLD 4072 Australia. Email: misaki@bio.usyd.edu.au

Genetic connectivity over large distances (thousands of

kilometres) is poorly described despite the widespread

distributions of Scleractinian corals and the importance of the

information for areas like conservation biology. Molecular

methods offer powerful opportunities to investigate this area of

coral reef biology. Variability in the DNA sequence of the

internal transcribed spacer-1 (ITS-1) of ribosomal genes was

investigated to analyse intra-specific genetic diversity of a

common coral, Stylophora pistillata, across the western Pacific

Ocean. Populations from Japan, Malaysia, northern and

southern Great Barrier Reef (GBR) were studied. The resulting

consensus dendrograms (maximum likelihood and neighbour

joining analyses) revealed that the genetic and geographic

distances were clearly correlated in these coral populations.

Despite this, statistical analyses (AMOVA) of genetic

distances revealed that ITS-1 sequence variability was greater

within populations (78.37%) than among populations

(12.06%). These results suggest significant connectivity

among reef systems that may be separated by as much as

several thousand miles. These results have important

implications for the local and global management of coral reefs

throughout the tropical Pacific.

EXAMINATION OF SPECIES BOUNDARIES IN THE

ACROPORA CERVICORNIS GROUP (SCLERACTINIA,

CNIDARIA) USING NUCLEAR DNA SEQUENCE

ANALYSES.

van Oppen, MJH*, BL Willis, HWJA van Vugt, DJ Miller.

*Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, James Cook

University, Townsville 4811, Australia. Email:

Madeleine.vanOppen@jcu.edu.au

While Acropora is the most species rich genus of the

scleractinian corals, only three species occur in the Caribbean:

Acropora cervicornis, A. palmata and A. prolifera . Based on

overall coral morphology, abundance and distribution patterns,

it has been suggested that A. prolifera may be a hybrid

between A. cervicornis and A. palmata. We have examined

species boundaries among these three morphospecies using

DNA sequence analyses of the nuclear Pax-C 46/47 intron and

the ribosomal DNA ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 regions. Up to 5.2 %

overall sequence divergence was observed in the ITS and 5.8S

sequences, but variability within species was as large as

between species and all three species carried similar

sequences. Since this is unlikely to represent a shared

ancestral polymorphism, the data suggest that introgressive

hybridisation occurs among the three species. For the Pax-C

intron, A. cervicornis and A. palmata had very distinct allele

frequencies and A. cervicornis carried a unique allele at a

frequency of 0.769. All A. prolifera colonies examined were

heterozygous for the Pax-C intron, while heterozygosity was

only 0.286 and 0.333 for A. cervicornis and A. palmata,

respectively. This suggest that A. prolifera is the product of

hybridisation between two species that have a different allelic

composition for the Pax-C intron, i.e. A. cervicornis and A.

palmata. We therefore suggest that A. prolifera is a hybrid

between A. cervicornis and A. palmata, which backcrosses

with the parental species at low frequency.

POPULATION GENETIC ANALYSES OF THE

RIBOSOMAL INTERNAL TRANSCRIBED SPACER 2

IN ACROPORA (CNIDARIA; SCLERACTINIA):

EFFECT OF ANCESTRAL POLYMORPHISM IN

EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY OF ACROPORA.

Wei, Nuwei Vivian*, Wallace, Carden C. Chang-Feng Dai,

Shan-In Vanson Liu, Chaolun Allen Chen. *Institute of

Oceanography, National Taiwan University, Taiwan.

Email: teresa@gate.sinica.edu.tw

Reticulate evolutionary history enforced by synchronous

spawning of Acropora has recently been suggested based on

fertilization trials and molecular markers. Under this scenario,

success of natural hybridization among morphologically

distinct Acropora may reinforce the exchange of genetic

background of species which spawn simultaneously in the

populations, but create genetic difference among species with

variations in spawning times, or of the same species at

geographically-distant populations. In this study, population

parameters were estimated for the ribosomal internal

transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) of several Acropora species

obtained from diverse geographic localities. The ITS2 of A.

humilis, containing a set of microsatellites, showed the highest

genetic divergence ( > 30%) in comparison to three dominant

species, A. muricata, A. hyacinthus, A. valida, in the Penghu

(Taiwan) population..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A3: Molecular Phylogeny

23

USING A MULTI-LOCUS APPROACH TO EXAMINE

SPECIES-LEVEL RELATIONSHIPS IN THE

SCLERACTINIAN CORALS.

Vollmer, Steven V.* and Stephen R. Palumbi. *Dept. of

Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University,

Cambridge, MA 02138, Email: svollmer@oeb.harvard.edu

Efforts to construct molecular phylogenies within the

scleractinian corals have been hampered by surprisingly low

levels of genetic variability at loci commonly used in other

taxa. While there has been limited success with the higher-level

systematics of the corals, few loci have been identified

that are capable of resolving species-level relationships, and

those loci with sufficient variation often lack fixed differences

between species. As a result, the ability to address questions

about species relationships in corals, including whether

reticulate evolution may be common to some mass-spawning

species, have been limited by a lack of appropriate markers.

We examined patterns of genetic variability in Acropora

palmata and A. cervicornis from the Caribbean using

mitochondrial and nuclear loci. Sequence data from the

putative control region and cytochrome oxidase III of the

mitochondrion and nuclear intron data from 3 independent loci

show that these 2 species are genetically distinct. Levels of

genetic variability at these loci are suitable for inter- and intra-specific

phylogenetic comparisons, and the comparison of

mitochondrial versus nuclear loci may be useful for detecting

introgression.

POPULATION PHYLOGENETICS OF THE COMMON

CORAL REEF SPONGES LEUCETTA SPP. AND

PERICHARAX SPP. (PORIFERA: CALCAREA) FROM

THE GREAT BARRIER REEF AND VANUATU.

Woerheide, G.*; Degnan, B. M.; Hooper, J.N.A..

*Queensland Museum, P.O. Box 3300, South Brisbane, Q

4101, Australia & Molecular Zoology Lab., Dept. of

Zoology and Entomology, University of Queensland, St.

Lucia, Q 4072, Australia. Email: GertW@qm.qld.gov.au

Molecular data show that calcareous sponges (Porifera:

Calcarea) might be the link between sponges and

Ctenophora/Cnidaria. However, present knowledge of this

group of sponges from Indo-Pacific coral reefs is deficient -this

class of sponges remains fundamentally problematic at all

levels. The aim of the present study is to investigate for the

first time the phylogenetic relationships of populations of the

common (and allegedly 'cosmopolitan') calcareous sponges

Leucetta spp. and Pericharax spp. from the Great Barrier Reef

and Vanuatu, using mitochondrial (COII) and nuclear (ITS)

gene sequence analysis. Species of Leucetta and Pericharax

are particularly well-suited for this study as they are found on

nearly every Indo-Pacific coral reef; identification at species

level is difficult using traditional morphological characters;

and nothing is known about gene flow and larval dispersal

capabilities between Indo-Pacific populations. We test the

hypothesis that 'widely distributed' species of these taxa occur

in the western Indo-Pacific (H0), against the possibility that the

populations of these allegedly ‘widely distributed’ species

represent distinct cryptic sibling species (H1). We will also

compare different rates of evolution of investigated

mitochondrial and nuclear genes in Porifera and indicate

patterns of gene flow between populations – of high

significance also to other marine invertebrate groups.

SPECIES BOUNDARIES IN SCLERACTINIAN

CORALS.

Wolstenholme, Jackie*. *Dept of Marine Biology and

Aquaculture, James Cook University, Townsville Qld 4811

Australia. Email: jackie.wolstenholme@jcu.edu.au

Accurate definition of species and species boundaries is

critical for correctly interpreting evolutionary processes.

However, definition of boundaries between many species of

scleractinian corals remains unresolved because of merging or

overlapping skeletal characters between morphologically

similar species. Molecular evidence suggests that this apparent

morphological continuum between some species of corals is

due to hybridisation, and may be indicative of a reticulate

rather than divergent evolutionary history. Detailed

morphological analysis, using both descriptive and

morphometric characters of all morphs of the Acropora

humilis species complex, indicates that the five species present

in American Samoa correspond with seven field-recognisable

morphs. Three of the morphs have overlapping morphological

boundaries while the other four morphs have distinct

boundaries. Two of the distinct morphs are from a single

species, A. monticulosa. One morph with indistinct boundaries

and one morph with distinct boundaries are from the species A.

gemmifera. Molecular data, for the same colonies used in the

morphological analysis, compare the occurrence and frequency

of interbreeding between morphs with overlapping and distinct

morphological boundaries. Techniques established in this

project will be used to analyse samples collected from the

same species complex from six other Pacific locations to

assess biogeographic variation. The combined results will be

used to reconstruct the phylogenetic history, including zones of

hybridisation, of this species complex..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A4: Zooxanthellae

Session A4: Zooxanthellae in Animal Hosts: Honoring Len Muscatine and Bob

Trench

24

USE OF 13 C TO STUDY THE CORAL SYMBIOSIS

SYNERGY.

Amat A*, Juillet-Leclerc , Ruiz-Pino. LSCE, Domaine du

CNRS, Gif-sur-Yvette, FRANCE. Email:

amat@ccr.jussieu.fr

Zooxanthellate Scleractinian corals have not to be regarded

as separate mineral and organic units. In order to investigate

interactions between photosynthesis and calcification, it is

therefore necessary to study simultaneously organic and

inorganic parts. Stable isotopic carbon ratio ( 13 C/12 C) has been

chosen here to allow this concomittant study. This proxy has

been measured in zooxanthellae, coral tissues and skeletons

from 4 species corresponding to 3 genus of Scleractinian

corals, adapted successively to different pCO2 and light

conditions. Stable isotopic composition (d 13 C) variations

versus light and CO2 are similar for animal and zooxanthellae

organic matter. The animal metabolism is therefore highly

coupled to the photosynthetic activity of its symbionts.

Organic matter and skeleton d

13 C variations are not correlated.

This result suggests that carbon sources for photosynthesis and

calcification have different origins and not a common one as

previously supposed by the common carbon pool hypothesis.

Whatever the genus considered, a light decrease implies an

organic matter d

13 C depletion; the CO2 influence is less

obvious. The impact of calcification on the aragonitedd 13 C is

highly species dependent. The light influence as well as the

pCO2 impact through photosynthesis and calcification on

13 C/12 C ratio is not straightforward.

THE EFFECT OF SYMBIOSIS ON SKELETAL

CHEMISTRY OF HERMATYPIC CORALS:

IMPLICATIONS FOR INTERPRETING CORAL

CLIMATE RECORDS

Cohen A.L.*, Gladfelter, Elizabeth H. and Layne, Graham

D.; Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole,

MA 02543, USA; Email: acohen@whoi.edu

The skeletal chemistry of massive hermatypic corals

correlates with sea temperature and other environmental

variables and is an important tool for reconstructing past

climate change. However, our confidence in interpreting coral

proxy data purely as a climate signal is limited by lack of

knowledge of how biological processes, specifically algal

photosynthesis, influence skeletal chemistry. We examined the

link between photosynthesis and skeletal Sr/Ca (a temperature

proxy) in a Porites lutea colony stained in-situ for age-control

and for which we have contemporaneous, logged hourly SSTs.

Examination of skeletal ultra-structure with SEM and in thin-section

yielded two different crystal morphologies whose

existence is likely connected with symbiont-induced diurnal

changes in pH of the extra-cellular calcifying fluid,

encouraging equant crystals to form at night and acicular

crystals during the day. We constructed Sr/Ca time-series

separately for each crystal type at daily resolution over a

growth period of one year using SIMS 1 ion microprobe.

Biweekly Sr/Ca cycles track tidally-induced, biweekly SST

cycles but the sensitivity of Sr/Ca to SST is five times greater

during the day than it is at night. Furthermore, the temperature-dependence

of daytime Sr/Ca is non-linear over the annual

cycle, changing between the winter and summer seasons. We

propose that algal symbiosis exerts a significant influence on

this important temperature proxy by enhancing skeletal

calcification rate. However, since the relationship appears

neither simple nor non-linear, accurate interpretation of coral-based

climate records will depend on our recognition and

understanding of this complex interaction.

DIFFERENT FORMS OF CELL DEATH ACTIVITY

DURING BLEACHING OF THE SYMBIOTIC SEA

ANEMONE AIPTASIA SP.

, Simon*, Dr.J.C.Bythell, Dr.M.D.A.Le Tissier and

Dr.J.C.Thomason. *Department of Marine Sciences and

Coastal management, University of Newcastle upon Tyne,

UK. Email: S.R.DUNN@NCL.AC.UK

The mechanisms of cell death, degradation and loss of host

tissues and symbionts during bleaching in symbiotic cnidarians

has remained equivocal. There is little evidence to indicate

whether host or symbiont is the first to show the affects of an

environmental stress. A critical issue that remains is whether

bleaching is the outcome of an adaptive stress response or

simply the degenerative effects of environmental perturbation.

In this study, cell death pathways were investigated in

response to hyperthermic treatment which induced bleaching

in the sea anemone Aiptasia sp.. Using a suite of techniques,

different forms of cell death activity were indicated. After a

treatment period of 3-4 days the host gastrodermis tissues

underwent necrotic cell death releasing zooxanthellae with a

normal, healthy appearance into the coelenteron. Longer

periods of hyperthermic treatment (7 days) were correlated

with the in-situ degradation of zooxanthellae remaining within

the degenerated host gastrodermis. Zooxanthellae degradation

was characterised by cell shrinkage, condensation of the

cytoplasm, formation of accumulation bodies at the periphery

of the cell wall and DNA fragmentation, which was indicative

of a form of programmed cell death. The existence of a

programmed cell death pathway within zooxanthellae is

important to the understanding of bleaching events and raises

interesting questions regarding the evolution of this process

which has previously been linked mainly with multicellular

organisms.

NOVEL STABLE ISOTOPE APPROACH TO STUDY

CARBON AND OXYGEN CYCLING BETWEEN

CORALS AND THEIR SYMBIOTIC ALGAE.

Erez, J.*, Schneider, K. and Luz, B.. *Institute of Earth

Sciences, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel, 91904.

Email: Erez@vms.huji.ac.il

The metabolic fractionations of 13 C / 12 C and 17 O/ 16 O, and

18 O/16 O in dissolved inorganic carbon (CT ) and oxygen (O2),

respectively, were used to study their cycling in Acropora sp.

from Eilat, Red Sea. The d

13 C of CT taken-up during

photosynthesis was very low (Av.= -8 ‰), and negatively

correlated with CO2(aq). These very low fractionations correlate

well with high calcification rates, suggesting that at low CO2(aq)

and high pH, photosynthesis may be supported by 13 C enriched

CO2(aq) produced from HCO3 - which combines with protons

generated by calcification. During respiration the d

13 C released

is more negative (-16 to -18 ‰) indicating that roughly 50% of

the respiratory carbon is of planktonic origin. d

13 C of isolated

symbionts show average values of –14‰ suggesting that up to

60% of the CO2 utilized by the symbionts may be of host

respiratory origin. Oxygen produced during photosynthesis is

depleted in 18 O relative to atmospheric dissolved O2. This

depletion (corrected for respiration based on 17 O) allows for

direct estimate of gross photosynthesis (GP). GP of the

symbiotic algae determined by this method, suggest that light

respiration was roughly twice the dark respiration. In addition

these data showed that during photosynthesis, significant

amount of oxygen (and probably also carbon) must be cycled

internally in accord with the carbon isotope data. Excess light

respiration and CO2(aq) production rates from calcification

match the internal recycling needed to explain the observed

oxygen isotopic data..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A4: Zooxanthellae

25

ZOOXANTHELLAL RESPONSE OF TRIDACNA GIGAS

MANTLE TO ELEVATED TEMPERATURES

Estacion, J. S. *, J. S. Lucas and J. H. Norton. *Silliman

University Marine Laboratory, Dumaguete City 6200,

Philippines. Email: mlsucrm@mozcom.com

The response of zooxanthellae within the giant clam

(Tridacna gigas) mantle to elevated temperatures (30-31°C)

was investigated under the laboratory conditions using

zooxanthellae density, chlorophyll a content per zooxanthella

and histological appearance of the mantle. Results showed that

mean zooxanthellae density increased with prolonged exposure

to elevated water temperatures. After 21 days, density of clams

in elevated water temperatures (1.41 x 10 7 cells/g fresh mantle)

was almost ten times lower than the control clams (13.4 x 10 7

cells/g fresh mantle) but chrolophyll a per cell was

significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the former. Histological

examination confirmed the decrease in zooxanthellae density

in the mantle. Compared to the controls, there was also an

increase in the number of zooxanthellae that were transparent.

These zooxanthellae seem to degenerating and losing their

cytoplasm.

COMPARISONS OF TISSUE BIOMASS AND

ZOOXANTHELLAE POPULATIONS OF FIVE REEF-BUILDING

CORALS LIVING IN THE BAHAMAS AND

ON THE FLORIDA REEF TRACT AND

RELATIONSHIP TO BLEACHING.

Fitt*,W.K., M.E. Warner, G.C. Chilcoat. University of

Georgia, Athens GA 30602 Email:

fitt@sparrow.ecology.uga.edu

Tissue biomass and zooxanthellae densities of five species of

Caribbean reef corals tend to decrease with depth and vary

with season, with highest values occurring during the coolest

season and the lowest at the end of the warmest season. Same

species, same depth comparisons between sites in the Bahamas

with those in the Florida Keys show that corals at the latter site

exhibit physiological parameters indicative of corals that

would normally live deeper on reefs compared to their

Bahamian counterparts. We suggest that the data illustrate the

importance of light penetration and influence of water quality

on the physiology and health of reef corals.

HOST-MEDIATED CO2 SUPPLY FOR

ENDOSYMBIONT PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN SEA

ANEMONE

Furla, Paola* & Denis Allemand *Observatoire

Océanologique Européen, Centre Scientifique de Monaco,

Avenue Saint-Martin, MC-98000 MONACO (Principality

of Monaco) Email:: Denis.Allemand@unice.fr

Within symbiotic Cnidarians, respiratory CO 2 is not enough

to supply photosynthesis of intracellular dinoflagellates,

Symbiodinium sp. Furthermore it has been shown recently that

the Rubisco of these Dinoflagellates is a form II which has

previously been reported to have a relatively low

discrimination ratio between CO2 and O2, raising the question

of how zooxanthellae fix inorganic carbon so efficiently?

To determine the mechanism of inorganic carbon supply, we

used isolated tentacles of the Mediterranean sea anemone,

Anemonia viridis. We demonstrated that the major source of

inorganic carbon is the HCO3 - present in the external medium

surrounding the animal. The absorption of HCO3 - from the

external seawater induces a polarization of the oral epithelium,

revealed by the generation of a pH gradient between sea water

and the coelenteric cavity of about 0.8 pH units. To further

study this mechanism, we used plasma membrane vesicles of

ectodermal cells from tentacles. We found that HCO3 - uptake

results from a H + secretion by an H + -ATPase which, in

addition to a membrane-bound carbonic anhydrase, induces the

dehydration of HCO3 - into CO2.

THE GROWTH AND SURVIVORSHIP OF REEF-BUILDING

CORALS EXPOSED TO ELEVATED

NUTRIENTS IN A LONG-TERM MANIPULATIVE

FIELD STUDY.

Hoegh-Guldberg Ove*, *Centre For Marine Studies,

University Of Queensland, StLucia, 4072. Qld, Australia.

Email: oveh@uq.edu.au <mailto:oveh@uq.edu.au>

Two species of reef-building corals (pocillopora damicornis

and acropora longicyathus) were exposed to increased

concentrations of inorganic n (ammonium, nh4cl) and p

(phosphate, nah2po4) in naturally ponding micro-atolls for 9

months as part of the encore (enrichment of nutrient on coral

reefs) project at one tree island reef (southern great barrier

reef). Growth rates were reduced to 57.7% and 71.1% of

control rates in two morphotypes ("pink" and "brown"

respectively) of p. Damicornis (p < 0.05) when exposed to

elevated ammonium concentrations for 9 months. Adding

phosphate resulted in similar yet not statistically significant (p

> 0.05) trends and treatment with both ammonium and

phosphate resulted in the lowest growth rates (59.4% and

75.7% of control growth rates) for the brown and pink

morphotypes respectively. Rates of mortality in ammonium

treated microatolls were 271% and 211% of control rates for

pink and brown morphotypes respectively (p = 0.0077) and

were highest in microatolls receiving both ammonium and

phosphate. Similar though not statistically significant trends (p

> 0.05) were seen with a. Longicyathus. The differences

between the two species seen in the present study highlight the

importance of multi-species studies. The results of this study

also demonstrate experimentally (and for the first time) that

increased concentrations of ammonium and phosphate under

field conditions over ecologically relevant time scales can

specifically decrease the growth and survivorship of reef-building

coral associations..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A4: Zooxanthellae

26

EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF ZOOXANTHELLA-CONTAINING

EGGS OF SCLERACTINIAN CORALS:

DOES THE PRESENCE OF ZOOXANTHELLAE

AFFECT THE DEVELOPMENT?

Hirose, M.* and M. Hidaka. Dept. of Chemistry, Biology

and Marine Science, Univ. of the Ryukyus, Nishihara,

Okinawa, 903-0213 Japan. Email: k988551@sci.u-ryukyu.

ac.jp

Early development of zooxanthella-containing eggs of

scleractinian corals was studied to understand how the

presence of zooxanthellae influences early development of

corals and how zooxanthellae become restricted to the

gastrodermis of planulae during the course of development.

Zooxanthellae distributed mainly in a hemisphere of spawned

eggs of Pocillopora verrucosa and P. eydouxi. The first

cleavage furrow started at the hemisphere that was rich in

zooxanthellae, dividing the zooxanthellae almost equally into

two blastomeres. The second cleavage divided the blastomere

into a zooxanthella-rich blastomere and a blastomere with few

zooxanthellae. The uneven distribution of zooxanthellae

persisted until the zygotes developed into gastrulae. If

blastomeres were isolated by pipetting at two- or four-cell

stages, the next cleavage started at the zooxanthella-rich

hemisphere as in the first normal cleavage, dividing the

zooxanthellae almost equally. Blastomeres isolated even at 8-

cell stage could develop into planulae suggesting that eggs of

the corals underwent indeterminate cleavage.

THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS: INTEGRATING

CLIMATE MODEL PROJECTIONS AND THE RECENT

BEHAVIOUR OF CORALS AND THEIR

DINOFLAGELLATES.

Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove*, *Centre for Marine Studies,

University of Queensland, St Lucia, 4072. QLD, Australia.

Email: oveh@uq.edu.au

Concern is increasing as to how coral reefs will fare under

climate change. All major climate models concur that current

rates of temperature change in the world’s oceans (1-2 o C per

century) will continue over the next 100 years if atmospheric

greenhouse gases increase. This scenario, together with the

explicit link between coral bleaching, mortality and sea

temperature, leads to the prediction that coral bleaching is

likely to become an annual feature of coral reef environments

in the 21 st century. This paper reviews the rationale behind

these predictions and explores how coral reefs might respond

to an increased frequency and intensity of coral bleaching.

While some workers suggest that corals-dinoflagellates will

adapt fast enough to the changes in sea temperature, the data to

support these opinions is scant or non-existent. Most evidence

suggests that corals and their symbiotic dinoflagellates will not

change fast enough to prevent major changes in coral reef

ecosystem distribution and function. Simple ecological

surveys done after a bleaching event reveal little about the

long-term decadal trends and may even serve to confuse

managers and policy makers who seek guidance in this

important debate. Two issues are central to a better

understanding of how reefs will respond to climate change.

These are: (a) the rates of genetic change (adaptation) under

extreme selection regimes and (b) the source of genetic

variability on coral reefs. The latter also suggests that a

greater knowledge of gene flow and connectivity between

reefs is crucial. Work on these issues is surprisingly limited

and must be a priority over the next few years.

PHOSPHORUS UPTAKE & ALLOCATION IN

AIPTASIA PALLIDA.

Kelty, R.*, Lipschultz. National Oceanographic &

Atmospheric Administration, National Centers for Coastal

Ocean Science, 1305 East-West Highway SSMC4, Rm.

9224, Silver Spring, MD 20910. Email:

ruth.kelty@noaa.gov

The physiology of phosphorus uptake and incorporation by

the anemone Aiptasia pallida was investigated by using

radiolabeled orthophosphate to trace the movement of

phosphate from seawater into the symbiotic associate and then

its redistribution within the anemone. The animal host is

capable of both actively transporting and assimilating

phosphate. In symbiotic anemones and corals, zooxanthellae

typically provide the energy for phosphate transport, and

uptake by symbiotic anemones is light enhanced. Regardless

of its source, the oxidation of carbon and concurrent

phosphorylation of ADP provide the ATP to drive active

phosphate uptake by the animal. Once phosphate is

transported across the plasma membrane, it is immediately

incorporated into ATP and other metabolic intermediates, then

slowly assimilated into macromolecular compounds. The

algae compete with the animal for phosphate in the host

cytoplasm and can also assimilate organic phosphorus

compounds, including phosphorus released by the host. No

evidence was found for phosphate recycling between the host

and algae, but there is a unidirectional flow of phosphate from

the animal to the algae. Furthermore, release of newly

incorporated phosphate into the incubation water suggests that

phosphorus is not tightly recycled.

THE MORPHOLOGY, BIOCHEMISTRY,

PHYSIOLOGY AND GENETICS OF SYMBIODINIUM:

A REVIEW AND SYNTHESIS OF

CHARACTERIZATIONS MADE ON CULTURED

SYMBIOTIC DINOFLAGELLATES.

LaJeunesse, Todd C.* and Robert K. Trench. Department

of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology University of

California Santa Barbara, CA 93106 Email:

lajeunes@lifesci.ucsb.edu

The symbiosis between dinoflagellates of the genus

Symbiodinium and numerous carbonate-producing

invertebrates is unarguably the most important ecological

interaction on present day coral reefs. Our knowledge of these

endosymbiotic algae has improved remarkably since culturing

techniques were developed to permit the isolation and

manipulation of symbionts outside the host and to conduct

comparative studies to distinguish attributes that are inherently

genetic and those which are affected by growth under different

environmental conditions. Over the last 25 years, examinations

of morphology, biochemistry, physiology and genetics have

identified high diversity among cultured isolates. However,

most of these studies were conducted without knowledge of

phylogenetic relatedness and thus prevented genealogical

comparisons. The genetic analysis on those same isolates is

now complete. We present a review of the various biological

attributes measured and arrange this information in a

phylogenetic context to determine how distinct lineages

correlate with function. For certain attributes, genetic

differences correlate with differences in morphology,

physiology and biochemistry, while for other characters they

do not..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A4: Zooxanthellae

27

SOURCES OF CAROTENOIDS IN THE ANEMONE,

Aiptasia pallida, AND THEIR ROLE IN ULTRAVIOLET

RADIATION PHOTOPROTECTION.

Mobley, K.B.* and D.F. Gleason. Georgia Southern

University, Department of Biology, Statesboro, GA 30460-

8042, USA. Email: kenyon_b_mobley@gasou.edu.

Using the common Caribbean anemone, Aiptasia pallida, as

a model for coral/algal symbiosis, laboratory experiments were

conducted to investigate the following: 1) the effects of

enhanced ultraviolet radiation (UVR), zooxanthellae density

and heterotrophic feeding (Artemia sp.) on carotenoid

composition and concentration and 2) the role of carotenoid

pigmentation in UVR photoprotection. Fed and unfed,

zooxanthellate and apozooxanthellate A. pallida were exposed

to the following light treatments: UVR (290 - 400nm) and

PAR (Photosynthetically Active Radiation 400-700nm); PAR

only; and no light. Chlorophyll a and c, as well as the

carotenoids b-carotene, peridinin, diatoxanthin and

diadinoxanthin, were analyzed by HPLC from anemone tissue

collected during the course of the 40-day experiment. After a

14 day exposure to UVR, significant decreases in chlorophyll

a, c and peridinin were observed in the UVR/ zooxanthellate/

unfed treatment. However there was no significant decrease in

the diadinoxanthin/ diatoxanthin pool indicating the presence

of the photoprotective xanthophyll cycle. This cycle is

hypothesized to protect the light harvesting photosynthetic

apparatus from excess excitation energy via non-photochemical

quenching suggesting a primary role for

carotenoids in UVR photoprotection in this species.

COMPARISON OF THE PHOTOSYNTHETIC

FEATURES OF ZOOXANTHELLAE EXPELLED AND

RETAINED BY STRESSED CORALS.

Muller-Parker, Gisele *. *Dept. of Biology & Shannon

Point Marine Center, Western Washington University,

Bellingham, WA 98225-9160, USA. Email:

gisele@biol.wwu.edu

The SEARUN project team compared the photosynthetic

parameters of expelled zooxanthellae with those retained by

the host coral Montastraea faveolata after exposure to elevated

(+2°C) temperature and enhanced PAR and UV-B irradiance.

Zooxanthellae were obtained from coral plugs collected near

Lee Stocking Island in the Bahamas (15 m depth; July 1998

and 1999) and subjected to different experimental treatments,

including seawater ammonium enrichment (2 or 10 uM).

Photosynthesis-irradiance curves were used to derive

photosynthetic capacity (Pmax) and photosynthetic efficiency

(alpha) of zooxanthellae. Photosynthetic parameters indicate

that zooxanthellae in the host are protected from moderate UV-B

stress and do not respond to increased seawater ammonium

availability. In contrast, expelled zooxanthellae are damaged

by UV-B exposure and utilize ammonium enrichments to

increase both alpha and Pmax. Increased temperature

decreases Pmax and alpha of both populations of

zooxanthellae; detrimental effects are more pronounced under

high PAR and UV-B. Our results show that the host provides

adequate photoprotection for resident zooxanthellae under

normal seawater temperatures. Although expelled

zooxanthellae lose this advantage, they gain the ability to

utilize seawater nutrient enrichments. However, there is no

escape from high temperature; Pmax and alpha of both

populations of zooxanthellae are reduced upon exposure to

+2°C..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A4: Zooxanthellae

28

LIGHT UTILIZATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN

PORITES BRANERII.

Pérez-Vivar, T.L., S, Enríquez, R Iglesias-Prieto*. Unidad

Académica Puerto Morelos ICML-UNAM Apartado Postal

1152, Cancún Q.R. 77500 México. Email:

iglesias@mar.icmyl.unam.mx

The spectroscopic characteristics and photosynthetic

responses of the Caribbean stony coral Porites branerii were

analyzed. Comparison of the absorption spectra of small

fragments of P. branerii with those obtained from the freshly

isolated symbiotic algae allowed us to quantify the effect of

multiple scattering by the coral skeleton on the chlorophyll a

specific absorption coefficient. Absorption spectra of colonies

obtained during a natural bleaching event indicate the presence

of a non-linear behavior of the coral absorptance (percentage

of light absorbed) as a function of chlorophyll content. At high

pigment concentrations, a two fold reduction in chlorophyll

resulted in minor variations in absorptance, whereas at low

pigment concentrations similar reductions in chlorophyll

content resulted in dramatic reductions in the absorptance of

the coral. Simultaneous determinations of photosynthetic

activity by polarographic and pulse amplitude chlorophyll a

fluorescence techniques indicate that oxygen evolution and

electron transport rates measurements show a linear behavior

at sub-saturating irradiances, but at high irradiances there is

disproportional increase in the electron transport rate relative

to oxygen evolution. Employing the spectroscopic data in

conjunction with in situ modulated pulse amplitude

fluorescence determinations we followed, the diurnal

variations in the photosynthetic activity of a naturally

occurring colony of P. branerii.

SYMBIOSIS GENES IN CNIDARIAN-ALGAL

ASSOCIATIONS: A HOST GENE, SYM32, ENCODES A

CELL ADHESION PROTEIN THAT IS UPREGULATED

AS A FUNCTION OF SYMBIOSIS

Schwarz, J.A. * and Weis, V.M.. *Department of Zoology,

Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA.

schwarzj@bcc.orst.edu

The symbiotic association between cnidarians and

dinoflagellates is ultimately regulated by the interacting

genomes of the partners. By identifying cnidarian genes that

are expressed as a function of symbiotic state, we are

beginning to gain insights into how these partnerships are

regulated. Comparative protein profiles of the sea anemone

Anthopleura elegantissima reveal that symbiotic individuals

produce a variety of proteins that are absent, or nearly so, in

individuals that lack symbiotic algae (=aposymbiotic). The

most abundantly produced of these symbiosis proteins is a

32kD protein, sym32. Characterization of the cDNA sequence

suggests that this protein is a member of the Fas I family of

cell adhesion proteins, and possibly plays a role in cell

signaling. This gene is not specific to A. elegantissima; it also

exists in other symbiotic cnidarians that we have examined, a

scleractinian coral, an octocoral, and a jellyfish.

Immunolocalization studies in A. elegantissima have revealed

1) that the sym32 protein is not restricted to host cells which

contain algae (ie., both endoderm and ectoderm contain

sym32) and 2) that symbiotic individuals upregulate sym32

synthesis in both alga-containing and alga-free tissues. Sym32

levels are related to symbiont abundance; as the population of

algae increases, so do levels of sym32 in host tissues. In the

coral Fungia scutaria, the sym32 gene begins to be expressed

during embryonic development, prior to the host acquiring

algae, suggesting that this protein functions in early

development as well as in the symbiosis with algae.

THE ROLE OF CARBON IN RELATIONSHIP

BETWEEN ZOOXANTHELLAE AND CORALS ,

Stambler, Noga*, *Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan

University. Ramat Gan 52900, Israel. Email:

Stambln@mail.biu.ac.il

The population density of zooxanthellae is controlled by

nitrogen and carbon limitation. The coral host keeps the algal

growth rates far below their potential maximum. Under

increasing densities of algae, like those obtained as a result of

nutrient enrichment, the algae may become CO2 limited, and

may even compete with the animal for carbon for calcification.

Photosynthetic rates, on a per cell basis, were inversely

correlated with algal densities, indicating possible competition

among the algae for CO2. The relation between CO2 and Ca 2+

exchange and photosynthesis by corals was studied with

microelectrodes for Ca 2+ , O2, pH and CO2. It seems that Ca 2+

uptake is directly regulated by photosynthesis.

HOMOGENIZED TISSUE FROM APOSYMBIOTIC

Plesiastrea versipora STIMULATES THE RELEASE OF

ALGAL PHOTOSYNTHATE.

Starke-Peterkovic, T.*, A.J. Grant and R. Hinde. *School

of Biological Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney,

Australia, 2006 Email: tomo77@hotmail.com

Stimulation of photosynthate release from isolated

symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) is believed to be due to the

activity of a compound present in host homogenate referred to

as host release factor (HRF). It has been proposed that HRF is

only present in tissues from symbiotic animals. However, we

observed HRF activity in two rare, naturally aposymbiotic

samples of the temperate coral Plesiastrea versipora collected

in 1992 and in 1994. To confirm these findings, aposymbiotic

corals were produced by chilling at 4 o C for 4 h in the dark then

maintaining them in seawater in the dark at 20 o C. After twelve

weeks all algae had been expelled and corals were then fed

fortnightly with fish food (Liquifry, diluted 2 x 10 -7 ) and used

in experiments 8-11 weeks later. Homogenized tissue from

aposymbiotic corals was incubated with freshly isolated algae

from symbiotic corals for 2 h in the light. In three experiments,

release of algal photosynthate was stimulated up to four fold

by incubation in host homogenate (from symbiotic corals) and

up to three fold by incubation in aposymbiotic homogenate

when compared with algae incubated in seawater. Range

expressed as nmol carbon released/10 5 cells: 1.15 + 0.09 to 1.6

+ 0.16 in seawater; 2.91 + 0.14 to 6.19 + 0.048 in host

homogenate; 2.48 + 0.16 to 5.29 + 0.57 in aposymbiotic

homogenate (mean + SD, n = 3 or 4). These results using

aposymbiotic corals suggest that HRF is constitutively

produced by P. versipora..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A4: Zooxanthellae

29

CARBON ISOTOPIC RECORDS IN CORAL

SKELETONS: WHAT DO THEY MEAN?

Swart*, P.K., *Marine Geology and Geophysics,

Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences,

University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami

Fl 33149 Email: Pswart@srmas.miami.edu

There have been numerous attempts to understand the

meaning of carbon isotopic variation in zooxanthellate and

non-zooxanthellate coral skeletons. The model that is

currently acclaimed is that the carbon isotopic composition is a

function of the amount of insolation, with more positive _ 13 C

values occurring during periods of higher light intensity. We

present data on temporal and spatial variation in the carbon

isotopic composition of the zooxanthellae and coral tissue,

which casts further information on the cycling of carbon in

zooxanthellate corals. Our data, collected from Montastraea

faveolata growing on the Florida reef tract over a period of two

years, indicates a cycling in the carbon isotopic composition of

the coral tissue over approximately 2 per mille and a variation

of the difference between the carbon isotopic composition of

the zooxanthellae and the coral tissue. Although these

difference can be explained in a number of different ways, but

one possible explanation is that during the summer (periods of

high light intensity and long photoperiod), the corals are CO2

limited causing a reduction in the amount of fractionation

between the CO2 and the photosynthethate. Other explanations

involve seasonal change in the amount of heterotrophy and

autotrophy, changes in the isotopic composition of the DIC,

changes in the isotopic composition of the food source, or

changes in amount of lipids in the organism.

VISUALIZATION AND ISOLATION OF THE

CNIDARIAN SYMBIOSOME.

Trautman, Donelle* and Hinde, Rosalind. *School of

Biological Sciences, University of Sydney, NSW 2006,

Australia Email: rhinde@bio.usyd.edu.au

In cnidarian-algal symbioses, the alga is surrounded by a

host-derived membrane which forms a symbiosome. This

symbiosome membrane may have important roles in the

physiology of the symbiosis, but until now its roles have not

been investigated because it could only be seen using electron

microscopy. We have developed a simple method to extract

intact gastrodermal cells containing symbiotic algae, from the

anthozoan Zoanthus robustus, and to visualize the symbiosome

membrane using fluorescence microscopy. Large numbers of

motile gastrodermal cells were squeezed out through a small

slit made in the side of the zoanthid. The fluorescent probe

MDY-64 (yeast vacuole membrane marker) was used to

visualize the symbiosome membrane, and amino-chloromethyl-

coumarin was used to stain the cytoplasm of the

host cell. Intact symbiosomes, containing algae, were obtained

by ‘shearing’ off the host plasma membrane and cytoplasm by

dragging a suspension of the host cells through a needle and

syringe. Clean algal cells were obtained by further use of the

same method. Neither cleaned algae nor cultured algae

showed any trace of staining by MDY-64. These fluorescent

probes were also used successfully on host cells and symbionts

from the coral Plesiastrea versipora and the anemone Aiptasia

pulchella.

FISHING FOR SYMBIOSIS GENES IN CNIDARIAN-ALGAL

MUTUALISMS.

Weis, Virginia M.*. *Department of Zoology, Oregon

State University, Corvallis, OR, 97333, USA. Email:

weisv@bcc.orst.edu

Mutualistic symbioses between cnidarians and their

dinoflagellate symbionts form both the trophic and structural

foundation of coral reef ecosystems. Despite the profound

ecological significance of these symbioses, there have been

few studies that examine the underlying genetic interactions

between the animal host and algal symbiont. Genes and gene

products governing the onset, regulation, and maintenance of

these symbioses remain largely undescribed. We have been

investigating the molecular interactions that drive cnidarian-algal

symbioses in two associations; the temperate sea

anemone Anthopleura elegantissima and its dinoflagellate

Symbiodinium californium, and the tropical scleractinian

Fungia scutaria and its symbiont Symbiodinium spp. We have

identified several genes in A. elegantissima that are expressed

specifically as a function of the symbiotic state. These include

1) carbonic anhydrase, known to be important in inorganic

carbon transport, 2) sym32, a member of the fasciclin I family

of cell adhesion proteins, 3) glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

dehydrogenase, a glycolytic and Calvin cycle enzyme and 4) a

homologue to a calmodulin-binding protein. In addition to

investigating the roles of these “symbiosis genes” in the

regulation of the symbiosis, we are examining when these

genes are first expressed during symbiosis onset in the larval

stage of F. scutaria. In this way, we seek to identify the initial

cascade of events surrounding symbiosis onset in cnidarians

and their symbiotic algae.

PHOTOINHIBITION IN CORALS: IN THE EYE OF

THE BEHOLDER?

Winters, G.*, Y. Loya and S. Beer. *Department of Plant

Sciences and Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel.

Email: gidw@post.tau.ac.il

The methods used to investigate light responses of

zooxanthellae, and the different definitions of photoinhibition,

make it unclear whether this phenomenon is common in

shallow water corals. We used an underwater pulse amplitude

modulated (PAM) fluorometer (Diving-PAM) to investigate

the occurrence of photoinhibition in two Red Sea corals. In situ

photosynthesis rates were measured under ambient light at half

hourly intervals during 24hrs for Stylophora pistillata (2.15m)

and Favia favus (1.9m) using PAM fluorescence point

measurements. Measurements show diurnal variations in the

relative electron transport rates (ETRs), but no decreases in

ETRs as a result of high ambient irradiances were found.

Optimal quantum yields of PSII (variable fluorescence, Fv,

divided by maximal fluorescence, Fm) were measured for S.

pistillata using in situ dark-adaptation, at different times of the

day. After 30-60 min dark-adaptation, optimal yields did not

change throughout the day. Thus, neither a decrease in Fv/Fm,

nor in photosynthetic ETRs was detected during maximal

natural mid-day irradiances on cloudless days and in clear

shallow waters. "Photoinhibition" (defined as a decrease in

photosynthetic rates at high irradiances) could be detected only

under unnaturally high irradiances caused by the Diving-PAM's

halogen light source during the generation of "rapid

light curves". These results do not support the notion of

photoinhibition in corals under natural high light conditions.

Because of the variety of definitions of photoinhibition, we

conclude that the presence of this phenomenon in corals is

largely "in the eye of the beholder"..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A4: Zooxanthellae

30

ALGAL ACQUISITION BY SEXUAL OFFSPRING OF A

SOFT CORAL: DYNAMICS AND TEMPORAL

ASPECTS.

Yacobovitch T.* Benayahu Y. and Weis V. *Department of

Zoology, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel; Department

of Zoology, Oregon State University, OR 97331, USA.

Email: taliya@post.tau.ac.il

Acquisition of symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) from the

ambient environment by cnidarian sexual offspring occurs in

both scleractinians and octocorals, and is far more common

than maternal inheritance. We have been examining symbiosis

onset in the soft coral Heteroxenia fuscescens which acquires

its symbionts from the seawater as an aposymbiotic primary

polyps. Freshly isolated algae, added to laboratory grown

primary polyps, were seen swimming toward the polyp mouth

opening and after 4-12 hours, symbionts were present in the

primary polyps. Seven-day-old polyps contained an average of

45±18 algal cells (n=10), increasing in 60-day-old animals to

2128±713 cells (n=10). The location of the symbionts changed

with time. Whereas in three-day-old polyps, symbionts were

limited to the tentacle gastrodermis, in 7-day-old animals,

symbionts were also present in the upper portions of the stalk,

and in 30-day-old polyps, symbionts were present throughout

the host gastrodermis. Our findings indicate that primary

polyps are capable of acquiring symbiotic algae over a 2-3

month period. Finally, in the laboratory, algal swarmers had a

diurnal rhythmic motility induced by light. This activity

peaked once a day during the morning for 2-3 hours, when the

swarmers aggregated in large numbers around the polyp

mouth.

THE ACQUISITION AND FIXATION OF INORGANIC

CARBON BY THE TRIDACNA GIGAS -SYMBIODINIUM

SP. SYMBIOSIS.

Yellowlees, D.*, Leggat, W.. *Biochemistry and Molecular

Biology, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland,

Australia 4811. Email: david.yellowlees@jcu.edu.au

The supply of inorganic carbon (C i) to zooxanthellae is an

essential component in the symbiotic relationship of Tridacna

gigas. It is required for photosynthetic CO2-fixation by the

dinoflagellates, a process which is intimately coupled to light

harvesting in all photosynthetic organisms. In symbioses such

as the giant clam and corals, the Ci is sourced from both host

respiration and sea water. The host supply system must meet

zooxanthellae demands otherwise the algae will be carbon-limited

and photosynthesis cannot operate at peak efficiency.

To source Ci from sea water, uptake into the haemolymph of

giant clams must occur through the gills before being made

available to the zooxanthellae in the Z-tubules of the host

mantle. This Ci gradient is contrary to most other marine

organisms where Ci is removed through the gills. The Ci

supply system in clams involves at least two carbonic

anhydrase isoforms which occur in both the gills and mantle.

These facilitate the movement of CO2 through the host tissue.

The zooxanthellae in turn possess an external carbonic

anhydrase and possibly a bicarbonate transporter to aid uptake

into the algae. However the kinetic properties of the Form II

Rubisco found in zooxanthellae requires the presence of a

CO2-concentrating mechanism in the chloroplast to ensure

productive carbon fixation and the resulting export of

photosynthate (glucose) to the host for respiratory purposes.

UV-RESISTANCE MECHANISMS OF A SOFT CORAL

AND THE INVOLVEMENT OF THEIR SYMBIOTIC

ZOOXANTHELLAE.

Zeevi Ben-Yosef D.*, Y. Kashman, Y. Benayahu.

*Department of Zoology, Goerge S. Wise, Faculty of Life

Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel-Aviv 69978, Israel.

Email: dafnaz@post.tau.ac.il

Along with photosynthetically active radiation that

zooxanthellate corals require for photosynthesis, they are also

exposed to damaging ultraviolet radiation (UVR). UV

absorbing compounds (MAAs) provides the most important

resistance mechanism against UVR in the marine environment.

We studied the resistance of the Red Sea soft coral

Heteroxenia fuscescens to UVR in course of its life cycle. The

dominant MAA compound was found to be palythine, whose

concentration declined with depth. Batches of azooxanthellate

planulae obtained from 2-3 and 18-20 m were exposed to

controlled radiation levels, corresponding to the ambient ones.

Planulae derived from both depths had LD50 values of 41-60

cumulative hours of UVR exposure. Azooxanthellate primary

polyps from the same depths showed LD 50 values of 30-94 hrs.

Zooxanthellate primary polyps derived from shallow and deep

colonies had LD50 in the range of 136-210 hrs. Yet, it seems

that the LD50 values depend on seawater temperature.

Zooxanthellate polyps that were incubated with glyphosate, an

inhibitor of MAAs biosynthesis, yield LD50 of 76 hrs, a value

2.5 times lowers than without its presence. Survivorship rates

of planulae, azoo- and zooxanthellate primary polyps, and

polyps incubated with or without glyphosate corresponded

with their respective MAAs levels. Our findings indicate that

the resistance to UVR is already acquired during early

onthogenesis of a coral through MAAs, whose presence is

related to the symbiotic state..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A5: Zooxanthellae Biodiversity

Session A5: Biodiversity and Biogeography of Zooxanthellae in Coral-Algal

Symbiosis

31.9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A5: Zooxanthellae Biodiversity

Session A5: Biodiversity and Biogeography of Zooxanthellae in Coral-Algal

Symbiosis

32

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MORPHOLOGY

AND MOLECULAR VARIATION OF

ZOOXANTHELLAE FROM TEMPERATE

AUSTRALIAN REEFS.

Aisyah E.N *, Hoegh-Guldberg, O.; Hinde, R.; and Loh,

W. *School of Biological Sciences, Zoology Building AO8,

The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia. Email:

eaisyah@mail.bio.usyd.edu.au

Until recently, the majority of zooxanthellae have been

ascribed to a single species, Symbiodinium microadriaticum.

Genetic analysis of zooxanthellae from a diversity of host

species has revealed that these symbionts potentially belong to

hundreds of host specific species. This study investigated the

morphological correlates of zooxanthellae from marine

invertebrates growing on temperate reefs at the southern end of

the Great Barrier Reef and Sydney Harbour. The results

indicate that the molecular differences (18S, 28S rDNA, RFLP

and sequence analysis) between zooxanthel-lae track

differences in morphology (TEM and confocal mi-croscopy).

Our results show that the soft coral Capnella gaboensis from

Sydney contain clade C. Zooxanthellae from other marine

invertebrates (clam Tridacna maxima; corals Acropora

longicyathus, Heliofungia actiniformis and Stylophora

pistillata; and zoanthid Palythoa caesia) taken from The Great

Barrier Reef belong to clade C. Zooxanthellae from zoanthid

Zoanthus robustus do not belong to either clade A, B nor C.

The significance of these results to the diversity of

zooxanthellae in the Pacific will be discussed.

ECOLOGICAL, BIOGEOGRAPHIC AND HOST-SYSTEMATIC

PATTERNS OF SYMBIONT DIVERSITY

AMONG REEF-BUILDING CORALS.

Baker A.C.*. *Wildlife Conservation Society, Osborn

Laboratories of Marine Science, New York Aquarium,

Boardwalk at West 8 th St., Brooklyn, New York 11224,

USA. Email: abaker@wcs.org

The diversity of symbiotic dinoflagellates (“zooxanthellae”)

in reef corals was surveyed using Restriction Fragment Length

Polymorphisms (RFLPs) in large subunit ribosomal rRNA

genes. In total >800 samples from >110 species of reef coral

from the western Atlantic (Bahamas, Panamá), eastern Pacific

(Panamá, Galápagos, Mexico) and Indo-west Pacific

(Australia) were surveyed. These methods, combined with

molecular sequencing of large subunit rDNA, distinguished

17-19 symbiont genotypes in four clades of Symbiodinium (A,

B, C and D). The distribution of these genotypes showed

strong ecological, biogeographic and host-systematic patterns.

Many (>35%) of the >100 scleractinian coral species surveyed

contained multiple symbiont genotypes (sometimes in single

coral colonies) which often showed light-related patterns of

zonation, both among colonies at different depths and within

colonies across sunlit and shaded surfaces. Given the

extremely conservative nature of: (1) the molecular methods,

(2) the per-species number of samples, and (3) the number of

sites visited, it is clear that inter- and intraspecific symbiont

diversity is a common feature of reef-building coral biology

with strong ecological and biogeographic implications. This

conclusion argues for an explicit recognition of symbiont

diversity in future studies of reef-building corals.

BLEACHING OF REEF CORALS PROMOTES RAPID

RESPONSE TO ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE.

Baker A.C.*. *Wildlife Conservation Society, Osborn

Laboratories of Marine Science, New York Aquarium,

Boardwalk at West 8 th St., Brooklyn, New York 11224,

USA. Email: abaker@wcs.org

The loss of zooxanthellae during bleaching is conventionally

viewed as a pathological stress response of universal detriment

to reef-building corals. However, because scleractinian corals

are known to host multiple taxa of algal symbionts (whose

distributions within host species often show strong patterns of

ecological zonation), it has been suggested that bleaching may

provide an opportunity for invertebrate hosts to recombine

with different symbiont taxa that are better suited to the

(changed) environment. This hypothesis was tested in eight

species of Caribbean scleractinian coral using controlled

reciprocal depth transplantation experiments. Results

demonstrated that severe bleaching caused by transplanting

corals from deep (20-23m) to shallow (2-5m) sites facilitated

rapid adaptive change in symbiont communities by first

removing existing symbionts. In contrast, transplants from

shallow to deep sites, resulted in little or no bleaching, and did

not lead to symbiont community change. The persistence of

suboptimal host-symbiont combinations (“shallow” symbionts

in the transplanted corals at the deep site) resulted in higher

coral mortality after a one-year period. These data represent

the first empirical findings supporting the “adaptive bleaching”

hypothesis. They challenge the view that bleaching is

universally detrimental, and demonstrate that bleaching may

allow reef coral symbioses to respond more rapidly to

environmental change.

SEASONAL POPULATION DYNAMICS OF ALGAL

SYMBIONTS OF ACROPORIDS AND TRIDACNIDS IN

AN OKINAWA REEF.

Belda-Baillie C.A*, Baillie, B.K.; Shimoike, K.; Maruyama,

T. *Marine Biotechnology Institute Co., Ltd., Kamaishi

Laboratories, Heita, Kamaishi City, Iwate 026-0001,

Japan. Email: carmen.baillie@kamaishi.mbio.co.jp

Acroporids and tridacnids are common components of

Akajima reef in Okinawa, Japan, where extensive bleaching

and death of corals were recorded in 1998 in association with

anomalously-high summer temperatures. To evaluate the

dynamics and possible role of symbiotic dinoflagellates in the

susceptibility of symbiotic reef organisms to bleaching, the

dinoflagellate symbionts of the stony coral Acropora digitifera

and the tridacnid clam Tridacna in Akajima reef were

monitored over four seasons of 1999. A. digitifera and

Tridacna were found to host at least 2 genetically-diverse

populations of the dinoflagellate Symbiodinium, based on

denaturing-gradient gel electrophoresis and sequence

comparison of the hypervariable region of the algae’s 18S

rRNA gene. Measurement of the symbionts’ Chl a content and

density from replicate coral colonies and clams in replicate

plots and weeks of sampling showed no significant seasonal

bleaching and differences in algal growth. Initial assessment

of the mixed algal populations of A. digitifera and Tridacna

showed general consistency over the different seasons. The

year 1999 was a typical year with no anomalous temperature

changes on the reef, based on the daily temperature record of

the Akajima Marine Science Laboratory. These findings

suggest that no significant seasonal bleaching and algal

population shifts occur in some acroporids and tridacnids

during a typical year with respect to temperature. This

constitutes important baseline information on algal population

dynamics in reef invertebrates..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A5: Zooxanthellae Biodiversity

33

DIVERSITY OF ZOOXANTHELLAE IN A HOST

INDIVIDUAL.

Carlos A.A.*, Baillie, Brett K. and Maruyama, Tadashi.

*Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines,

Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines. Email:

binoy@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

The traditional view of zooxanthella-invertebrate symbioses

suggests that individual hosts harbor taxonomically

homogeneous symbiont populations. To assess the diversity of

the zooxanthella assemblage inhabiting an individual host,

zooxanthellae from 6 species of clam (Tridacna gigas, T.

squamosa, T. crocea, Hippopus hippopus, H. porcellanus, and

Corculum cardissa) and 1 species of sea anemone (Aiptasia

sp.) were studied using temperature-gradient gel

electrophoresis (TGGE), coupled with polymerase chain

reaction (PCR) using zooxanthella-specific primers that were

designed to target hypervariable regions of the small subunit

ribosomal RNA (ssrRNA) gene. Results revealed that a clam

may harbor 2 or more genotypically-distinct zooxanthellae,

with 1 to 2 dominant taxa occurring at a time. The clams

studied associated with at least 4 zooxanthella taxa. Nucleotide

sequencing of the TGGE bands and phylogenetic

reconstruction revealed that the zooxanthella taxa in clams

were Symbiodinium spp.; 1 was identical to previously-cultured

clam symbiont isolates, 1 appeared identical to a

previously-studied unculturable clam symbiont, and the other 2

represented novel strains of Symbiodinium. Individual Aiptasia

sp. harbored only 1 zooxanthella taxon, which had a ssrRNA

sequence identical to that of S. pulchrorum, previously isolated

from Aiptasia pulchella. This study has shown that individual

tridacnid and cardiid clams can harbor heterogeneous

zooxanthellae.

IS ZOOXANTHELLA DIVERSITY IN NEWLY

SETTLED OCTOCORALS HABITAT SPECIFIC?

Coffroth M.A.*. *University at Buffalo, Department of

Biological Sciences, Buffalo NY 14260, USA. Email:

coffroth@acsu.buffalo.edu

The growing awareness of the diversity of zooxanthellae and

the increasing incidence of coral bleaching events has focused

attention on the nature and variability of naturally occurring

host-symbiont dynamics. In octocorals such as Briareum

polyanthes and Plexaura kuna, planulae initially lack

zooxanthellae and acquire algae upon metamorphosis. Adults

of these species harbor zooxanthellae belonging to

Symbiodinium clade B over a range of habitats and depth,

suggesting a stable symbiosis. Initial acquisition in new

recruits involves zooxanthellae belonging to multiple clades

that vary with habitat. Newly settled polyps placed at inshore

sites initially acquired zooxanthellae in Symbiodinium clade A,

while polyps from the same cohort acquired zooxanthellae

principally in Symbiodinium clade B when place at offshore

and forereef sites. The cladal composition within the newly

settled polyp changed over time and after 3-6 months the

majority of polyps harbored zooxanthellae of the same clade as

those found in adult hosts, regardless of site. In early ontogeny

the host-symbiont interaction appears to be more plastic than

in the adults, which harbor zooxanthellae in Symbiodinium

clade B throughout the species range. This flexibility may be

driven by either local algal abundance or selection for the

zooxanthella taxon best adapted for that environment. Why the

initial colonists are eventually replaced remains to be

determined.

ZOOXANTHELLAE DIVERSITY WITHIN THE

CORAL GENUS MADRACIS.

Diekmann O.E.*, Tonk, Linda; Bak, Rolf P. M.; Olsen,

Jeanine L. *University of Groningen, PObox 14, 9750 AA

Haren, Email o.diekmann@biol.rug.nl

The diversity of zooxanthellae within five morphospecies of

the coral genus Madracis was investigated. Individuals of the

different morphospecies were sampled at one site on Curaçao,

Netherlands Antilles, over a depth range from 2-50 meter.

Restriction fragment length polymorphism and sequence

analysis of large subunit rDNA showed that, although there is

some variation, Madracis only harbours one type of

zooxanthellae. Comparison with known sequences showed that

all Madracis zooxanthellae belong to the type B clade and that

there is no relation of zooxanthellae variation with

morphospecies or with depth. The general idea that hosting

more than one type of zooxanthellae, as has been found in

Montastraea annularis complex, facilitates adaptation to a

varying environment does not apply to Madracis. However

preliminary data analysis of the faster evolving ITS region

does show differentiation between the predominantly shallow

M. mirabilis and the other morphospecies. This result suggests

that not only different types of zooxanthellae but also variation

within a zooxanthellae type may play an important role in

adaptation to different environments.

SYMBIONTS (“SYMBIODINIUM BERMUDENSE”) OF

AIPTASIA PALLIDA FROM BERMUDA AND FLORIDA

RESPOND DIFFERENTLY TO TEMPERATURE AND

IRRADIANCE.

Goulet T.L.* and Cook, Clayton B. *Harbor Branch

Oceanographic Institution, 5600 U. S. 1 North, Fort Pierce,

Florida USA 34946. Email: tgoulet@hboi.edu

One major correlate of temperature-related bleaching events

is reduced photosynthesis by zooxanthellae of bleaching

corals. We examined the effects of short-term elevated

temperatures (32 and 34°C.) on the photosynthesis-irradiance

responses of zooxanthellae from populations of the subtropical

sea anemone Aiptasia pallida in Bermuda and the Florida

Keys. Zooxanthellae from both locations have been identified

as Symbiodinium bermudense. Using PCR to amplify the

DNA encoding for ss-rRNA, we determined that the

zooxanthellae of Bermuda A. pallida fell in Clade ‘B’ while

those from Florida A. pallida fell in Clade ‘A’. The

zooxanthellae from the two locations differed in

photosynthesis-irradiance responses. Zooxanthellae from

Bermuda anemones had a typical P-I response at 25° with no

photoinhibition up to 530 µmol m -2 sec -1 . At 32° these algae

exhibited photoinhibition at I > 250, with net O2 fluxes < 0 at I

> 500. At 34° O2 fluxes were always negative, increasingly so

at higher irradiances. In contrast, zooxanthellae from Florida

A. pallida never exhibited photoinhibition at these

temperatures. P-I patterns were similar at 25 and 32°; Pmax was

reduced at 34°, although the cells were still net producers at I >

Ic The zooxanthellae found in A. pallida from the two

geographic locations clearly differed physiologically. We are

currently determining whether these differences can be

attributed to the zooxanthella cladal identity..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A5: Zooxanthellae Biodiversity

34

A PHYLOGENETIC COMPARISON OF

ZOOXANTHELLAE FROM REEF CORALS WITH

DIFFERENT MODES OF SYMBIONT ACQUISITION.

Hidaka, M* and Hirose, Mamiko. *Dept. of

Chemistry, Biology and Marine Science, Univ. of the

Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, 903-0213 Japan. Email:

hidaka@sci.u-ryukyu.ac.jp

The purpose of this study is to test the hypothesis that corals

that vertically transmit symbionts from their mother colonies

contain species-specific zooxanthellae, while corals that

acquire symbionts from the environment contain locality-dependent

zooxanthellae. We analyzed the internal transcribed

spacer 1 (ITS1) region of algal nuclear ribosomal DNA to

study the phylogenetic relationships of zooxanthellae

contained in shallow reef corals from Okinawa, Thailand and

Hawaii that show different modes of symbiont acquisition.

Algal ITS1 regions were amplified by PCR using

zooxanthella-specific primers, and PCR products were directly

sequenced after purification. In each case, one (presumably

dominant) symbiont genotype was analyzed for each colony.

When Symbiodinium from Porites astreoides in Florida was

used as an outgroup, the zooxanthellae from corals in Okinawa

were monophyletic while those from Thailand and Hawaii

formed a large unresolved cluster. Symbiont identity appeared

to depend on the locality where host corals were collected

rather than the specific identity of the coral host or its mode of

symbiont acquisition. This suggests that corals which receive

zooxanthellae from their mother colonies may also acquire

symbionts from the environment.

TESTING THE ADAPTIVE BLEACHING

HYPOTHESIS: THE MECHANISM AND

CONSEQUENCES OF ZOOXANTHELLA EXCHANGE.

Jacobs J. Rebecca*. *Biology Department, University of

California, Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA

95064, USA. Email: jacobs@biology.ucsc.edu

The "adaptive bleaching hypothesis" posits that loss of

zooxanthellae by invertebrate hosts under stressful conditions

provides the opportunity for acquisition of a genetically

different type of zooxanthella potentially leading to a more fit

symbiosis. It has also been suggested that acute bleaching may

represent only the most extreme case of zooxanthella exchange

and that new symbiotic combinations may form continually

without acute bleaching and in the absence of perceptible

stress. Here, the facultatively symbiotic sea anemone Aiptasia

pulchella was used as a laboratory system for testing the

adaptive bleaching hypothesis in three kinds of experiments.

In flexibility experiments, different zooxanthella types were

fed to aposymbiotic anemones to document the probability of

successful symbiotic establishment and the subsequent fitness

of symbiotic combinations (e.g., survival, growth rate,

susceptibility to bleaching) under several standard and altered

(stressful) conditions. In exchange experiments, heterologous

zooxanthellae were fed to symbiotic anemones to determine

whether: (1) the introduced zooxanthella establishes a

symbiosis; (2) the resident zooxanthella maintains a symbiosis;

or (3) both zooxanthella types co-exist under standard or

altered conditions. In preference experiments, various

combinations of zooxanthellae were fed to symbiotic and

aposymbiotic anemones to determine which symbiotic

combinations were favored under what conditions.

Zooxanthella genotypes were differentiated by denaturing

gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE).

CORAL ZOOXANTHELLAE DIVERSITY IN

BLEACHED REEFS.

Loh William*, Sakai, Kazuhiko; and Hoegh-Guldberg,

Ove.

Tropical Biosphere Research Center. The University of the

Ryukyus. Okinawa, Japan. Email:

w.loh@mailbox.uq.edu.au

Studies using ribosomal DNA sequences show that a diverse

array of symbiotic dinoflagellate strains or species live within

the tissues of reef-building corals which may affect the

sensitivity of their host taxa to bleaching. Extensive coral

bleaching occurred in shallow reefs off the Ryukyu Islands of

Japan in 1998 and many coral genera in this region suffered

local extinction. We have explored the question of whether the

genotype of symbiotic dinoflagellate determines the sensitivity

of corals by studying the molecular diversity of symbiotic

dinoflagellates from 8 intertidal coral species on reefs off

several Ryukyu Islands that were affected by bleaching. Five

of the coral species (Goniastrea aspera, G. edwardsi, Favites

chinensis, Platygyra ryukyuensis and Pavona frondifera)

showed very little visible bleaching. The remaining species,

Acropora digitifera, Stylophora pistillata and Seriatopora

hystrix bleached extensively. Genetic diversity was

investigated using the D1 and D2 domains of symbiotic

dinoflagellates 28S rDNA and single stranded conformational

polymorphism (SSCP). Up to 18 SSCP profiles were obtained

which inferred a high level of diversity and also the presence

of multiple genotypes within single hosts. Phylogenetic

analyses were done using the 28S rDNA sequences.

Interestingly, lower numbers of genotypes were detected from

bleach-susceptible coral species, suggesting that low

zooxanthellae diversity may contribute to host bleaching

sensitivity.

SPECIFICITY OF HOST-ALGAL SYMBIOSIS FROM

THE SCLERACTINIAN CORAL PLESIASTREA

VERSIPORA ALONG A LATITUDINAL GRADIENT:

ECOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF SYMBIONT

DIVERSITY.

Rodriguez-Lanetty, Mauricio*, Loh, William and Hoegh-Guldberg,

Ove. *Centre for Marine Studies, University of

Queensland, St Lucia QLD 4072, Australia. Email:

m.Rodriguez@mailbox.uq.edu.au

Plesiastrea versipora is one of the most widely distributed

hermatypic corals in the Indo-Pacific area and is recorded

continuously from the cooler waters of South Australia

through the tropics and subtropics to South Japan. This broad

distribution stands in contrast to most other hermatypic corals

that are restricted to the warm, sunlit and relatively stable

conditions of tropical seas. Since the ability of this coral to live

in such diverse habitats may be related to the identity of the

symbiotic dinoflagellates it contains, we examined genetic

diversity in the symbiotic dinoflagellates (Symbiodinium sp.)

in P. versipora from southern Japan to Australia. Using

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLPs) in 18S

ribosomal DNA (rDNA), together with sequence analysis of

28S rDNA, we found two geographically distinct clades of

symbiotic dinoflagellates living within Plesiastrea versipora.

In sub-tropical and tropical waters, P. versipora hosts

symbionts belonging to Symbiodinium clade C, while at high-latitude

sites it contains members of clade B. The presence of

different symbionts at different latitudes in this hermatypic

coral may account for its spread in evolutionary time to the

cooler and more physiologically challenging environments of

high latitude reefs..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A5: Zooxanthellae Biodiversity

35

DIVERSITY AND BIOGEOGRAPHY OF SYMBIOTIC

DINOFLAGELLATES ASSOCIATED TO

ANTHOZOANS FROM KOREAN WATERS.

Rodriguez-Lanetty, Mauricio *, Cha, Harim; and Song,

Jun-Im. *Department of Biology, Ewha Womens

University, Seoul 120-750, South Korea. Email:

m.rodriguez@mailbox.uq.edu.au

Anthozoans are important components of the intertidal

marine fauna along the coastlines of South Korea. Although

the systematics of this group has been studied extensively

within Korean waters, the diversity of the symbiotic

dinoflagellates associated with these cnidarians is still

unexplored. In this preliminary study, we examined the genetic

diversity of symbiotic dinoflagellates associated with

anthozoans from three locations within Korean waters. Partial

nucleotide sequences of 28S ribosomal DNA gene were used

to compare the symbionts extracted from three actinarians

(Anthopleura kurogane, Anthopleura japonica and

Paracicyonis actinostolides), two stony corals (Alveopora

japonica and Dendrophyllia sp.), and one gorgonian

(Muricella muricata). We found the same type of symbiont

(Symbiodinium clade A) living within the actinarians occurring

on the south and east coast of Korea. In the southernmost

location (Cheju Island), which is under the influence of warm

water currents from subtropical areas, different symbionts

were found in association with several anthozoans. Most of the

actinarians and one of the two stony corals (Dendrophyllia sp.)

contained members of Symbiodinium clade A. The other coral

(Alveopora japonica) and the actinarian Paracicyonis

actinostolides contained members of Symbiodinium clade C.

The gorgonian Muricella muricata contained symbionts that

were unlike those reported so far. The biogeographical

significance of these results will be discussed.

MOLECULAR AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY OF

ZOOXANTHELLAE IN BERMUDIAN CORALS.

Savage, A. M.* and Douglas, A. E. *University of York,

Department of Biology, P.O. Box 373, York, YO10 5YW,

UK. Email: ams114@york.ac.uk

Bermuda is a high latitude reef site with an impoverished

scleractinian coral fauna. The molecular diversity of the

zooxanthellae in reef organisms was analysed using sequences

of the 24S rDNA. All zooxanthellae isolated could be

assigned to one of the three main ribotypes (A, B and C)

known from lower latitudes, and none differed substantially in

sequence from previously described zooxanthellae. The

photosynthesis-irradiance characteristics of different

zooxanthellae genotypes was investigated, using zooxanthellae

freshly isolated from a variety of Bermudian host invertebrates

(corals, sea anemones and jellyfish) which had

photoacclimated to a common irradiance level. Significant

differences in quantum yield (a), photosynthetic maxima

(Pmax) and saturating light intensity (Ik) were observed between

24S genotypes of zooxanthellae. Those of ribotype A were

characterised by high values of a and Pmax. Zooxanthellae of

ribotype B had lower values of Pmax, but were clearly

subdivided into two physiological groups with significantly

different a and Ik values.

A SURVEY OF THE GENOTYPES OF

ZOOXANTHELLAE SYMBIOTIC WITH PHILIPPINE

GIANT CLAMS.

Silvestre, Vivian A.*; Monje, Virginia D.; Sison, Marilou

P.; Carlos, Alvin A.; Lluisma, Arturo, O.. * Marine Science

Institute, University of the Philippines,Diliman, Quezon

City 1101 Philippines. Email: vivian@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

Recent studies in algal-invertebrate symbiosis suggest that

different genotypes of zooxanthellae may have varying effects

on the growth and survival of their hosts. In giant clams in

particular, studies have been initiated to understand the

ecological significance of these genotypes. In this study, a

number of wild clams were sampled from selected parts of the

country to assess the frequency and distribution of the different

zooxanthellae genotypes. PCR-RFLP analysis of the 18srRNA

gene segment using Taq I restriction enzyme revealed two

genotypes , A and C, to be dominant in Philippine giant clams.

Giant clams in Bolinao, Tubbataha reef and Investigator reef

generally harbor C zooxanthellae (regardless of species of

clams), while those in Cebu, Bohol and certain islands at KIG

harbor A. Apparently, giant clams have a tendency to associate

with only one genotype of zooxanthellae; co-occurrence of the

two genotypes in the same host was rarely observed.

SHORT TERM RESPONSES OF ZOOXANTHELLAE

FROM SYMBIODINIUM CLADES A AND C TO

SUBOPTIMAL LEVELS OF TEMPERATURE, LIGHT

AND SALINITY.

Sison, Marilou P.*, Licuanan, Suzanne M.; and Gomez,

Edgardo D.;. *The Marine Science Institute, University of

the Philippines, Diliman Quezon City, 1101, Philippines.

Email: msison@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

Different zooxanthella genotypes respond to various physical

factors in different ways. Some show resistance to suboptimal

environmental conditions that may directly and indirectly be

related to the host-symbiont association. To determine how

zooxanthellae from Symbiodinium clades A and C differ in

their response to suboptimal environmental factors, symbionts

from four species of giant clams (Tridacna gigas, T. derasa, T.

squamosa and Hippopus hippopus) were exposed to varying

levels of temperature, light and salinity. The following basic

physiological measures were determined: growth rate, pigment

content, production and respiration. The physiological

characteristics of each clade are discussed in relation to their

possible use in enhancing the resistance of cultured giant clams

to various stressful conditions that normally trigger symbiotic

dissociation (bleaching)..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A5: Zooxanthellae Biodiversity

36

VARIATION AMONG CASSIOPEIA-ALGAL

SYMBIOSES.

Sloan, Adrienne J.*. *Department of Biology and

Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, Texas

77204-5513, USA. Email: asloan@uh.edu

Theoretical and empirical investigations regarding the

evolution and ecology of endosymbiotic associations are

widespread. However, few studies address intraspecific

symbiont variation among the same host species. Variation in

cooperation among Cassiopeia xamachana and Symbiodinium

microadriaticum was investigated using a series of cross-infection

experiments. It was hypothesized that algal

symbionts are not equally benevolent across Cassiopeia hosts.

Cassiopeia larvae and their maternal algal symbionts were

collected from ten sites across 160-km in the Florida Keys.

Nine hundred larvae were collected from one medusa per site

and were divided among flasks once they settled as polyps (30

animals per vessel). Polyps were infected with maternal algae

and nine non-maternal algal types (10 combinations per host

type; three replicates per combination). For each combination,

host size, mortality, algal mitotic index and density in hospite

were measured at 3, 13, and 28 days after infection. Analysis

has revealed significant differences among the combinations

for mortality and growth. Some combinations experienced

100% mortality while others experienced little or no mortality.

Host size either increased, stayed the same, or decreased

depending upon the combination type. On average, maternal

combinations experienced more growth and less mortality than

non-maternal combinations. There is also evidence of

significant host-symbiont interaction effects.

SYMBIONT ZOOXANTHELLAE DIVERSITY OF

ALCYONACEAN CORALS FROM THE KEPPEL

ISLANDS, GREAT BARRIER REEF, AUSTRALIA:

HOW DOES IT COMPARE WITH SCLERACTINIAN

CORALS?

Strychar K.B*., Scott, P.T.; Coates, M.L.; and Sammarco,

P.W. *School of Environmental and Biological Sciences,

Central Queensland University, Rockhampton, QLD 4702,

Australia,. Email: k.strychar@cqu.edu.au

While scleractinian corals are the principle reef forming

organisms worldwide, alcyonacean corals are a primary

constituent of Indo-Pacific reefs as well. Within reef

environments, observations during bleaching events suggest

that alcyonacean corals may bleach at different times, bleach

less, or resist the effects of bleaching, when compared to

scleractinian corals. To examine potential differences between

these coral types, the small subunit ribosomal gene (18S

rDNA) of symbiotic zooxanthellae from three dominant

alcyonacean corals and two scleractinian corals was examined

by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and

DNA sequence analysis following PCR amplification and

cloning of the 18S rRNA gene using specific algae-related

primers. The restriction enzymes Taq I, Hha I, and Alw 261

were used to digest 18S rDNA clones to produce RFLPs.

Preliminary analysis of the RFLPs suggest soft coral

zooxanthellae cannot be categorised into the paradigm

established for scleractinian coral (i.e. clades A, B, and C).

Detailed phylogenetic tree and DNA sequence analysis of

clones from representative scleractinian and alcyonacean

corals confirms the RFLP data. This study has provided strong

evidence that soft coral symbiont zooxanthellae are different to

scleractinian symbiont zooxanthellae, and may be more

bleach-resistant.

THE PHOTOSYNTHETIC RESPONSE TO STRESS IN

DIFFERENT TAXA OF SYMBIOTIC

DINOFLAGELLATES.

Warner, Mark E.*, LaJeunesse, Todd; Schmidt, Gregory

W.; and Fitt. *Department of Botany, University of

Georgia, Athens, Georgia, 30602, USA. Email:

mwarner@dogwood.botany.uga.edu

Previous studies have shown or suggested that different types

of symbiotic dinoflagellates of the genus Symbiodinium show

variable levels of stress tolerance to perturbations in

temperature or light, or a combination thereof. While strong

correlations exist between some taxa of dinoflagellates and

their ecological distribution, the potential physiological

mechanisms that may be driving such correlations have

remained largely unexplored. Furthermore, it remains unclear

if related symbiont taxa have similar physiological constraints

that correspond to phylogenetic groupings. Multiple taxa of

symbiotic dinoflagellates originally isolated from a broad

range of host species and maintained in culture were subjected

to brief periods of elevated temperature and light stress, and

patterns of chronic photoinhibition, rates of photodamage to

photosystem II (PS II), and the potential for photosynthetic

recovery were assessed. Similar field experiments were also

conducted on a smaller scale using one primary Caribbean reef

building coral, Montastrea annularis, which is historically

known to show a high degree of symbiont “polymorphism”.

These data were combined with genetic characterizations using

the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) to assess

phylogenetic affiliation. The extent to which this species level

marker may be used for inferring physiological responses to

stress will be discussed.

EVOLUTIONARY RESPONSES OF ALGAL

SYMBIONTS TO CORAL BLEACHING EVENTS.

Wilcox, Thomas P.* *University of Texas, Austin, TX

78712 USA. Email: tpwilcox@mail.utexas.edu

The ecology and physiology of coral bleaching has been

extensively examined over the last 20 years. However, the

evolutionary implications of bleaching are largely unexplored.

Here I examine potential evolutionary responses of algal

symbionts during bleaching events. Using multi-level selection

theory, evolution of virulence theory, and simple population

genetic models, I consider the following two points: 1)

evolutionary implications of the ‘adaptive bleaching’

hypothesis, and 2) the evolution of resident algal populations

in response to a bleaching stress. Results indicate that frequent

sampling of environmental pools of symbiotic dinoflagellates,

postulated by the adaptive bleaching hypothesis, favor algal

symbionts that ‘cheat’. This results in the eventual extinction

of both hosts and symbionts. Evolution of resident (or

remanent) symbiont populations during bleaching and

recovery can be very complex. If the stress resulting in

bleaching is prolonged, the resident symbiont population can

recover through the accumulation of beneficial mutations that

ameliorate the stress for the symbiont. However, the effect of

this ‘recovery’ on the host depends upon the relationship

between traits that help symbionts grow under stressful

conditions and symbiont traits that help the host. In general,

the models considered demonstrate that great care should be

taken in interpreting field evidence for changes in resident

symbiont genotypes during or after a bleaching event. A

detectable change in symbiont composition does not mean that

change is adaptive..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A5: Zooxanthellae Biodiversity

37

SEASONAL VARIATION IN SYMBIONT

COMMUNITY COMPOSITION WITHIN SINGLE

COLONIES OF ACROPORA PALIFERA.

Yang Y. Avon*, Soong, Keryea; and Chen, Chaolun Allen.

*Institute of Marine Biology, National Sun Yat-sen

University, Kaohsiung, 424, Taiwan. Email:

yawen@mail.nsysu.edu.tw

Within-colony symbiont diversity has recently been

documented in scleractinian corals, and the distribution of this

diversity has been correlated with the ambient irradiance

(depth) experienced by the coral host colony. In this study, the

distribution of symbionts in the scleractinian coral Acropora

palifera was investigated by line transect survey at Nanwang

Bay (southern Taiwan), where the depth distribution of this

species is restricted to 1–2m. Symbiont diversity within and

among coral colonies was investigated using Restriction

Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLPs) in 18S ribosomal

DNA (rDNA). RFLP surveys revealed two distinct symbiont

genotypes belonging to Symbiodinium clades C and D, with

some samples containing composite RFLPs (C+D), indicating

that A. palifera can harbor mixed symbiont genotypes. Surveys

of within-colony symbiont diversity revealed that in August

1999 the distribution of C : D : C+D was 0 : 8 : 0 (N=8

colonies), while in January 2000 it was 4 : 10 : 4 (N=18) and in

March 2000 it was 7 : 11 : 3 (N=21). These data suggest that

seasonal variation in symbiont community composition may

occur in colonies of Acropora palifera..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A6: Coral Reef Fish – Pelagic

Session A6: Ecology of the Pelagic and Settlement Stages of Coral Reef Fishes

38

COMPARATIVE EGG DISPERSAL FROM INSHORE

AND OFFSHORE SITES IN A CARIBBEAN CORAL

REEF FISH, Thalassoma bifasciatum.

Appeldoorn, R.S.*, Hensley, D.A., Shapiro, D.Y.,

Kioroglou, S.. *Department of Marine Sciences, University

of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez, Puerto Rico 00681-9013 USA.

Email: r_appeldoorn@rumac.uprm.edu

Pelagically-spawning coral reef fishes are hypothesized to

select sites for spawning that result in eggs being rapidly

transported away from reef areas. Experiments at an inshore

reef and shelf-edge site were conducted to test the hypothesis

that shelf-edge spawning offers an advantage in rapidly

transporting eggs away from reef areas, with the bluehead

wrasse as the model species. Using drogues, spawning events

were simulated at known spawning sites (N = 4/site) and water

masses tracked for 24 hours. Simulated releases were paired

sequentially offshore/inshore. Experiments were run only

during the autumn season. There was no tendency for the

dispersal paths from inshore and shelf-edge sites to merge over

time: those from the inshore site stayed inshore, those from the

shelf-edge site stayed within 4 km of the shelf edge. However,

only one shelf-edge experiment resulted in dispersal off the

shelf platform. Dispersal from the shelf-edge site was much

more variable compared to the inshore site. Results indicate

that differences in dispersal due to site selection are scale

dependent: greater differences are observed when comparing

sites at greater distances apart. Thus, shelf-edge spawning

would facilitate the dispersal of eggs into an offshore

environment merely by being located closer to that

environment. Autumn spawning additionally favors retention

of eggs in the near shelf-edge environment.

RECRUITMENT OF CORAL REEF FISHES AT

LIMESTONE REEF, SOUTH AFRICA.

Beckley L.E.* *Oceanographic Research Institute, PO Box

10712, Marine Parade 4056, Durban, South Africa. Email:

seaworld@dbn.lia.net

Limestone Reef, a shallow inshore reef off Durban on the

east coast South Africa, is located about 300 km south of the

coral reefs of northern KwaZulu-Natal. Despite this,

numerous fish species commonly associated with western

Indian Ocean coral reefs have been recorded at this site. A

study of the recruitment of these fishes was made by deploying

light traps to ascertain the occurrence of settlement stage

larvae of these species in the water column on the seaward side

of the reef. Replicate traps were deployed on one evening

each month over a period of two years. Larvae of some 40

families of fishes were recorded with Clupeidae and

Tripterygiidae numerically dominant. Larvae of coral reef

fishes belonging to families such as Scorpaenidae, Lutjanidae,

Apogonidae, Lethrinidae, Chaetodontidae, Synodontidae,

Acanthuridae, Balistidae and Tetraodontidae were collected.

Their seasonal abundance is discussed relative to known

reproductive biology of the adults as well as local

oceanographic events and variability in the Agulhas current.

OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF FISH

LARVAE IN THE TAKLONG IS. NATIONAL MARINE

RESERVE, CENTRAL PHILIPPINES.

Campos, Wilfredo L. * and. Delola, Alfredo P. Division of

Biological Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences,

University of the Philippines in the Visayas, Miagao, Iloilo

5023 Philippines. Email: oceanbio@miagao.i-next.net

The ichthyoplankton of the shallow reef flat portion of a

marine reserve located in Central Philippines was investigated

from August 1998 to May 1999. Of the twenty (20) species

groups of fish larvae identified, thirteen (13) were epibenthic

and seven (7) were pelagic. Overall mean density of all fish

larvae was 39.6 ind.100 m -3 , while fish eggs showed a mean

density of 840 per 100 m 3 . Atherinids comprised about 75 % of

the larvae in the samples. Species composition of the larvae

was found to be consistent with fisheries catch composition.

Larval densities in the reserve are well within the range

reported for reef areas. Seasonal abundance was highest

towards and during the southwest monsoon. Geographically,

abundance was found to be highest around channels, and

decreased towards the inner shallow portion of the reserve.

Future investigations shall include comparisons with adjacent

areas so to derive insights into the spatial scale of transport, as

well as larval flux rates.

PROCESSES AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF

PLANKTONIC EGGS OF PAIR AND GROUP

SPAWNING REEF FISHES OF PALAU.

Colin, Patrick L.* and Hamner, William M.. *Coral Reef

Research Foundation, P.O. Box 1765, Koror, Palau 96940.

Email: crrf@palaunet.com.

Studies were designed to test the hypothesis that many reef

fishes producing planktonic eggs spawn at times and places

which promote the offshore dispersal of eggs. Many species of

reef fishes, principally acanthurids, scarids and labrids, pair

and group spawn daily just after high tide in a narrow band-like

zone on the eastern and western fringing and barrier reefs

of Palau, Western Caroline Islands. Many of these fishes

migrate short distances daily to reach these spawning sites.

Current-following drogues were released at spawning sites

during times of intense spawning (“spawning drogues”) and

also some time after spawning had ceased (“post-spawning

drogues”). The tracks of these drogues were determined for 8-

24 hours after spawning and are presumed to reflect the

movement of fertile eggs. No difference was found in the

offshore transport component of the movement of spawning

and non-spawning drogues. Many drogues launched in water

containing newly spawned eggs came back over the reef, often

near their spawning sites, on the next rising tide. Eggs were

found to be concentrated on occasion after spawning by

langmuir cell effects and spawning and post-spawning drogues

often ended up very close to one another, centered in langmuir

slicks..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A6: Coral Reef Fish – Pelagic

39

THE ROLE OF LONG DISTANCE DISPERSAL

VERSUS LOCAL RETENTION IN REPLENISHING

MARINE POPULATIONS.

Cowen R.K.*, Claire B. Paris, Donald B. Olson. *Marine

Biology and Fisheries, Rosenstiel School of Marine and

Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, 4600

Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL. 33149, Email:

rcowen@rsmas.miami.edu

Early models and evidence from genetics suggested that long

distance dispersal of larvae is likely a common event leading

to considerable population connectivity among distant

populations. However, recent evidence strongly suggests that

local retention is more the rule, and that long distance transport

is likely insufficient to sustain ecologically marine

populations. We build on earlier model results to examine the

probability of larval dispersal to downstream islands within

different regions of the Caribbean at varying distances from

source populations. Through repeated runs of an 3-D ocean

circulation model (MICOM), coupled with a random flight

model estimating larval subgrid turbulent motion, we estimate

the likelihood of particular circulation events transporting large

numbers of larvae to within a 5 and 10 km radii of downstream

populations, as well as account for total accumulations of

larvae over each year. Further, we incorporate realistic larval

behavior and mortality estimates into our models. Our results

are consistent with the hypothesis that marine populations

must rely on mechanisms enhancing self-recruitment rather

than depend on distant ‘source’ populations. We briefly

discuss field efforts that will test the predictions of these model

runs.

DEVELOPMENTAL PATTERNS AND THE

ONTOGENY OF SWIMMING IN DEMERSAL

SPAWNING CORAL REEF FISHES.

Fisher R.* & David R Bellwood. Department of Marine

Biology, James Cook University, Townsville, Australia.

Email: rebecca.fisher@jcu.edu.au

In recent years it has been demonstrated that late stage larval

reef fishes have excellent swimming abilities. However, in

order to assess the potential impact of active behaviour on

dispersal we need to know how these abilities develop

throughout the pelagic phase. Using larval rearing and current

flume techniques we examined swimming abilities and gross

morphological development in five reef fish species.

Developmental patterns differed between species, but were

similar within sub-families. At hatching, anemonefishes are

large (4-5mm) and well developed. They develop swimming

abilities quickly and have a short larval duration (8-11d).

Damselfishes hatch small (~3mm) and undeveloped but have a

longer larval duration (20-22d). The species examined gained

excellent swimming abilities towards the end of the pelagic

phase (~15d). Apogonids hatch at 3-4mm, are poorly

developed and have a long larval duration (~24d). They are

poor swimmers throughout their larval phase. While larval reef

fish cannot be considered a single group in terms of their

dispersal abilities, they may be classed into “functional”

groups that could be used for modelling purposes. Larvae that

have poor swimming abilities throughout their larval phase are

unlikely to influence their dispersal via horizontal swimming.

Larvae that develop swimming abilities early, or show good

swimming towards the end of their pelagic phase may have the

potential to exert considerable influence over their dispersal,

and have a high potential for self-seeding.

RECRUITMENT OF LARVAL FISHES TO THE

SOUTHERN MOST CORAL REEFS ON THE EAST

COAST OF AFRICA, SODWANA BAY, SOUTH

AFRICA.

Harris, Dr Shael*. Coastal Research Unit Zululand,

University of Zululand, Private Bag X1001, Kwa

Dlangezwa, 3886, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Email:

shaelh@worldonline.co.za.

As part of the coral ecosystem research on the Maputaland

coast, a study on the early life history stages of coral reef fish

was undertaken from July 1998 to May 1999. The main

objective of the study was to examine whether the local coral

reef fish populations are self-recruiting or being replenished

from spawning areas further north i.e. have open populations.

Quarterly samples were collected from four sites

approximately 1 km offshore, and at three depths. Preliminary

analysis of the samples from two-mile reef has indicated that

over 30% of the fish larval species are reef-associated species

which were found at all three depths sampled. Small numbers

of larval priacanthids, apogonids, gobiids, pempherids,

trichonotids and lutjanids at all developmental stages have

been identified from these samples. However, the most

abundant species were shore-associated species, Bregmaceros

atlanticus and Engyprosopon grandisquama, and oceanic-associated

species such as Cyclothone pseudopallida and

myctophids. This indicates that the larval fish populations in

the Sodwana area are being influenced by the south-flowing

Agulhas Current which is probably an important source of

eggs and larvae to the Maputaland reef fish populations.

TRACKING BENTHIC RECRUITMENT DYNAMICS

OF THE WHITE GRUNT: A COMMERCIALLY

IMPORTANT CORAL REEF FISH WITH CHOOSY –

YET, NOT SO CHOOSY - HABITAT SELECTIONS.

Hill R.L.*. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, NOAA/National

Marine Fisheries Service, 4700 Ave U, Galveston, Texas,

USA 77551. Email: ron.hill@noaa.gov

The white grunt, Haemulon plumieri , is an important

component of the reef-based fisheries of the Caribbean and

Southeastern United States. Indications are that many

populations, particularly in Puerto Rico and the US Virgin

Islands, are currently on the decline. The benthic recruitment

of this and other grunt species was assessed in a shallow

backreef lagoon in La Parguera, Puerto Rico over a 10-month

period to investigate fine scale temporal variation in settlement

dynamics. Settlement strength varied throughout the

experiment roughly in correlation to the documented spawning

of grunts in this area of Puerto Rico suggesting some degree of

self-recruitment. Social facilitation in settlement, density-dependent

habitat selection, and hurricane-induced variations

in habitat availability and selection are presented. Implications

for local management through habitat protection and

establishment of marine reserves are discussed..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A6: Coral Reef Fish – Pelagic

40

DELIVERY MECHANISMS LIMIT LARVAL SUPPLY

IN CORAL REEF FISHES.

Hixon M.A.*, V. Dufour, T.W. Anderson, and P.J.

Doherty. MAH: Department of Zoology, Oregon State

University, Corvallis, OR 97331-2914 USA. EMail:

hixonm@bcc.orst.edu

We show that nearshore oceanographic features, particularly

waves and tidal currents, can limit the rate at which fish larvae

are delivered to coral reefs in both the Pacific and the Atlantic.

In Moorea, French Polynesia, larvae are delivered to the

lagoon by waves that break over a reef crest that is slightly

above sea level. At times when settlement-stage larvae are

present just offshore, larval delivery to the lagoon occurs only

when waves are sufficiently high to break over the reef crest.

Therefore, variation in wave height increases variability in

larval delivery. High mortality within the lagoon due to

predation substantially reduces this variability so that actual

settlement is uniformly low. Near Lee Stocking Island in the

central Bahamas, tidal currents deliver larvae from the deep

Exuma Sound to shallow reefs on the Great Bahama Bank.

Reefs further from the Sound receive fewer larvae, as

evidenced by recruitment patterns. Here, larval delivery

appears to be limited by variation in the range of tidal

excursions and prevailing winds, such that isolated reefs far

from the Exuma Sound receive settling larvae very

infrequently and appear to be extremely recruitment limited.

OCEANOGRAPHIC SIGNALS AND THE REPONSES

OF PRESETTLEMENT REEF FISHES

Kingsford, Michael J. *, Jelle Atema , *School of Biological

Sciences, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.

Email: mikek@bio.usyd.edu.au

Reefs have the potential to provide conspicuous signals to

the pelagic forms of reef fishes and invertebrates that are

seeking a suitable settlement site. In this study we describe

conspicuous turbidity plumes at One Tree Island, Great Barrier

Reef, water choice experiments were also done using

presettlement fishes. Plumes may provide cues to

presettlement forms, generate retention areas and cause

significant changes to the predicted direction of tidal currents.

On the flood and ebb tides, while the crest was broached,

distinctive plumes were generated. When the tide flooded

early in the morning, cool waters were exported from the

lagoon. If the tide flooded late, CTD drops and temperature

loggers indicated waters up to 3C o higher were advected from

the lagoon. Plumes were about 5-9 m deep near the reef crest

and shallowed with distance from the reef. The turbidity of

plumes was visible at distances of 1-4 kilometres from the reef

crest, hence these plumes constitute significant intrusions into

mainstream currents. Tide and wind determined the size and

direction of movement of plumes. Presettlement fishes

(especially Apogonidae) responded to different water masses

in tank experiments. Some taxa, that settle in lagoons, showed

a positive response to lagoonal waters. The ability of

presettlement fish to distinguish between water masses may

have a great influence on their ability to detect reefs.

SENSORY DEVELOPMENT IN THE SETTLEMENT

STAGES OF CARIBBEAN LABROIDS WITH

IMPLICATIONS FOR SETTLEMENT CUE

DETECTION.

Lara Monica R.. NOAA/NMFS 75 Virginia Beach Dr.

Miami, FL 33149 USA. Email: mlara@rsmas.miami.edu

In order to help explain the role that behavior plays in larval

settlement it is necessary to investigate the sensory capabilities

of settlement-stage larvae. If fish larvae are capable of

exercising control over their movements then they must also

possess the ability to assess their environment and alter their

behavior according to cues detected in their environment.

Sensory abil it y cannot be m easur ed di rectl y from mor phology;

rather by using a compar ati ve method relat ive abi lit ies can be

inferred by compari ng obser ved m or phological development wi th

that of conspecif ic adul ts or larvae of ot her species. A

comparative study of the morphology of the olfactory, visual

and lateral line systems using histological methods and

scanning electron microscopy was conducted to assess the

level of morphological development of these systems in some

coral reef fishes at the time of settlement onto a reef. Thirteen

species of Labridae and two genera of Scaride from the

Caribbean were examined. The level of development of each

of these systems was similar across taxa and may represent a

minimum competency level required for settlement. These

stages appear to have highly developed sensory structures

when compared to adults and their morphology suggests that

settlement-stage labroids may be capable of using all three of

these sensory systems in the detection of reefs and selection of

microhabitats within a reef. It is probable that a combination of

sensory stimuli are used by settling fishes and these are

discussed.

SUBSURFACE MOORINGS AS A RESEARCH TOOL

FOR SETTLEMENT BEHAVIOUR IN REEF-FISH

LARVAE.

Leis Jeffrey M. * and Brooke M. Carson-Ewart. Centre

for Biodiversity and Conservation Research and Division

of Vertebrate Zoology, Australian Museum, 6 College St,

Sydney, NSW, 2010, Australia. Email:

jeffl@austmus.gov.au

Artificial-reef units attached to subsurface mooring floats

offer interesting research possibilities for the study of

settlement behaviour in larvae of reef fishes. The artificial-reef

units (loose rolls of plastic garden mesh) were located at

depths between 8 and 15 m in water 20 m deep in the Great

Barrier Reef Lagoon greater than 1 km from natural reefs.

Ignoring one-offs, larvae of 23 genera of 13 families settled on

these units. The most abundant taxa were pomacentrids,

apogonids, blenniids, monacanthids, balistids, gobiids and

tetraodontids. Experiments using these moorings evaluated

visual, olfactory and auditory cues that reef-fish larvae may

use to locate and settle onto reefs. Visual cues (large white

panels) did not enhance settlement. Experiments on olfactory

cues (corals in vented containers) and auditory cues (broadcast

recordings of ‘the nocturnal chorus’ of tropical reefs) were

compromised by low settlement levels, but show the potential

of the approach. Design of the moorings allowed examination

of depth selection at settlement. This revealed that there are

clear depth preferences among species. The advantages and

disadvantages of the method are discussed..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A6: Coral Reef Fish – Pelagic

41

USING OTOLITHS TO STUDY CORAL REEF FISH

LARVAE IN FRENCH POLYNESIA.

Lo-Yat*. EPHE-ESA CNRS 8046, Av. de Villeneuve, 66860

Perpignan, France & SRM, BP. 20 Papeete, Tahiti, French

Polynesia. Email : loyat@univ-perp.fr

Coral reef fish larvae were studied in French Polynesia. In

Rangiroa atoll (Tuamotu Archipelago), we collected larvae

when they ended their pelagic phase by passing over the reef

crest (colonization stage). The incoming larvae were trapped

with a crest net (1.5m wide x 0.75m high, 1mm mesh size)

erected in a shallow channel that connects the ocean to the

lagoon. From 332 sampling nights evenly distributed over 2

years (from January 1996 to December 1997), at least 154

lagoonal species belonging to 46 families were identified. The

mean larval fluxes were 132 larvae m -1 . j -1 for larvae with body

depth>5mm and 16 055 larvae m -1 . j -1 for smaller larvae. A

typology of otoliths using Fourier elliptic shape analysis was

made in order to help in larvae identification and description.

Otoliths daily growth increments were counted to determine

pelagic larval durations (PLD). Among 60 species, observed

PLD ranged between 18 and 80 days. PLD was relatively

stable within species except for some species (e.g. Aulostomus

chinensis, Fistularia commersonii). Then spawning period of

the adults could be estimated by linking PLD and results from

temporal monitoring of larval colonization. Finally we also

tried to estimate the growth of some larvae during their pelagic

phase. That was realised by associating PLD and age data from

larvae caught during mesopelagic trawlings made in French

Polynesia's EEZ between 1996 and 1998.

LUNAR AND TIDAL CYCLES IN SETTLEMENT OF

REEF FISHES AT GORGONA ISLAND (TEP).

Lozano, S* and Zapata, F.A. Universidad del Valle, A.A.

25360 Cali, Colombia. Email:

sachaloz@mafalda.univalle.edu.co

Larval settlement is an important life history event that may

determine adult population dynamics in marine reef fishes.

During one peak recruitment season (May-August 1998), we

monitored fish larval settlement of 40 species in Gorgona

Island, Tropical Eastern Pacific. Every other day we removed

and counted all newly settled fishes on 15 semi-natural

sampling units located nearshore on the eastern coast of the

island. Time series analysis and circular statistical tests

indicated that there were two temporally consistent patterns in

settlement and that they were synchronized with the lunar and

tidal cycles. Additionally, means and variances of settlement

size, measured every sampling day, exhibited temporal

patterns in some species that suggested the occurrence of size

selection during certain dates. The first was a lunar pattern

with settlement pulses in the days around the new moon

(coincident with the widest spring tides) and it was exhibited

by Lutjanus guttatus, Pomacanthus zonipectus and a non-identified

Haemulid. This pattern was related to variation in

moonlight intensity during the lunar cycle. The second was a

semilunar pattern with settlement pulses around the first and

third moon quarters, coincident with neap tides and it was

exhibited by three combined species of Antennariidae

(Antennarius sanguineus, Antennarius coccineus and

Antennatus strigatus). This pattern seemed to be more related

to the tidal cycle than to variation in moonlight intensity

during the lunar cycle. Other eight species analyzed exhibited

cyclical tendencies in settlement with partial or no temporal

consistency.

THE ROLE OF PHYSICAL PROCESSES IN SHAPING

PATTERNS IN LARVAL SUPPLY TO NINGALOO

REEF, WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

McIlwain, J.L.* *Australian Institute of Marine Science

(WA), PO Box 264 Dampier, WA 6713, Australia. Email:

j.mcilwain@aims.gov.au

Ningaloo Reef is Australia’s largest fringing coral reef,

running parallel to the mainland for 280 km, from North West

Cape to Cape Cuvier, Western Australia. The shallow nature of

the reef crest and the unidirectional flow of water into the reef

lagoon meant crest nets were an ideal tool for monitoring the

abundance of larval fish during the transitional phase as they

leave the plankton and swim into the adult habitat. During the

summer months of 1994/95 and 1995/96 I deployed two and

four nets respectively. These nets were emptied every day for

up to four months at a time. A total of 89 598 larval fish from

65 families/groupings were captured, with twice as many fish

caught in the first compared to the second summer. Primary

peaks in larval supply occurred during the months of

November and December, a comparative result to

replenishment studies on the east coast of Australia (the Great

Barrier Reef). Large inter-annual variability in the abundance

of most taxa and families were attributed to variations in the

strength of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) during

this time. This result is similar to the catch rates of

commercially fished invertebrates along the Western

Australian coast which varied with the strength of the Leeuwin

Current and ENSO events operating in the region. At a smaller

time scale, daily abundance of 28 different taxa were

compared with nightly wind strength and direction. Although

peaks in supply sometimes coincided with strong cross-shore

winds, there were a number of days when under the same

conditions catch in the nets remained low.

TEMPERATURE, FOOD AVAILABILITY,

PLANKTONIC GROWTH RATES AND THE

MAGNITUDE OF LARVAL SUPPLY IN A CORAL

REEF FISH.

Meekan M. G.* and Flynn K. *The Australian Institute of

Marine Science, P.O. Box 264, Dampier, WA, 6713,

Australia. Email: l.vigliola@aims.gov.au

Evidence from temperate environments suggests that under

conditions favourable to growth, survivorship of larvae in the

plankton is high and results in strong year classes. We

examined this hypothesis on the NW Shelf of Western

Australia during two summers when coastal waters were

characterised by very different conditions. During the first

summer, upwelling occurred on the shelf and resulted in

relatively cool water temperatures and high primary and

secondary production. During the second, coastal waters were

stratified and primary production was relatively low. Given

these differences in food availability for fish larvae between

summers, we predicted that growth rates and survivorship

would be greater in the first summer than the second. In order

to test this hypothesis, we used otolith analysis to examine the

planktonic growth of a common reef fish (Pomacentrus

coelestis) between summers. Growth rates were compared to

the magnitude of catches of this species in light traps deployed

on a transect across the shelf during the two summers..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A6: Coral Reef Fish – Pelagic

42

LARVAL BEHAVIOR AS A MECHANISM FOR

POPULATION SELF-RECRUITMENT IN A TROPICAL

CORAL REEF FISH.

Ochavillo, Domingo G.* Bakus, Gerald J. and Aliño,

Porfirio M.. * Department of Biological Sciences University

of Southern California Los Angeles, CA 90089-0371, U.S.A.

*(ochavill@scf.usc.edu)

It is not presently known how larval behavior of coral reef

fishes influences their eventual settlement. The traditional

paradigm is that coral reef fish larvae behave as passive

particles under the mercy of physical elements such as currents

and waves. Rare in situ observations in the swimming speeds

and directions of larval reef fishes, however, indicated ability

to maintain position in the water column, orientational

swimming and ability to navigate (Leis et al. 1996). Planes

(1993) hypothesized that larval behavior may be a mechanism

for limited gene flow and larval dispersal in the convict

surgeonfish despite a pelagic egg and high planktonic larval

duration. In this study we tested this hypothesis of larval

behavior as a mechanism for population self-recruitment.

Previously, our analyses of the genetic structure of adult and

recruit Siganus fuscescens among contiguous reefs indicated

population self-recruitment. We released late pelagic

presettlement S. fuscescens offshore from the reef and the

results indicated active larval behavior, highly directional

swimming, predator avoidance and orientation towards the

reef.

EVIDENCES FOR SELF-RECRUITMENT IN A

TROPICAL CORAL REEF FISH POPULATION.

Ochavillo, Domingo G.*, Gerald J. Bakus and Porfirio M.

Aliño . * Department of Biological Sciences University of

Southern California Los Angeles, CA 90089-0371, U.S.A.

Email: ochavill@scf.usc.edu

The majority of tropical coral reef fishes have a bipartite life

cycle which consists of a pelagic early life history stage and a

reef-associated benthic adult stage (Ehrlich 1975). This

possession of a planktonic stage has led to an assumption that

reef fishes exist as spatially subdivided metapopulations

largely interconnected by larval exchanges (Mapstone and

Fowler 1988). In this paper we tested this hypothesis using a

combination of the analyses of the genetic structures of both

the spawning adults and the local recruits of the rabbitfish

Siganus fuscescens to infer fish larval dispersal among

contiguous reefs (< 450 km linear distance) using the highly

polymorphic mtDNA control region. The results of the

analyses showed a significant genetic heterogeneity among

Siganus fuscescens in the neighboring reefs based on the

sequence variation of the mitochondrial DNA control region.

The mtDNA control region sequence of juveniles also

indicated significantly high affinity to the local adults. These

results indicate population self-recruitment and that larval

dispersal may not be as widespread as usually assumed among

fishes with an early planktonic phase. The implications of self-seeding

reef fish populations are very important. It implies

that patchy tropical coral reefs can exist in relative isolation

and that management can be local in scale. Surprisingly,

independent and very recent studies have also indicated self-recruitment

on some coral reef fishes.

NEAR-FIELD TRANSPORT DYNAMICS OF LARVAL

COHORTS OF CORAL REEF FISH IN THE VICINITY

OF BARBADOS, W. INDIES.

Paris, Claire B.* and Robert K. Cowen, and Kamazima

M.M. Lwiza. Marine Sciences Research Center, State

University of New York at Stony Brook, NY 11794-5000,

USA. Email: cparis@rsmas.miami.edu

Most coral reef fishes undergo a pelagic phase and it has

been generally assumed that their offspring are widely

dispersed and have little influence on the outcome of their

transport. Alternatively, coral reef fish larvae could be retained

in the vicinity of their natal reef, potentially limiting their

dispersal. To test this latter hypothesis, high-resolution

biological and physical surveys of the pelagic processes

affecting the larval phase of Pomacentridae were conducted on

the western shore of Barbados. The study region was limited to

an array extending approximately 15 km from shore and 25 km

along-shore. Sampling involved repeated quasi-synoptic

physical and biological measurements following larval cohorts

throughout their pelagic duration. An integrated view of the 3-

D flow field is given by multivariate objective analysis of CTD

and ADCP in situ data, in which virtual larvae are released

using a ‘random flight’ scheme. Here we describe the

formation, maintenance, and advection of larval patches by

comparing, for different degrees of behavior, predicted and

observed distributions of larval cohorts. Larval behavior was

found to be critical to accurately model larval transport. Most

importantly, by computing larval fluxes and the percentage of

larvae retained in the Barbados near-field, we demonstrate that

they largely explain observed variability in recruitment

strength.

POPULATION STRUCTURE IN REEF FISHES: HOW

OPEN IS REALLY OPEN AND HOW CLOSED IS

CLOSED?

Sale, Peter F.* *Great Lakes Institute for Environmental

Research & Dept. of Biological Sciences, University of

Windsor, Windsor ON Canada N9B3P4. Email:

sale@uwindsor.ca

Thirty years ago ecologists and managers treated reef fish

populations as if they were closed on very local scales. Then

we "discovered" that dispersive larvae permitted them to be

open. Recently, ecologists have been documenting the

openness, but arguing that this is limited to the local scale.

Self-recruitment is seen as increasingly important. I review

published, and limited unpublished data to address the

question: "At what spatial scales can reef fish assemblages be

considered open, and at what scales closed?". I also explore

metapopulation theory to see whether the spatial scale at which

openness is manifested is critical to the dynamics of such

systems. While it is clear that we need new data, and new

techniques to establish scales of interaction among local

populations, it is also clear that we must resist the temptation

to continue swinging the pendulum from one extreme view to

the other..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A6: Coral Reef Fish – Pelagic

43

SMALL CHANGES IN TROPICAL OCEAN

TEMPERATURE CAN SIGNIFICANTLY INFLUENCE

REEF FISH EARLY LIFE HISTORY.

Shafer, David J.*. *School of Ocean and Earth Science

and Technology, University of Hawai’i, Honolulu, Hawai’i

96822, USA. Email: shafer@hawaii.edu

Declining populations of tropical reef fishes worldwide has

focused attention on factors which may regulate their

recruitment, growth, and survival. Variation in ocean

temperature has traditionally been linked to fluctuation in the

population dynamics of temperate marine fishes; however,

little is known about its importance to tropical fishes. Here I

reconstruct the effects of small changes in sea surface

temperature (SST) on larval growth rate, larval duration, and

size at settlement of a common Hawaiian reef fish,

Bathygobius coalitus, by retrospective otolith analysis. Results

show that small temperature changes can significantly

influence early life history. Specifically, larval growth rate

was directly related to SST, and larval duration and size at

settlement were inversely related to SST. Frequency

distributions of larval duration suggest a competency-based

threshold to settlement during warm SST, but not during cool

SST. Shorter larval durations during warmer SST may result

from optimum conditions for growth and development,

combined with physical conditions that result in nearshore

retention. Because growth rates, larval duration, and size at

settlement have implications for survivorship, competition, and

recruitment success, variation in ocean temperature may have

profound consequences for the population dynamics of tropical

reef fishes.

JOINT ROLES OF LARVAL SETTLEMENT, REEF

RESOURCES, AND POST-SETTLEMENT LOSSES IN

THE RECRUITMENT OF A CORAL REEF FISH.

Shima, Jeffrey S.*. *Dept. of Ecology, Evolution, and

Marine Biology and the Marine Science Institute,

University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA.

Email: shima@lifesci.ucsb.edu

I evaluate the consequences of considering, separately and

jointly, the effects of three factors (larval settlement, reef

resources, and post-settlement losses) on spatial patterns of

abundance of a coral reef fish, the six bar wrasse (Thalassoma

hardwicke). Using commonly employed correlational

methods, I show that local patterns of abundance of juvenile

wrasse could be attributed entirely to either (1) patterns of

abundance of settlement habitat, or (2) patterns of larval

settlement. This occurred because habitat and presumed larval

delivery co-varied positively with one another in space. I

manipulated abundance of settlement habitat in a field

experiment to uncouple this co-variation, and found

subsequent settlement to be simultaneously influenced by both

factors. However, joint effects of habitat and larval settlement

failed to account for patterns of abundance of juvenile wrasses

without also considering a third factor—post-settlement losses,

which were density-dependent and qualitatively modified

patterns of settlement. These results illustrate (1) how

multifactorial explanations of ecological patterns may be

falsely refuted when incomplete sets of multiple factors are

considered, and (2) how single-factor studies may misrepresent

underlying multifactorial causation of ecological patterns.

Uncovering the interactive role of multiple factors in

determining ecological patterns may require a shift from

single-factor approaches to more pluralistic perspectives.

VARIABLE LARVAL GROWTH IN A CORAL REEF

FISH AND IMPLICATIONS FOR POPULATION

CONNECTIVITY.

Sponaugle S.*, Steven Searcy, and John Fortuna. *Division

of Marine Biology and Fisheries, Rosenstiel School of

Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami,

4600 Rickenbacker Cswy., Miami, FL 33149. Email:

ssponaugle@rsmas.miami.edu

Recent results from otolith-based field efforts in Barbados

and the Florida Keys suggest that certain reef fishes

(Thalassoma bifasciatum) exhibit a high degree of variation in

larval growth. New recruits settling after variable larval

periods in the plankton exhibited strikingly different otolith

growth trajectories. In the Florida Keys, cohorts of T.

bifasciatum settling in the spring had grown more slowly in the

plankton than those settling later in the summer. These

differences are most likely the result of seasonal changes in

water temperature. However, for fishes settling to Barbados,

contrasting otolith growth trajectories likely result from

variable pelagic food availability. Residency in water masses

with reduced food content may lower overall larval growth

rates. In order to attain a minimum condition necessary to

undergo settlement and metamorphosis, slower-growing fishes

therefore must remain in the plankton for longer periods. Thus,

rather than delaying metamorphosis, those fishes with longer

pelagic larval durations instead may be accumulating energy

prior to settlement. The capacity of organisms to tolerate low

growth for long periods of time (i.e. in oligotrophic open ocean

waters) is a critical consideration in understanding and

predicting population connectivity for benthic marine animals.

EVIDENCE AND MECHANISMS FOR SELF-RECRUITMENT

IN AN ISLAND POPULATION OF A

CORAL REEF FISH.

Swearer, S.*. *Department of Ecology, Evolution and

Marine Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara,

California, USA. Email: swearer@lifesci.lscf.ucsb

Most populations of benthic marine organisms are

considered to be open (when recruitment results from dispersal

of larvae from other source populations). In truth we know

little about the degree of connectivity among populations. For

localities such as coral reef islands, relative isolation from

other island populations may increase the importance of self-recruitment

to population persistence. In order to test this

hypothesis, we used otolith elemental signatures and nearshore

seawater trace element concentrations to classify locally and

non-locally produced populations of coral reef fish larvae.

Using this approach in a study of reef fish recruitment to St.

Croix, US Virgin Islands, we found that periods of high

recruitment in the lee of the island were coincident with

characteristics of locally-retained larvae. Physical

measurements of the circulation dynamics of the island wake

region using a high frequency radar indicate that high

recruitment events occur during time periods favorable for

physical retention of larvae. These results suggest that local

processes operating in the nearshore regions of islands are

important factors influencing the recruitment dynamics of

island populations of reef fishes..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A6: Coral Reef Fish – Pelagic

44

SIZE-SELECTIVE MORTALITY LINKS PRE- AND

POST-SETTLEMENT PHASES OF THE LIFE

HISTORY OF A CORAL REEF FISH.

Vigliola, L.* and Meekan, M. G. *The Australian Institute

of Marine Science, P.O. Box 264, Dampier, WA, 6713,

Australia. Email: l.vigliola@aims.gov.au

Newly settled coral reef fishes undergo very high rates of

mortality. At present, the extent to which this mortality is

determined by the condition, growth or size of fish is

unknown. In this study, we repeatedly sampled a cohort of a

damselfish (Neopomacentrus filamentosus) immediaetly prior

to, at, and then at monthly intervals after settlement. Otoliths

from these individuals were used to determine the growth

characteristics of fish that survived up to three months after

settlement. We found that one month after settlement, this

species underwent an intense period of size-selective mortality

where smaller, slow-growing fish had higher rates of mortality

than larger fast-growing individuals. As fish that were fast-growing

after settlement also tended to be fast-growing at

earlier life history stages, the variation on which the size-selective

mortality acted was present during the planktonic

phase and potentially at hatching.

THE NATURE OF THE EVIDENCE FOR LOCAL

RETENTION IN MARINE POPULATIONS WITH

PELAGIC LARVAE.

Warner, Robert R.* and Stephen E. Swearer, *Dept. of

Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology and the Marine

Science Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara,

CA 93106, USA. Email: warner@lifesci.ucsb.edu

The major unanswered question in marine ecology is the

degree of connectedness between local populations. Put

another way, what proportion of young arriving into a local

population are products of local production? Since most

marine animals have a pelagic larval stage, the paradigm thus

far has been to assume extensive dispersal and massive export.

In contrast, a working group convened at the National Center

for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis suggests that evidence is

accumulating in a variety of fields that indicates a surprising

amount of local retention, even in species with long larval

durations. The evidence arises from empirical studies of

recruitment and endemic species, geographic genetic structure,

spread of introduced species, larval distributions, proximal

effects of marine reserves, and paleoecology. If retention turns

out to be a common feature of local marine population

dynamics, this will require major reassessment of marine

metapopulation models, fishery management schemes, marine

reserve designs, and ideas about the mechanisms of marine

speciation. It also underscores the need for more intensive

studies of larval ecology and behavior.

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL PATTERNS OF CORAL

REEF FISH SETTLEMENT TO NEIGHBOURING

SMALL ISLAND STATES IN THE EASTERN

CARIBBEAN.

Watson, Maggie * and Richard S. Nemeth. *ICLARM

CEPO, 158 Inland Messenger, Road Town, Tortola, British

Virgin Islands. Email iclarm@candwbvi.net

We investigated spatio-temporal patterns in the settlement of

coral reef fish both between reefs and between neighbouring

island states in the Eastern Caribbean. During the new moon

periods of July August and September 1999, three light traps

were set near each of three fringing reefs in the British Virgin

Islands (BVI) and three in the United States Virgin Islands

(USVI). Approximate separation was 2-5 km and 50-60 km

within and between countries respectively. Catches varied

substantially among traps, months and sites. Hierarchical

cluster analyses of total catches showed sites within countries

grouped together each month (except one site in July). BVI

and USVI were clearly distinct. In BVI, the largest numbers of

almost all species were caught consistently at one site. This

site, a proposed Marine Protected Area, may be a local

‘hotspot’ for settlement. Peak abundance of each family

generally coincided at BVI sites. By contrast, in USVI no one

site consistently produced more fish, and abundances of

several families peaked at different sites in different months. In

September, 36.6, 2.4 and 4.3 snappers per trap were caught at

the three sites in BVI, while USVI yielded only 0.1, zero and

0.4. For surgeonfish the pattern reversed, with 0.1, 0.9 and 0.8

fish from BVI and 27.6, 11.5 and 10.5 from USVI. Thus

settlement was not uniform in space or time at these scales. We

discuss the results in the light of the current debate over

widespread dispersal versus local retention of postlarval fish.

THE INFLUENCE OF LIGHT TRAP OPERATION AND

DEPLOYMENT ON CATCHES OF PRE-SETTLEMENT

FISHES AROUND CORAL REEFS IN THE SAN BLAS

ARCHIPELAGO, CARIBBEAN PANAMA.

Wilson. DT*. *James Cook University, Dept. Marine

Biology, Townsville, QLD, Australia. Email:

david.wilson@jcu.edu.au

Light traps are a popular technique for sampling patterns of

larval supply to populations of coral reef fishes. However,

relatively few studies have examined the biases of this

sampling technique. This study examined the influence of tidal

patterns, time of night factors and depth of deployment on

catches in light traps. Tidal and time of night influences on

catch rates were examined by sampling traps at 2 hr intervals

for 13 d centred around the new moon in each of 3 lunar

months. Larval catches were generally correlated to ebb tidal

flows, although the pattern was weak and variable. This

probably reflects the relatively small tidal range in the

Archipelago. There were no significant changes in catch rates

during the night, although a gradual trend of increasing catches

towards dawn was identified. The effect of trap deployment

depth on catches was examined by anchoring traps at the

surface and just above the bottom in two habitats for 3 lunar

months. All families of reef fishes collected in high numbers

displayed clear patterns of depth preference. The larvae of

gerrids, pomacentrids and lutjanids were predominantly

captured in shallow traps, while acanthurids, gobies, labrids,

apogonids, synodontids and blennies were usually collected in

deep traps. These results suggest that the composition and

abundance of catches will be strongly affected by the depth at

which traps are deployed..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A7: East Indies Triangle

Session A7: The East Indies Triangle of Maximum Marine-Biodiversity: Definition

and Origins

45

SPECIES COMPOSITION OF SOFT CORALS

(OCTOCORALLIA) ON THE CORAL REEFS OF THE

RYUKYU ARCHIPELAGO, JAPAN.

Benayahu Y.* Department of Zoology, Tel Aviv University,

Ramat Aviv, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel. Email:

denlit@post.tau.ac.il

The history of studies on the octocoral fauna of Japan is over

120 years old. The latest taxonomic revisions of some major

alcyonacean genera and the progress made to date in studying

them on various Indo-Pacific reefs encouraged the initiation of

an extensive collection of soft corals on the Ryukyu

Archipelago. Species composition of the families

Clavulariidae, Tubiporidae and Alcyoniidae was studied on 20

reef sites, from Sesoko Island in the north, to Yonaguni Island

in the south. The collection, comprising over 325 specimens,

yielded 56 species. The study established 4 new species and in

addition over 30 new zoogeographical records. Many of the

new records have already been described in the past from the

reefs of the Bay of Nha-Trang, Vietnam and recently from

Taiwan, indicating the close resemblance among these soft

coral faunas. Therefore, it is clear that the soft corals of the

Ryukyu Archipelago share many similarities with the fauna of

the East China Sea reefs. Most of the species obtained in the

present study are representatives of the family Alcyoniidae.

Low number of genera characterizes this family in the

surveyed sites, yet some are with remarkably high species

richness. The alcyoniids of the genera Alcyonium, Cladiella,

Lobophytum, Sarcophyton and Sinularia form large

assemblages, which dominate shallow reef areas. Members of

the families Nephtheidae, Xeniidae and Nidaliidae were also

collected and are still being examined. They contribute to the

diversity in habitats where Alcyoniidae species are rare.

Further studies on other islands of Japan will enable an

appropriate evaluation of the spatial and latitudinal patterns of

octocoral biodiversity in the region.

VARIATION IN CORAL SPECIES DIVERSITY AND

OCCURRENCE WITHIN INDONESIA: INFLUENCES

OF BIOGEOGRAPHY, GEOMORPHOLOGY, AND

LAND-BASED POLLUTION.

Edinger E.*, Jurek Kolasa, Michael Risk. Dept. of Earth

Sciences, Laurentian University, Ramsey Lake Road,

Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, P3E 2C6. Email:

eedinger@nickel.laurentian.ca.

We assess local and regional variation in coral species

diversity and species occurrence within the Indonesian

archipelago, and the influence of regional species pools,

geomorphology, and anthropogenic pollution on coral species

diversity and occurrence. We measured line-intercept transects

from 33 sites on 14 reefs in three regions of Indonesia: Ambon

(Moluccas), South Sulawesi, and the Java Sea. Unpolluted

reference sites in eastern Indonesia were approximately 20%

more diverse than Java Sea reference sites. Rare species

formed a higher proportion of the coral fauna on eastern

Indonesian sites. Approximately 25% of the species recorded

in Ambon and South Sulawesi did not occur in the Java Sea.

Between-site variation in species occurrence was lower on

Java Sea reefs than on eastern Indonesian reefs. Pollution from

land-based sources was the primary determinant of coral

species diversity and species occurrence on reefs. A larger

species pool in eastern Indonesia than in the Java Sea probably

accounted for most of the difference in within-site species

diversity between eastern Indonesian and Java Sea reference

sites. High fishing intensity in the Java Sea, including

destructive fishing practices, may have also reduced within-site

species diversity on Java Sea reference reefs.

GEOLOGICAL INFLUENCES ON INDO-WEST

PACIFIC BIOGEOGRAPHY DURING THE

CENOZOIC.

Hall, Robert*. *SE Asia Research Group, Royal Holloway

London, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, UK; Email:

robert.hall@gl.rhbnc.ac.uk

The distribution of land and sea and changing depths of seas,

essentially the result of geological processes, have played an

important part in the evolution of life and the development of

biogeographic patterns in SE Asia and the West Pacific.

Cenozoic geological events have also influenced climate and

oceanic circulation in the region. Major plate reorganisations

took place at about 45 and 25 Ma. Long term subduction

maintained discontinuously emergent volcanic island chains.

Early Cenozoic collision of India with Eurasia enlarged land

areas. Later, Eurasia-Australia and New Guinea arc-continent

collisions led to connections between Australia, Asia, and the

Pacific. These changes will be examined with the aid of

computer-animated tectonic models. Wallacea is a critical area

between the Sunda and Sahul shelves where, since the early

Miocene, an old deep-water barrier has been eliminated, but as

mountains rose, new deep basins developed. There have been

very rapid changes in geology, topography and land/sea

distribution, with multiple opportunities for dispersal and

vicariance. More subtle geologically-related forces have also

modified biogeographic patterns, such as links between

tectonics, mountain rise, sea level, climate, seaway closure and

ocean circulation. Changes occurred within a framework of

long-term cooling and sea level fall, with extreme variations

during Quaternary glacial and interglacial periods. The

complex links between geology, climate and ocean circulation

are still to be understood but are likely to have significant

biogeographic impact.

THE REEF CORAL FAUNA OF BALI AND NEARBY

AREAS.

Hoeksema, Bert W.* & Ketut Sarjana Putra. *Nationaal

Natuurhistorisch Museum / Naturalis, Postbus 9517, 2300

RA Leiden, The Netherlands. Email:

Hoeksema@naturalis.nnm.nl

Although Bali is well known for its diving tourism,

surprisingly little is known of its underwater fauna. Three

areas of Bali have been quickly monitored with regard to their

reef coral fauna: (1) Bali Barat national marine park, west Bali,

(2) the Tulamben - Amed area, northwest of Bali's easternmost

point, and (3) Nusa Lembongan en Nusa Penida, two islands in

the Lombok Strait between Bali and Lombok. Mushroom

corals (Fungiidae) and scleractinian genera were selected as

target taxa. Bali Barat, mainly consisting of uplifted limestone,

appeared to be the least rich, a possible effect of bleaching.

The Tulamben - Amed area, predominantly consisting of

volcanic sediments with limestone outcrops, appeared to be the

richest. The neighbouring islands Nusa Lembongan and Nusa

Penida, also characterised by uplifted limestone, appeared to

have very special fauna elements due to cold upwelling and

strong currents. Compared to nearby areas in western and

eastern Indonesia, the coral fauna of Bali, on the boundary

between west and east, resembles most the fauna of eastern

areas..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A7: East Indies Triangle

46

THE EAST INDIES TRIANGLE OF MARINE

BIODIVERSITY.

Hoeksema, Bert W. *. *Nationaal Natuurhistorisch

Museum / Naturalis, Postbus 9517, 2300 RA Leiden, The

Netherlands. Email: Hoeksema@naturalis.nnm.nl

Most tropical benthic animal species occur on coral reefs in

the Indo-Malayan Triangle, which includes Malaysia,

Indonesia, the Philippines and Papua New Guinea. Many

species show an Indo-West Pacific range from the western

Indian Ocean and the Red Sea toward the central Pacific, while

others occur predominantly in the Indo-Pacific convergence.

Cumulatively, these ranges form a centre of maximum marine

biodiversity, which is located at the East Indies triangle. The

boundaries of this triangle do not appear to have any

biogeographic significance. Depending on the taxa and

material studied, various triangles have been distinguished in

the past. Consequently, we do not know yet where exactly the

real centre of diversity is located. Species distributions

presented in systematic revisions are usually incomplete.

Nevertheless, well-defined boundaries are important for

explaining the centre of diversity, since they may relate to the

area's climatic and geological past or to dispersal by currents

and its ecological barriers. The fossil record and data on

molecular variation between and within species may also help

herein. Taxonomists should design sampling programmes that

focus on target taxa, which would enable them not only to look

for occurrence data but also to obtain reliable information on

species absence. Eventually, the patterns of many marine

benthic taxa need to be compared in order to find their real

diversity centre.

MOLECULAR PHYLOGEOGRAPHY OF THE

PATELLOIDA PROFUNDA GROUP (GASTROPODA:

LOTTIDAE).

Kirkendale, L.*. *Marine Lab, University of Guam &

Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida,

Gainesville FL 32611 USA, Email:

kirkendale@flmnh.ufl.edu

Studies on the origin and diversification of Indo-West Pacific

(IWP) biota are hampered by the frequently sympatric

distribution of related species. Limpets of the Patelloida

profunda group are exceptional in retaining largely allopatric

ranges, which together with their predominant restriction to

calcareous shores make them a promising group to address

questions of IWP diversification. In the Pacific the group is

basically confined to tectonically uplifted islands where

emergent fossil reefs provide suitable substrata. Both

tectonism and sea level fluctuations alter the distribution and

connectedness of these habitats, and provide opportunities for

speciation. Using 16S and COI mtDNA sequence data from

most P. profunda group members and several other Patelloida

and other limpet species, I explore the relationships and test

hypotheses about the origins, of these limpet species. Results

show a deep split between Pacific and Indian Ocean clades that

may date from the Miocene tectonic restriction of circulation

between the ocean basins. Differentiation within the Pacific is

more shallow and consistent with Plio-Pleistocene sea level

fluctuations as a driving mechanism. Indian Ocean taxa show

deeper differentiation among themselves than Pacific taxa,

consistent with the more fragmented nature of habitats in the

former, and also with data from other groups. Results raise

questions about the boundaries of the P. profunda group, the

genus Patelloida, as well as of patellogastropod families in

general.

INDO-WEST PACIFIC DIVERSITY: PHYLOGENETIC

EVIDENCE FROM COWRIES FOR A MOSAIC OF

CAUSES

Meyer Christopher *, Gustav Paulay. *Marine

Laboratory, University of Guam & Florida Museum of

Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL

32611 USA. Email: cmeyer@flmnh.ufl.edu

Cowrie snails ( Cypraea) are diverse, well-known members

of coral reef communities whose diversity peaks in the Indo-West

Pacific triangle. As their overall diversity is comparable

to other reef-associated taxa, we use the group as a model

system to understand mechanisms that generate diversity in the

region. A comprehensive phylogeny for the group based on

190 species from two mtDNA genes is used to test the relative

roles of Center of Origin, Center of Overlap, and Center of

Accumulation explanations. The phylogenetic hypothesis

indicates the following patterns: (1) For center of origin, taxa

endemic to the region are either a.) young (<3 MY) and often

nested within a more widespread paraphyletic taxon or b.)

older (>5 MY), deeper water species restricted to marginal

areas of the triangle. (2) Evidence for center of overlap is

evident in taxa where sampling has been more extensive (C.

mappa, C. arabica, C. tigris). (3) There is little evidence for

center of accumulation or refugia hypotheses playing a role in

cowries as older peripheral taxa maintain their peripheral

status (Cribrarula clade). However, the center of accumulation

hypothesis is difficult to falsify without a good fossil record.

For cowries, the diversity peak of the Indo-West Pacific

triangle is clearly a mosaic of mechanisms operating at

different time periods and within different arenas.

REGIONS OF MAXIMUM BIODIVERSITY AND

RATES OF SPECIES TURNOVER IN STOMATOPOD

CRUSTACEANS.

Reak a-K ud la, Marj orie*. *Departm ent of Biology, Un iversit y

of Maryland, Coll ege P ark, Md . 20742, USA. Emai l:

mr9@umail.umd.edu

Within lineages of coral-dwelling mantis shrimps, species of

smaller body size produce fewer larvae with lower dispersal

potential, inhabit smaller geographic ranges, and show higher

rates of speciation and extinction than species of larger body

size. Among lineages that span the Central Pacific (CP), West

Pacific (WP), Indo-West Pacific (IWP), and Indian Ocean

(IO), populations reach larger body sizes along the margin of

Africa and western Asia than on offshore islands of the IO; the

largest range of body sizes occurs in the IWP continental

region; and body sizes decrease toward the CP, with

populations from atolls dwarfed relative to those from high

islands. Endemism is high in the western IO, high in the IWP,

low in the WP, and high in the CP. The Center of Origin (CO),

Center of Accumulation (CA), and Center of Survival (CS)

hypotheses all appear to operate, but the rate of species

turnover (extinction/speciation) likely is critical for species

richness among regions. Origination occurs in the IWP

(predicted by CO) but also in peripheral areas (predicted by

CA). Low dispersal of the small endemics, the diversity

gradient, and the low endemism adjacent to the continental

region, however, suggest that small peripheral species do not

migrate and accumulate in the IWP (as predicted by CA). The

ratio of extinction/speciation, however, likely is lower in the

IWP continental area because of larger body sizes (high

dispersal, low extinction) of some lineages there (predicted by

CS)..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A7: East Indies Triangle

47

LARGER FORAMINIFERA FROM THE SPERMONDE

ARCHIPELAGO (INDONESIA) AND BOHOL

(PHILIPPINES)

Renema, Willem* Nationaal Natuurhistorischmuseum PO

Box 9517

2300 RA Leiden Email: Renema@naturalis.nnm.nl

Symbiont bearing larger foraminifera live in (sub)tropical

seas. Previous studies have been shown that substrate type,

light intensity (depth) and hydrodynamic energy are the most

important parameters influencing larger foraminifera

distribution patterns. In this study larger foraminifera of two

carbonate seas have been studied, in order to find whether the

same parameters affect larger foraminiferal distribution in

mesotrophic conditions. At the sand cay type reefs in the

Spermonde Arhipelago, depth and exposure related parameters

were important parameters in determining the foram

population. Highest densities were found in samples taken at

the reef base. Hardly any larger foraminifera were observed

shallower than 2m depth. The reefs around Cabilao constitute

of steep walls and a shallow reef flat (<2m depth). The highest

densities were observed on the reef flat, some meters from the

reef edge. From 2m down to about 8m little foraminifera were

found, while similar densities as in the Spermonde

Archipelago were observed from 8m to 30m. Most species

found at the reefbase in the Spermonde were not present

around Cabilao. This shows that next to previously known

parameters, also reef geometry is an important parameter in

determining the fauna composition and density of larger

foraminifera.

CENOZOIC HISTORY OF CORAL DIVERSITY IN THE

INDO-WEST PACIFIC: GEOLOGICAL CONTROL OF

AVAILABLE HABITATS.

Rosen B.* & Moyra Wilson. Department of

Palaeontology, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell

Road, London SW7 5BD, Great Britain. Email:

b.rosen@nhm.ac.uk

The Indo-West Pacific is the most taxonomically rich region

for numerous shallow-water marine organisms including

zooxanthellate corals, but notwithstanding considerable

research effort, this pattern continues to be enigmatic. The

most popular explanation is that the region is a Centre of

Origin (C-of-O) though other authors question this on cladistic

grounds. An implicit prediction of the C-of-O model is that

such regions should have a long history of species richness.

For groups with high preservation potential like corals, one

might expect this history to be reflected in their fossil record,

yet such evidence has been largely neglected. We have

quantified area of shallow-water carbonates of SE Asia

through the Cenozoic as a proxy for availability of coral

habitats, and compared this to the changing richness pattern of

z-corals. Although suitable habitats were present throughout

the Cenozoic, they increased dramatically early in the Neogene

(c 25 Ma), coincident with the collision of Australia and SE

Asia. Z-coral richness parallels this pattern, increasing four-fold

around the same time. This and other evidence suggests

that (1) the high biodiversity of the modern region is a

surprisingly young feature, (2) the influence of geotectonics on

biodiversity, particularly in controlling availability of suitable

habitats, has been widely overlooked, and (3) these factors

have been more important than the intrinsic evolutionary

processes invoked by C-of-O advocates.

CORAL BARNACLES— DECLINE AND EXTINCTION

IN THE ATLANTO-MEDITERRANEAN/EAST

PACIFIC, DIVERSIFICATION IN THE INDO-PACIFIC

DURING THE LATE CENOZOIC.

Ross, Arnold* & William A. Newman. *Scripps Institution

of Oceanography, La Jolla, California 92093-0202 USA,

Email: arross@att.net

The coral barnacles, first appearing in the Late Oligocene of

the Caribbean, underwent diversification unparalleled by any

other group of shallow-water sessile barnacles. An

archaeobalanid ancestor, with a shell of six wall and four

opercular plates, proceeded from an unspecialized, facultative,

setose-feeding planktotroph to variously modified obligate

commensals largely of corals. This not only led to a diversity

of shell forms but to feeding on host coral tissues and

ultimately to nutritional parasitism. Fragmentation of the

Tethyan seaway, concomitant with polar cooling and

wholesale extinctions of host corals, especially in Europe, the

Mediterranean basin and eastern Pacific during the Tertiary,

resulted in relict distributions and regional endemism. These

events included Neogene and Quaternary extinctions of

barnacle and coral genera in the western Atlantic/Caribbean

which have not been replaced by originations. On the other

hand, the development of the exceptional diversity of coral

barnacles now evident in the Indo-Pacific was apparently tied

to the survival and radiation largely of zooxanthellate corals

there.

NATURE AND ORIGINS OF UNIQUE HIGH

DIVERSITY REEF FAUNAS IN THE BAY OF TOMINI,

CENTRAL SULAWESI: THE ULTIMATE “CENTRE OF

DIVERSITY”?

Wallace, C.C*., Paulay, G., Hoeksema, B.W.H., Bellwood,

D.R., Hutchings, P., Barber, P. H., Erdmann, M. and

Wolstenholme, J. *Museum of tropical Queensland,

Townsville, Australia 4810. Email:

carden@mtq.qld.gov.au

The staghorn corals (Acropora spp.) of the Bay of Tomini in

eastern Central Sulawesi may typify the maximal marine

biodiversity associated with the idea of a “centre of diversity”

in the central Indo-Pacific: other faunal groups have variable

diversity, but unexpected species composition. Faunal

assemblages from several phyla in this bay were assessed

against phylogenetic and biogeographic data and biotic and

environmental parameters in order to compare several

hypotheses about the origins of the unusual species

composition. It was found that the Togian Islands within the

bay support a fauna with strong affinities to sites in the western

equatorial Pacific, in all the studied groups except

Stomatopoda. Both species composition and distribution of

ecological functional groups is influenced by unusually calm

and oligotrophic conditions in the islands and populations

within the islands have various levels of genetic connectively

to populations in other parts of Sulawesi, including complete

isolation of some populations. It is proposed that these islands

represent lagoonal refugia from Pleistocene lowstands, with

affinities to similar refugia in the western Pacific.

Additionally, the bay is possibly influenced by larval

distributions from the Pacific through-flow current and there is

little or no influence from the Indian Ocean..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A7: East Indies Triangle

48

ASPECTS OF BIODIVERSITY AND ENDEMISM IN

THE OCTOCORALLIAN FAUNA OF THE TROPICAL

WESTERN PACIFIC.

Williams, Gary C.*. *California Academy of Sciences, San

Francisco, California, U.S.A. 94118 Email:

gwilliams@calacademy.org

Recently acquired data from the southeast Asian region has

allowed for a preliminary assessment of species diversity on

coral reefs of the western Pacific. Regarding octocorallian

coelenterates, the northern and eastern points of the high

diversity triangle are estimated to be in the regions of southern

Luzon (Philippines) and the Milne Bay area (Papua New

Guinea). The western point has not yet been clearly defined,

other than central Indonesia. A single dive site in the

Philippines is shown to approximate the shallow-water (<30

meters depth) octocoral diversity (species richness) of the

entire Caribbean region - exceeding one hundred species.

Zooxanthellate octocorals of two of the world’s largest coral

reef regions, the western Pacific and the Tropical Western

Atlantic, are compared. It is shown that the western Pacific is

approximately nine times more diverse than the tropical

western Atlantic. The tropical western Atlantic octocorallian

fauna of shallow-water coral reefs (<15 m depth) is composed

almost entirely of gorgonians, while these corals comprise only

approximately 6% of the western Pacific fauna within a similar

depth range. Two families make up 96% of the tropical

western Atlantic fauna, while 92% of the western Pacific fauna

is comprised of three soft coral families: Alcyoniidae,

Neptheidae, and Xeniidae. The remaining western Pacific

elements include helioporacean, stoloniferan, and

pennatulacean taxa..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A8: Palaeoecology

Session A8: Lessons from the Past: Reef Palaeoecology and Its Applications

49

FATES OF SKELETAL CARBONATE IN TROPICAL

SEDIMENTS: HARSHEST TAPHONOMIC FILTER IN

REEF ENVIRONMENTS?

Best, M.M.R*. *Department of the Geophysical Sciences,

University of Chicago, 5734 S. Ellis Ave., Chicago,

IL60637, U.S.A., Email: mmrbest@midway.uchicago.edu

Environmental assessments in coastal environments rarely

include baseline surveys before the onset of change. We can

turn to sediments and skeletal death and fossil assemblages to

investigate the past and develop longer time series on

community composition and environmental conditions. In

order to use this historical information, potential biases arising

from the processes of fossilization need to be identified across

environments. Study of both carbonate and siliciclastic settings

in Caribbean Panama has provided insight into processes of

skeletal preservation along environmental axes including

sediment grain size, chemistry (carbonate, organic carbon,

iron), and accumulation rates. Post-mortem condition of

experimental and naturally occurring bivalve death

assemblages is compared to coordinated environmental

datasets. Sediment texture and chemistry show a strong

relationship with post-mortem condition, with destruction

being highest in reefal carbonate settings and shell persistence

highest in iron-rich siliciclastics. These results imply that reef

skeletal deposits are more highly filtered than adjacent

habitats, though deceleration of damage accrual over time

suggests information loss is not complete. Furthermore, when

environments shift, siliciclastic sedimentation in some reefal

areas may result in a greater fidelity of the reef skeletal fossil

assemblage.

ARE THERE PROXIES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL

STRESS IN LIVING AND FOSSIL REEF-BUILDING

CORALS?

Burr,*S.A. Department of Geological Sciences, Snee Hall,

Cornell University, Ithaca NY, 14853 . sab45@cornell.edu

Corals can be stressed by fluctuations in the parameters that

control their growth and limit their environment. Solar

irradiance, varying symbiont photosynthetic rates, volcanism,

sedimentation, elevated nutrient levels, ENSO events, storms,

ship groundings, disease, outbreaks of predators, and die-offs

of herbivorous organisms that control the proliferation of algae

are stressors must have existed in the Pleistocene and

Holocene eras, but what should we look for as indicators in the

fossil record? Stress does not always result in an obvious

marker such as a community phase shift. The stable isotope

fraction content of Holocene scleractinian coral skeletons has

been used as a proxy for past climate, salinity, and average and

seasonal temperature, and as such may act as a proxy for a

bleaching event. Coral skeletal density can be a proxy for

water temperature, light intensity, and nutrient supply. 13 C/12 C

ratios can be indicators of ocean nutrient levels. The trace

metal contents of Holocene scleractinian coral skeletons have

been used as proxies for paleo ocean circulation and chemistry.

Can these chemical proxies also record stress, disturbance,

and/or disease in the fossil record? If proxies for coral stress

exist, the Pleistocene and Holocene fossil record could become

a source of information about the permanence of the damage

done to coral reef communities by pathogens and other factors,

the effect on the biodiversity of the reef community, and the

prognosis for recovery of today's reef systems.

THE "PARADOX" OF GLOBAL MID-PALEOZOIC

REEF EXPANSION DURING SUPER GREENHOUSE

EPISODES.

Copper P.*, *Dept. Earth Sciences, Laurentian

University,Sudbury, Ontario, P3E 2C6, Canada, Email:

pcopper@nickel.laurentian.ca

Giant coral-sponge reef tracts of the silurian (wenlock) and

devonian (eifel-givet) were common during greenhouse

climate maxima, with average ssts at 24c-26c, and atmospheric

pco2 16x to 24x today’s. Epicontinental seas flooded

equatorial cratons during sl highstands: reefs ranged to

latitudes 50s, and c.60n. Reef builders were calcitic tabulate-rugose

corals, aragonitic stromatoporoid sponges, aragonitic

chloro- and calcitic rhodophytes, and diverse calcitic

calcimicrobes. This paradox of optimal reef cum maximal

greenhouse suggests: (1) warm, supersaturated calcite oceans

enhanced precipitation, sequestering co2 otherwise

suppressing caco3 production, (2) zooxanthellae were more

abundant and efficient at removing co2 and buffering tropical

mid-paleozoic oceans, (3) reef builders spread to higher

latitudes during global warming episodes, (4) stratified,

sluggish deep ocean waters were effective sinks for surplus

co2 and p, except during las niñas events at mass extinction

boundaries.

BRYOZOAN REEFS AND BRYOZOAN-RICH

LIMESTONES IN THE MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN OF

SOUTHWESTERN VIRGINA.

Cuffey R.J.* Cawley, J.C.; Lane, J.A.; Bernarsky-Remington,

S.M.; Ansari, S.L.; McClain, M.D.; Ross, T.L.;

& Savill, A.C. *Dept. Geosciences (Deike Bldg.),

Pennsylvania State Univ., University Park, PA 16802, USA.

Email: cuffey@ems.psu.edu

Bryozoan-built reef mounds are rare, small, exotic

compared with coral reefs, but started early in their

phylum’s history. Several are preserved in thick gray

fossiliferous limestones (upper Chazyan and lower

Blackriveran) across southwestern Virginia, and were

examined to understand critical aspects of such structures at

that time. The bryozoan reefs are small (meter-sized) crust-mounds

built largely by t h e s h e e t - l i k e t o

m a s s i v e t r e p o s t o m e B a t o s t o m a c h a z y e n s i s ;

t h e r e s u l t i n g r o c k a v e r a g e s c r u s t s t o n e

( w i t h p a c k s t o n e t o w a c k e s t o n e matrix). Much

larger (km-scale) regional calcarenite shoals and banks

contain considerable skeletal sediment derived from break-up

of scatt e r e d b r a n c h i n g b r y o z o a n c o l o n i e s ;

t h e s e r o c k s a r e m o s t commonly floatstone (with

packstone to grainstone matrix). Shallow shoals host

trepostomes (Nicholsonella acanthobscura) and bifoliates

(Pachydictya sheldonesis, Stictopora fenestrata), deeper

banks the trepostomes Anaphragma hermitagensis and

Nicholsonella inflecta. Locally, the branching trepostome-like

fistuliporoid Constellaria islensis forms dense but

non-reefal thickets (packed rudstones with micstone to mud-stone

matrix). Overall, 51 bryozoan species have been

identified here, some in frame-building and others in

sediment-forming constructional ecologic roles..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A8: Palaeoecology

50

MID-HOLOCENE FOSSIL REEF AT JEPARA,

CENTRAL JAVA, INDONESIA: A BENCHMARK OF

NEARSHORE REEF DIVERSITY AND COMPOSITION

BEFORE HUMAN DISTURBANCE?

Edinger E.N., Joyce Lundberg, Michael Risk.* *Dept. of

Earth Sciences, Laurentian University, Ramsey Lake

Road, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, P3E 2C6. Email:

eedinger@nickel.laurentian.ca

Modern nearshore reefs of the Java Sea, Indonesia, have

been subjected to high levels of anthropogenic sedimentation,

sewage, agricultural and aquacultural runoff for the past

century or longer. Comparison with fossil reefs may show the

nature and degree of change in reef ecology associated with

long-term pollution. Fossil reef exposures in the Jepara region,

Central Java, include reef flat facies from siliciclastic

dominated nearshore environments which grew approximately

7000 ybp during the Holocene hypsithermal sea level

highstand. Species richness of the fossil reef was not

significantly different from that of the degraded shallow

modern nearshore reefs, nor from unpolluted reefs growing

among mangroves. Microatolls, massive corals, and branching

corals dominated the fossil reefs. Multilobate submassive

corals were much more abundant on the modern degraded

reefs than in the fossil reefs. While fossil reefs were dominated

by typical reef flat corals, polluted modern reefs were

dominated by taxa tolerant of turbid or polluted water,

especially Goniopora djiboutiensis, Galaxea fascicularis,

Alveopora spp., and Lobophyllia hemprichii , and taxa typical

of reef flats and shallow reef fronts. Acropora corals were rare

on both fossil reefs and degraded modern reefs. Pleistocene

and Holocene fossil reefs can provide a useful pre-pollution

benchmark of nearshore reef coral species composition.

MIRRORS, PRISMS, OR SNAPSHOTS: HOW

CLOSELY DO FOSSIL REEFS RESEMBLE SOURCE

LIFE AND DEATH ASSEMBLAGES?

Edinger E.*, John Pandolfi, Russell Kelley. *Dept. of Earth

Sciences, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario, P3E

2C6, Canada. Email: eedinger@nickel.laurentian.ca

The diversity and taxonomic composition of Holocene raised

fossil reefs was compared with those of modern reef coral life

and death assemblages in adjacent moderate and low-energy

shallow reef habitats of Madang Lagoon, Papua New Guinea.

Species richness per sample area and Shannon-Weiner

diversity (H’) were highest in the fossil reefs, intermediate in

the life assemblages, and lowest in the death assemblages. The

taxonomic composition of the fossil reefs was most similar to

the combined composition of the life and death assemblages

from the modern reefs adjacent to the two fossil reefs. The

Madang fossil reefs represent depth-specific snapshots of the

combined life and death assemblages as they existed at the

time the reef was uplifted. Lagoonal facies of fossil reefs are

dominated by the dominant sediment producing taxa, which

are usually, but not necessarily, the most abundant in the life

assemblage. Rare or slow-growing taxa accumulate more

slowly than the encasing sediments, and are under-represented

in fossil reefs. Nevertheless, Holocene and Pleistocene fossil

reefs provide a time-integrated historical record of community

composition, and may be used as long-term benchmarks for

comparison with modern, degraded, nearshore reefs.

Comparisons between fossil reefs and degraded modern reefs

display gross changes in community structure more effectively

than they demonstrate local extinction of rare taxa.

MOLLUSK ASSEMBLAGES WITHIN PLEISTOCENE

AND MODERN REEFS RECORD THE ECOLOGICAL

VARIABILITY OF BACKREEF AREAS.

Gardiner, L.* University of Georgia, Department of

Geology, Athens GA 30605, USA. Email:

gardiner@gly.uga.edu

Previous interpretations of paleoenvironmental conditions

from Pleistocene reef deposits have relied upon the predicable

zonation of coral species identified in modern reef settings.

However, mollusks from different Pleistocene and modern

backreef locations with similar coral assemblages do not have

such constancy in different locations. Mollusk assemblages

from two different geographic locations of Pleistocene reef

building within the Bahamas were investigated through

identification of over 4000 mollusk specimens. The two

mollusk assemblages were significantly different (MANOVA,

p<0.001) despite similar coral assemblages. Investigation of

over 6000 mollusk specimens from modern Bahamian

backreefs also revealed high variability of mollusk death

assemblages associated with variable habitats. Thus,

differences in the Pleistocene mollusk assemblages may be

attributed to variability of paleohabitats within Pleistocene

backreef areas. The mollusk assemblages within backreef

coral deposits will differ if adjacent habitats are unlike,

regardless of the similarity of corals. While corals have been

cited as demonstrating the constancy of Neogene reefs,

mollusks from different fossil reef localities demonstrate the

ecological patchiness and habitat variability within shallow

platform environments. Therefore, investigation of mollusks

from ancient reef deposits provides important paleoecological

information about reefs and adjacent near-reef habitats that is

not typically obtained from analysis of coral zonation pattern.

TAPHONOMY OF REEF BUILDING CORALS AT

INTRA- AND INTER-PROVINCIAL SPATIAL SCALES:

IMPLICATIONS FOR PALAEOECOLOGICAL

STUDIES.

Greenstein, Benjamin J. *, John M. Pandolfi. Department

of Geology, Cornell College, 600 First St. West, Mt.

Vernon, IA 52314 U. S. A.; Email: bgreenstein@cornell-iowa.

edu

In order to interpret more accurately the results of

palaeoecological studies of Pleistocene and Holocene fossil

reef coral assemblages, we have investigated the taphonomic

processes affecting coral death assemblages on a variety of

spatial scales. We have made comparisons between shallow

(reef tract and patch reef) and deep (20 and 30 m) reef

environments of the Florida Keys, between shallow reef

environments of the Florida Keys and Bahamas, and between

shallow reef environments of the tropical western Atlantic and

Indo-Pacific Provinces. Dead corals were examined to

determine the extent of coverage of a variety of physical,

chemical and biological agents of degradation. The results of

this multi-year study of taphonomic processes affecting the

common reef-building corals of these regions reveal complex

patterns of degradation between and within reef environments

and coral colony growth forms. The influence of both wave

energy regime and coral colony growth form on the amount of

degradation suffered by dead corals is evident from our inter-provincial

comparisons. However, within-province differences

in preservation potential exist, and are related to background

sedimentation rate and light availability. Differences observed

between and within reef provinces suggest that the fossil

record of reef corals can best be understood if studies of reef

coral palaeoecology are coupled with taphonomic studies in

closely analogous modern environments..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A8: Palaeoecology

51

REEFFORMING POTENTIAL OF RECENT AND

FOSSIL CORALS.

Gudo, Michael*. *Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg,

Department for Comparative Anatomy,

Senckenberganlage 25, 60325 Frankfurt am Main,

Germany, Email: m.gudo@em.uni-frankfurt.de

Due to the abilities of Rugosa and Scleractinia to build reefs,

two processes have to be distinguished: ‘reef-building’ and

‘reef-forming’. Reef-building is determined by the

environment, the climate, and life assemblages, and reef-forming

is detemined by the bauplan of the soft bodies and the

individual growth potential. Reef-forming depends on the

ability to build an organism with an endless number of polyp-modules

that share the volume of their gastric cavities. Due to

the bauplans of polyps four types of reef-forming will be

presented: solitary corals, colonial corals, stock-corals and

autositary corals. Solitary corals are single polyps excreting a

carbonate substrate, colonial corals are assemblages of

individuals, in stock-corals the polyps share their carbonate

substrate but they are individuals, and in autositary corals the

polyps share their gastric cavities, which means that the polyps

are functional units (modules) in one large organism. The

solitary, colonial and the stock-corals only have a low reef-forming

potential, but the autositary corals have a high

potential of reef-forming. Due to their bauplan the Rugosa had

a limited number of growth sectors so that they build solitary,

colonial or stock-corals. But the Scleractinia have an unlimited

(exponentially increasing) number of growth sectors and

consequently they were able to build autositary corals and they

have an high reef-forming potential.

RELATIONS BETWEEN BIO-COENOCLINES AND

TAPHO-COENOCLINES OF LARGER

FORAMINIFERA IN FRONT OF CORAL REEFS.

Hohenegger, Johann * and Elza Yordanova. Institut für

Paläontologie, Universität Wien, A-1090 Wien, Austria.

Email: johann.hohenegger@univie.ac.at

Larger Foraminifera living on coral reef slopes show strong

habitat differences. Since all house symbiotic algae, light

attenuation and water energy are the most important limiting

factor that must be dealt with test structures. The local

topography influences the hydrodynamic regime leading to

various substrates. Since all factors correspond to depth,

species are restricted to small intervals along the depth

gradient. A sequence of assemblages correlated to an

environmental factor is called a coenocline. Comparisons

between living and death assemblages of larger foraminifera

are carried out at a NW-Pacific island slope. Transport is

estimated by comparing relative frequencies between living

individuals and empty tests. The complex slope topography

leads to allochthonous specimens that additionally hamper the

relation between coenoclines of living individuals (bio-coenoclines)

and empty tests (tapho-coenoclines) based on

depth displacement. On the one hand, specimens living in

backreef regions are transported into the fore reef areas during

waning tropical cyclones, while elements of relict sediments,

on the other, are reworked in the deeper slope during these

episodic events. Both factors, in combination with down-slope

transport and slope inclination, disguise the clear depth

dependence of living larger foraminifers as manifested in bio-coenoclines.

BIOLOGICAL VERSUS GEOLOGICAL REEF

COMMUNITIES AT BUCK ISLAND, U.S. VIRGIN

ISLANDS.

Hubbard, D.K.*, Bythell, J., Gladfelter, E. Dept of

Geology-Oberlin College, Oberlin, OH, USA, 44074. Email:

dennishubbard@oberlin.edu

Both distribution and abundance of corals in seven cores

from Buck Island National Reef Monument are similar to the

patterns quantified by over two decades of repeated surveys.

In addition, differences in accretionary styles in the northern

versus southern reefs over the past 7000 years mimic

differences in present coral-community structure. Along the

northern reef, protected from most major storms, the zonation

pattern is well-delineated with few corals from one zone being

found in others. Along the more frequently disturbed southern

reef, coral zonation was mixed in the cores, as it is on the reef

today. The distribution of Acropora palmata in cores

compares best with the 1976 survey conducted before the

devastation of the A. palmata community by White Band

Disease. This may suggest that such afflictions are relatively

new to Caribbean coral reefs. The core data largely agree with

averaged patterns seen over the duration of the survey; they

often are at odds with individual surveys. This points out both

the short-term plasticity of the reef community and the

importance of a well-constrained and longer-term data base

when addressing questions about either long-term reef stability

or the importance of recent changes seen on reefs throughout

the Caribbean, and probably elsewhere.

TAPHONOMIC COMPARISON OF MIDDLE EOCENE-EARLY

OLIGOCENE CARBONATES.

Nebelsick J.*, Bassi, Rasser. *Inst. Geology &

Palaeontology, Univ. Tübingen. Sigwartstr. 10, D-72076

Tübingen. Email: nebelsick@uni-tuebingen.de

The middle Eocene to Early Oligocene time period is

generally recognized for its paucity of coral reefs and rapid

change-over of major carbonate facies types. We have

analyzed different taphonomic aspects of the major facies

types recognized in circum-alpine, middle Eocene to Early

Oligocene carbonates. These carbonates are characterized by a

wide variety of facies types dominated not only by larger

foraminifera, but also coralline algae, corals and bryozoans.

Important changes of facies composition and distribution are

caused by extinction events of larger foraminiferal taxa

(alveolinids, large Nummulites, Orbitolites and

orthophragminids) and the development of other facies types.

Reefs as such do not constitute a major facies type and

carbonate build-ups seem to be restricted to coral patches and

thicket as well as larger foraminiferal banks. We use a

microtaphofacies approach, analyzing such factors as

disarticulation, fragmentation, abrasion, bioerosion and

encrustation which are readily recognizable in thin section

analysis. This comparison shows important differences in

taphonomic signatures which can be related to variations in the

skeletal morphology of the constituent components as well as

general depositional environment. These differences of

preservation should help in the general ecological

interpretation of different facies types. This approach can also

contribute to answering questions concerning the paucity of

reef formation and rapid change-over of facies types formed

during this important transitional time in the general

development of carbonate facies and reefs..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A8: Palaeoecology

52

PREDICTING REEF AND SURROUNDING

ENVIRONMENTS FROM THE TAPHONOMIC

CONDITION OF MOLLUSK REMAINS.

Parsons-Hubbard, K.M., *Oberlin College, Oberlin, OH

44074, Email: karla.hubbard@oberlin.edu

Reef-related zonation patterns are difficult to decipher in the

record of fossil reefs. Much of the argument over the

classification of ancient reefs has centered around the

determination of reef core vs. flank beds and surrounding

environments. As the "framework" in the reef core is

increasingly composed of in-situ but disturbed colonies and

debris, it becomes more difficult to differentiate the core from

flank deposits and surrounding associated environments. What

would help is a biomarker that is sensitive to subtle

environmental differences between the reef and these

surrounding areas. Hundreds of mollusk remains were

collected from the open shelf, reef proper, back reef, sandy

lagoon, sea-grass bed, mud-bottom, and beach on the north

coast of St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. Each shell was

characterized according to breakage, color loss, surface

condition, and epibiont encrustation. Taphonomic data for each

shell sample were run through a discriminant analysis to

establish a predictive model for each of the reef-associated

environments. When "unknown" bivalve remains were

analyzed based on the model, the model predicted the correct

depositional environment more than 75% of the time for all

environments except for the grassbed (which was correctly

identified 60% of the time). Results were much more sensitive

than taxonomically-based cluster analyses for the same shells.

Because mollusks have been a common reef-associated group

throughout much of the Phanerozoic, the utility of taphofacies

analysis to interpretations of ancient reef deposits may prove to

be very useful, especially given the fact that taxonomic

identity changes, while taphonomic signatures are more

constant through time.

STORM HORIZONS WITHIN PLEISTOCENE

SHALLOW WATER REEF FACIES: LONG-TERM

RECORDS OF STORM DEPOSITION AND

COMMUNITY RESPONSE.

Perry, C.T.*. Dept. of Environmental & Geographical

Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester

M1 5GD, U.K. Email: c.t.perry@mmu.ac.uk

Changes in community composition, coral fragmentation,

and mobilisation of coral rubble and sediment, are well

documented following hurricane impacts on reef systems.

Whilst a number of modern studies have indicated the potential

for relatively rapid recovery of coral communities following

such natural disturbance events (especially via regeneration of

fragmented corals), combined anthropogenic (e.g., over-fishing,

pollution) and disease (e.g., white band disease,

Diadema die-off) events often result in both delayed recovery

and subsequent major community shifts. These may, however,

give an unbalanced (and perhaps negative) view of community

response to storm events under undisturbed post-storm

conditions. Uplifted, shallow water (Acropora palmata

dominated) facies in the Pleistocene reef terraces of Barbados

record evidence of multiple storm deposition events over

timescales (10 2 -10 4 years) that are beyond the scope of modern

studies. Storm horizons are identified using high resolution

field mapping and analysis of epilithic community successions

preserved on A. palmata rubble

HYDRODYNAMIC SELF-RIGHTING IN MANICINA

AREOLATA, A STRATEGY WITH

PALAEOECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE.

Piller, Werner E.*, B. Hubmann, B. Riegl. *Institut für

Geologie und Paläontologie, Karl-Franzens-Universität

Graz, Heinrichstraße 26, A-8010 Graz, Austria. Email:

werner.piller@kfunigraz.ac.at

The scleractinian Manicina areolata is a common coral on

Caribbean hard and soft substrata and was studied at Lee

Stocking Island (Exuma Cays, Bahamas). It is not only found

on reefs but also on bioclastic sand with seagrasses.

Investigated coralla ranged in size from 2 to 10 cm, growth

form varied from conical with round to oval cross-section to

turbinate forms with few meanders and flat oval cross-section.

The conical morphotype was usually attached to hard

substratum, while the turbinate morphotype was usually

unattached and upright, in soft substratum. In infratidal areas,

both attached and unattached turbinate forms were found in

close vicinity, however, conical attached forms were rare.

Habitats with sandy softgrounds, where free-living turbinate

morphotypes were common, were influenced by strong tidal

currents with concurrent danger of burial or "disorientation" of

the coralla. Investigations in a flume channel showed that the

colony shape itself led to passive cleaning and self-righting,

which was achieved by the flat-turbinate morphology, with a

concave side and a flat to slightly convex opposite side, under

high current speeds. The concave side, and particularly the

median lobes formed by many meandroid coralla, were the

critical morphological factors. Grooves formed in between the

lobes channelled currents in a way that scour underneath the

coral and drag produced by the lobes allowed passive self-righting.

This could be used to explain ecological strategies in

similar-shaped fossil solitary corals.

LATE EOCENE CRUSTOSE ALGAL BUILDUPS OF

THE ALPINE FORELAND - A NEW TYPE OF

CORALLINE ALGAL REEFS?

Piller, Werner E. * and Michael W. Rasser. Institute of

Geology and Paleontology, University of Graz,

Heinrichstrasse 26, A-8010 Graz, Austria. Email:

werner.piller@kfunigraz.ac.at

Late Eocene sediments of the Upper Austrian Molasse Zone

contain up to 80 m thick red algal limestones, which are

underlain by up to 40 m thick siliciclastic series. Red algal

limestone facies are dominated by Maërl sediments (i. e.,

coralline algal branches, rhodoliths, and their detritus). Up to 7

m thick crustose algal buildups develop from rhodolith

accumulations. The buildups consist of up to 0.5 - 10 mm thick

consecutive coralline algal crusts, mainly formed by

Neogoniolithon sp., as well as crustose corals; other biota, such

as peyssonneliacean algae, benthic foraminifera, bryozoans

and serpulids, are rare. Small laminar rhodoliths can occur

within the framework. Growthforms of Neogoniolithon sp.

cause considerable constructional cavities, which are filled by

finegrained bioclasts and micrite. Modern crustose algal

buildups are known from tropical to temperate environments.

Tropical and subtropical buildups are restricted to the

intertidal/shallow subtidal and usually develop from coral

reefs. Temperate buildups are known from the Northern

Atlantic and the Mediterranean. They lack corals and either

occur in the rocky intertidal or on Maërl sediments from 30 to

150 m water depth. The studied coralline algal buildups are

unique in earth history due to the combination of framework

building crustose corallines and corals within a Maërl-dominated

sediment..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A8: Palaeoecology

53

DECIPHERING CHANGE IN HOLOCENE REEF

COMMUNITIES

Precht, William F.*, Richard B. Aronson and Ian G.

Macintyre. PBS&J, 2001 NW 107 th Ave., Miami, FL

33172, Email: bprecht@pbsj.com

Coral reefs of the Caribbean have been in flux for the past

few decades. Among the changes has been the near elimination

of the dominant coral species at intermediate depths, Acropora

cervicornis (staghorn coral). Whether the transition is natural

or the result of human disturbances is a topic of strenuous

debate. To address this issue, we must ask the question, "Did

episodes of reef degradation occur in the past, before the era of

human interference, or is the current state of coral reefs unique

to our time?" Because coral reefs are both geologic and

biologic entities, it should be possible to observe the effects of

various disturbances in ecological time, detect historical

changes in the fossil record, and deduce the multi-scale

processes behind those patterns. We have undertaken a

multidisciplinary approach of this sort to decipher the

Holocene history of lagoonal reef complexes in Belize.

Catastrophic mortality of staghorn coral populations during the

1980’s was documented using standard ecological reef-monitoring

techniques. Subsurface investigation of these reefs

showed that the recent collapse of staghorn coral populations

in the Belizean lagoon is without precedent in at least the last

few millennia. The novelty of recent events suggest that the

current state of the Belizean reefs was produced by a

combination of factors unique to our times. If these Belizean

reefs are representative of the Caribbean as a whole, the

possibility of an anthropogenic role in their decline cannot be

discounted and warrants further study.

MIOCENE BIOSTROMAL CORAL FACIES (LEITHA

LIMESTONE, AUSTRIA) – LOW DIVERSITY CORAL

CARPETS AND THEIR ACTUALISTIC

INTERPRETATION.

Riegl, Bernhard*, Werner E. Piller. Institut für Geologie

und Paläontologie, Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz,

Heinrichstrasse 26, 8010 Graz, Austria. Email:

bernhard.riegl@kfunigraz.ac.at

The Leitha Limestone of Badenian age (Middle Miocene) at

the type-locality in Grosshoeflein (Burgenland, Austria) is

characterized by biostromal coral-rich strata which were re-interpreted

from an actualistic viewpoint in comparison with

Recent Caribbean and Arabian Gulf coral communities. The

investigated outcrop (quarry ”Fenk”) is interpreted as a

sequence of biostromal framebuilding coral carpets and non-framebuilding

coral communities, which alternate with

bryozoan and corallinacean calcarenites as well as bivalve

beds. A sequence of 10 coral intervals was observed, which

can be grouped into 2 coral carpet types (high carpet

framework, low bushy framework), four non-framework

communities and one bivalve/coral community. All coral

communities were dominated by Porites species. Within this

sequence, no unequivocal indication for sea-level changes at

the time of deposition was apparent. In comparison with

Recent coral systems in the Caribbean (Bahamas, Florida,

Cayman Islands) and the Arabian Gulf (Dubai, UAE), we

interpreted the different coral facies as having been deposited

in similar water depths. We assume that the facies represent

different lateral positions within the same spatially highly

complex environment which is illustrated by a distribution

map of benthic biota in the Arabian Gulf, a structurally

comparable system that illustrates what the likely lateral

distribution of the Miocene facies could have looked like.

THE CLOSURE OF THE TETHYAN SEAWAY AND ITS

INFLUENCE ON CORAL FAUNAS.

Schuster, Frithjof*. *Research Institute Senckenberg,

Senckenberganlage 25, D-60325 Frankfurt, Germany.

Email: fschuste@sngkw.uni-frankfurt.de

The closure of seaways has a profound influence on the

distribution of benthic organisms as it forms invincible

barriers. Additionally, oceanic circulation systems already

change previously to such an event. The Tethyan Gateway

which connected the Atlantic Ocean with the Tethyan Sea

during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic was closed during the Early

Miocene due to the collision of the African/Arabian plates with

the Eurasian continent. Oligocene and Early Miocene coral

faunas were investigated in the critical region now covering

the central and eastern part of the Mediterranean, NE Africa,

and the Middle East. Highly diverse Late Oligocene coral

assemblages from central Iran show marked differences to

coeval coral occurrences of the Mediterranean Tethys. Several

new species and faunal elements known only from the

Indopacific area are taken as evidence for a beginning faunal

separation as early as the Late Oligocene, a time when the

Tethyan Gateway still provided an open marine connection. A

species level based comparison of the Iranian fauna with

species known from the Mediterranean Tethys show a

correspondence of 27 per cent. The main reason for this early

faunal separation is seen in a change of the oceanic circulation

system responsible for the larval distribution of corals.

Fluctuating sea levels locally lead to evaporation phases during

the Aquitanian but renewed marine conditions prevailed until

the Burdigalian. Burdigalian coral faunas of northern Iran

(Qom Basin), Turkey (Mut Basin), and Egypt (northern Gulf

of Suez) are all very similar suggesting an open marine

connection between these regions.

BIONTS ON MOLLUSCS IN MODERN AND FOSSIL

REEFS AS USEFUL INDICATORS OF ENVIRONMENT

AND REEF HEALTH.

Walker, S.* and Gardiner, L. Department of Geology,

University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602. Email:

swalker@gly.uga.edu

Coral reef communities contain molluscs and bionts

(bioeroders and encrusters) that can be used to interpret

modern and fossil reef community diversity, associated

environments, and relative reef health. Shells of molluscs and

their associated bionts were examined along beach-to-reef

transects from two Recent sites: a stressed reef (i.e., Lindsey

Reef, LR: few living corals; algal cover dominant) and a less

stressed reef (i.e., Telephone Pole Reef, TPR: lacking

Acropora cervicornis) from San Salvador Island, Bahamas.

Most (80%) of the TPR shells had bionts, whereas 30% of the

LR shells had bionts. The TPR site had the highest biont and

mollusc diversity. The LR site was dominated by a

foraminiferan, Homotrema, and characterized by a bryozoan

species, a vermetid (Dendropoma), and a general lack of

coralline algae and bioeroders. Whereas, the TPR site was

dominated by the foraminiferan (Planorbulina), five species of

bryozoans, coralline algae, and bioeroders. We then compared

our Recent findings to fossil molluscs from a Pleistocene reef

on San Salvador Island: 80% of the fossils had remarkably

preserved bionts: Homotrema and Planorbulina were rare;

Dendropoma was relatively common; bryozoan diversity was

higher than reported here for the TPR reef; bioeroders were

relatively common..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A8: Palaeoecology

54

NOVEL PALAEOECOLOGY OF A POST EXTINCTION

REEF:FAMENNIAN (LATE DEVONIAN) OF THE

CANNING BASIN, WESTERN AUSTRALIA

Wood, R.* *Dept. of Earth Sciences, University of

Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EQ, UK.

Email: rw43@esc.cam.ac.uk

Reefs are widely supposed to be particularly susceptible to

mass extinction events, and to survive only as low-diversity,

remnant communities dominated by holdover and disaster

taxa. The Famennian (Late Devonian) reefs exposed in the

Windjana Limestone, of the Canning Basin, Northwestern

Australia demonstrate, however, that a quite novel reef

ecology was established in the immediate aftermath of the

Frasnian/Famennian mass extinction event. Here, diverse

calcimicrobes (including Rothpletzella spp., Shuguria spp.,

Ortonella, and Girvanella) together with bryozoans,

brachiopods, and stromatoporoid, sphinctozoan and lithistid

sponges, grew as complex framework intergrowths in

previously undocumented morphological forms, forming

spectacular elevated laminar to platy structures up to 3 m in

diameter and 0.35 m thick. At least fifteen morphospecies of

lithistids are now identified, where only two were previously

documented. These communities show no substantial

reduction in biodiversity compared to Frasnian counterparts,

nor any change in tiering or loss of complex ecological

interactions. These observations suggest that where stable

carbonate platforms persisted after mass extinction events,

reef-building could continue. More importantly, they

demonstrate that no protracted interval of time was necessarily

required for either recovery to ecological stability, or for

completely new reef ecologies to assemble. Such studies

highlight the need to document ecosystem recovery after mass

extinction and other catastrophic events using detailed

palaeoecological analyses in addition to simple compilations of

global biodiversity changes.

LIVING AND DEAD MOLLUSCS ON CORAL REEFS

IN THE NORTHERN RED SEA – IMPLICATIONS FOR

THE FOSSIL RECORD

Zuschin, Martin*, *Institute of Palaeontology, University

of Vienna, Althahnstr. 14, A-1090 Vienna, Austria. Email:

martin.zuschin@univie.ac.at

Reef-associated hard substrata (reef flats, reef slopes, coral

carpets, coral patches, rock grounds), were studied in order to

determine the agreement of assemblages of living and dead

shell-bearing molluscs. A total area of 340.5 m_ was

investigated and 2846 individuals were counted at 68 sample

localities ranging from shallow subtidal to 40 m water depth.

Most taxa found dead in the study area were also found live

and vice versa. Strong differences exist in the proportion of

living and dead fauna, dominant taxa, and molluscan

distribution patterns. The ratio of live to dead molluscs is high.

Living molluscs are strongly dominated by taxa with distinct

relations to corals, mainly Pedum, Coralliophila and Tridacna,

and the encrusting gastropod Dendropoma. Five distinct

groups of living molluscs can be differentiated and related to

specific hard-substrata. In contrast, the death assemblages are

always strongly dominated by encrusting bivalves, mainly

Chamoidea and Spondylidae, and cerithiid gastropods in

varying dominances. The observed bias is due to the close

relationship of molluscan life habits and post mortem history

of shells. Molluscs that live permanently attached to or within

living corals (mostly bivalves and encrusting Dendropoma)

can easily be overgrown after death by the large amounts of

living substrata available. Rapid transport of dead shells into

surrounding sediments or into crevices within corals is typical

of gastropods that feed on corals. Molluscs that colonize dead

surfaces preferentially accumulate on rock grounds..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A9: Sea Level

Session A9: Reef Response to Rapid Climate and Sea Level Change During the Late

Quaternary

55

THE RESPONSE OF CORAL REEFS TO SEA

SURFACE TEMPERATURE CHANGE: EVIDENCE

FROM THE RAISED HOLOCENE REEFS OF KIKAI-JIMA.

Abram N.J.* J.M. Webster, P.J. Davies and W.-Chr. Dullo.

School of Geosciences, Division of Geology and Geophysics,

The University of Sydney, Australia 2006. Email Address:

Nerilie.Abram@anu.edu.au

The Holocene reefs of Kikai-jima (central Ryukyu Islands,

Japan) provide a rare opportunity to define both environmental

and biological variations within a reef ecosystem over a

geological time frame. This study documents the

palaeoenvironmental records archived in the d

18 O and d

13 C

isotopic composition of four Holocene Porites cores collected

from the raised Holocene reef terraces of Kikai-jima. These

coral samples record mean sea surface temperatures (SST) of

23.5ºC at 4220yBP, falling to 22.2ºC at 3790yBP and to a

minimum of 21.4ºC at 3400yBP. After this time mean SST rose

to 23.5ºC at 1860yBP before reaching modern day conditions

of 24.9ºC. During the cool water period between 3790yBP and

3400yBP the coral isotope data indicate that SSTs were below

the currently accepted 18ºC minimum temperature for reef

development approximately 14% of the time. Ecological

variations preserved in the raised Holocene reef terraces of

Kikai-jima can be explained by these variations in Holocene

sea surface temperature.

PARADOXICAL OCCURRENCE OF CORALGAL

REEFS ON THE SOUTH TEXAS SHELF EDGE

DURING LAST DEGLACIATION.

Belopolsky A.V.* and André W. Droxler Rice U., *Dept. of

Geology & Geophysics, Houston, TX 77005. Email:

andre@rice.edu

Southern Bank, a relict coralgal reef located 55 km offshore

Corpus Christi on the edge of the South Texas Shelf, is one

among twenty individual coralgal reefs that flourished during

the first half of the last deglaciation within an embayment

between the Rio Grande and Brazos/Colorado shelf margin

lowstand deltas. The elevations of each individual reef crest

fall between - 58 and - 62 m below sea level. Single channel

seismic profiles across some of the reefs and a grid of 8 very

high resolution 24 channel seismic profiles, acquired in the

area of Southern Bank by IFREMER and Rice, demonstrate

that the thickness of the lower part of the reefal edifice, buried

in an Holocene siliciclastic mud blanket, is at least as thick as

15 to 20 m. Including the average 15 m thickness of their

outcropping part, each individual reefal edifice is, therefore,

30-50 m thick. Once established on top of lowstand

siliciclastic coastal deposits, the different coral reef edifices

flourished and were paradoxically capable of keeping up with

very fast rates of sea level rise during the first part of the

deglaciation. Moreover these reef systems grew during a time

when large volumes of fresh water were discharged into the

Gulf of Mexico through the Mississippi River due to the

melting of the Laurentide continental ice sheet. The reef

demise during the Younger Dryas can be explained by the

establishment of colder SST in the Gulf of Mexico and a

contemporaneous significant sea level fall. The reef is

expected to have drowned at the end of the Younger Dryas

when sea level rose sharply (Melt-Water Pulse-1B?). Southern

Bank is, therefore a rich source of information concerning sea-level

fluctuations, climate change, and the environmental

conditions associated with rapid reef growth in siliciclastic

marginal seas.

SOME EFFECTS OF REEF ARCHITECTURE ON SEA

LEVEL CURVES DERIVED FROM REEF CORES.

Blakeway,. D.* *Department of Geography, University of

Western Australia, Nedlands, W.A. 6907 Australia, Email:

blakeway@cyllene.uwa.edu.au

Three conditions must be met for reef growth curves derived

from core to accurately represent sea level curves: reefs must

colonise the substrate immediately it is submerged, reef growth

must keep pace with sea level, and the core must penetrate the

first-formed reef. In environments where reef colonisation

occurs in patches, and/or the topography of the growing reef is

irregular, the third condition may be difficult to achieve. In this

paper I use computer simulations to determine the extent to

which growth curves derived from such reefs may

misrepresent the actual sea level curve. The approach I have

used is to simulate reef growth under a predefined pattern of

sea level rise, then examine how closely the growth curves

derived from ‘cores’ through the reefs represent the actual sea

level curve. The results indicate that cores generally

underestimate the timing of reef colonisation and overestimate

the reef growth rate. Proxy sea level curves derived from cores

will tend to indicate a later and faster sea level rise than was

actually the case. Alternatively, if an independent regional sea

level curve already exists, reef growth will seem to lag sea

level rise, then rapidly catch up to sea level. This potential for

error should be taken into account in core-based studies of reef

growth and sea level change.

DISCOVERY OF A SUBMERGED, EARLY

HOLOCENE, RELICT REEF OFF GRAND CAYMAN: A

CASUALTY OF THE 8.2 KA COLD EVENT?

Blanchon P.*. *Coral Reef Systems Lab, U.A. Puerto

Morelos, ICMyL, National Autonomous University of

Mexico, Email: blanchon@icmyl.unam.mx

Ten short cores drilled on the eastern shelf off Grand

Cayman have revealed the presence of a relict, early Holocene,

breakwater reef at a depth of 21 m below msl. Cores from the

crest of the relict reef consist not of in-situ coral framework

but of cobbles of Acropora palmata in a matrix of skeletal

sand—a facies that is identical to the modern reef-crest

deposit. The surface of the relict reef slopes seaward from -21

to -24 m and, in some areas, is overlain by up to 1 m of mixed-coral

framework containing severely bioeroded stumps of A

palmata and other corals. In other areas, this veneer is absent

and marine abrasion has produced furrows that cut down into

the relict reef surface. Dating the reef surface gives U-Th

TIMS ages that range from 9878 ±97 to 8122 ±101 Cal. years,

indicating that reef growth had stopped by ~8.1 Cal. ka. The

depth of the relict breakwater reef around Grand Cayman is

close or identical to the depth of relict reefs reported from

other Caribbean islands. Radiocarbon dating of those reefs

indicates that they ceased accreting in a narrow window

between 7-8 14 C ka and had re-initiated in new positions 5-10

m higher up slope by 6-7 14 C ka. When the dates of reef

demise on these islands are calibrated for secular variation in

atmospheric 14 C production, the demise of relict reefs across

the Caribbean clusters around 8 Cal. ka—closely matching the

age of reef demise on Grand Cayman. The cause of this

Caribbean-wide reef demise is uncertain, but has been

previously attributed to a rapid sea-level jump caused by ice-sheet

collapse (CRE-3)..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A9: Sea Level

56

GROWTH STRATEGY OF THE UPLIFTING

POSTGLACIAL REEF OF URELAPA IN VANUATU

(SOUTHWEST PACIFIC).

Cabioch G. * , Kirsten A. Banks-Cutler, Frederick W.

Taylor, George S. Burr, Jacques Récy, Lawrence R.

Edwards, Thierry Corrège, Warren J. Beck. * IRD, BP

A5, 98.848 Nouméa cedex, Nouvelle-Calédonie. Email:

cabioch@noumea.ird.nc

The cores recovered into the uplifting reef of Urélapa at

Espiritu Santo in Vanuatu (Central Vanuatu island arc), reveals

the most continuous postglacial growth record for the last 22

kyr. The reef settled during the last glacial maximum and,

then, provide data on environmental changes during the

deglacial period in Vanuatu. The ability of reefs to grow

continuously during the last 22 kyr also provide additional

informations on the initiation and development factors of the

regional postglacial reefs. Although the plaoesea surface

temperatures were 3 to 4°C colder than the modern ones

during the former period of the sea level rise (Taylor et al.,

2000), the reef was able to settle and kept up the sea level. But

at around 11-12 ka, a clear change of biofacies informs on a

change of growth strategy, the reef catching up the sea level. In

the west Pacific, the delay in the settlement and the

development of postglacial reefs appears to depend on a lack

of suitable substrate and accomodation space. These last

factors could be dominating parameters of the postglacial reef

growth accompanying temperatures cooler than present.

GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF THE NINGALOO

REEF SYSTEM DURING THE LATE QUATERNARY.

Collins, Lindsay B.* Zhong Rong Zhu, Karl- Heinz

Wyrwoll, and Anton Eisenhauer. *School of Applied

Geology, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, 6102,

GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA, 6845. Email

head@lithos.curtin.edu.au

The Ningaloo Reef, Australia’s largest fringing reef system,

is developed for over 200 km along the western margin of the

Cape Range Anticline, an uplifted Tertiary structure. The

peninsula and its bordering reef system are flanked by a

narrow continental shelf on the west. A series of raised

Pliocene-Quaternary terraces, including an extensive Last

Interglacial reef terrace (the Tantabiddi Terrace) landward of

the reef. The reef system extends from 21.5 to 24°S and is

fully tropical. The Leeuwin Current is an important influence

on the regional oceanography. Seismic profiles suggest a

maximum Holocene reef thickness of <20 m. Most reef

development is in depths <35m. An interpreted drowned reef

crest is also evident to seaward of the present reef.

Stratigraphic data are available for the northern part of the reef,

from short cores and from a 26m core drilled in immediately

seaward of the reef crest. The cored section showed 7m of

Holocene reef (giving a projected Holocene thickness of 18m

at the reef crest), underlain by 12 m of Last Interglacial reef,

which was in turn underlain by coarse skeletal grainstone.

These data indicate that Holocene reef growth (basal age of the

cored Holocene reef is 7.57 ka U/Th) recolonised the

Tantabiddi Terrace (Last Interglacial reef) near its submerged,

seaward margin, and is relatively thin. The envelope of Last

Interglacial U/Th reef ages (115-120 ka) in the cored section

(at SL -18 to -36 m) postdates the Last Interglacial highstand

reef deposits (125 ka at SL+ 2m), suggesting that this

submerged, distal part of the Tantabiddi Terrace grew under

post-highstand conditions of falling sea level.

FORWARD MODELLING OF THE GROWTH OF A

POSTGLACIAL BARRIER REEF SYSTEM (TAHITI,

FRENCH POLYNESIA)

Dalmasso, H.., L. Montaggioni *, G. Cabioch, G. Camoin,

D. Bosence. *Centre de Sédimentologie et Paléontologie.

UPRESA-CNRS 6019. Université de Provence. 3, Place

Victor Hugo. 13331 Marseille Email : reef@newsup.univ-mrs.

fr

A numerical model CARBONATE developed by Bosence

and Waltham (1990), is used to investigate the reef growth

patterns of a Tahitian barrier reef for the last 14 kyr. The

dataset comes from previous chronostratigraphical and

paleoecological works by Bard et al. (1996), Montaggioni et

al. (1997), Cabioch et al. (1999). The main input parameters

include (1) initial surface, (2) sea-level changes, (3) carbonate

production rates. The basic predicted initial surface was purely

speculative. Two variants of the sea-level curve were used (1)

a regularly rising sea-level ; (2) a sea-level integrating the

Meltwater Pulse 1B (11,5-10,5 ka B.P.). Rates of carbonate

production ranges from 6 to 20.6 m kyr -1 . Carbonate

production is assumed to be dependent only on depth and not

to vary laterally. The facies distribution was output from four

coralgal assemblages, diagnostic in terms of water depth

range : 0-5 , 5-15 , 15-25 and deeper than 25 m. The predicted

facies distribution is in good agreement with the natural

depositional environnements.

WORLDWIDE MODERN BARRIER REEF

ESTABLISHMENT, OPTIMUM NERITIC CaCO3

PRODUCTION, AND DISSOLUTION OF

PERIPLATFORM/PELAGIC CaCO3 IN THE MID-BRUNHES.

Droxler, A.W.*, *Rice University, Dept. of Geology &

Geophysics, Houston, TX 77005. Email: andre@rice.edu

Results of our research along the Belize margin point out

that, as for other modern barrier reefs offshore Northeast

Australia, South Florida, and Southeast Asia, the Belize

Barrier Reef appears to represent young (late Pleistocene) and

thin carbonate sedimentary deposits covering a series of

prograding siliciclastic paleo coastlines (deltas and possibly

beach ridges). The mid-Brunhes interval (interglacial marine

isotope stage MIS 11 - 463-362 KA) is also characterized by

optimum production of CaCO3 banks (Bahamas, Maldives, and

Queensland Plateau). These findings are explained by MIS 11

warmer climates and overall flooding of tropical paleo fluvial

plains and tops of carbonate banks caused by the first

exceptionally high amplitude (more than 100 m) late

Pleistocene sea level transgressions since the onset of the main

northern Hemisphere glaciations 2.8 Ma. In contrast, the late

Pliocene and early Pleistocene were characterized by an

overall lowering of the marine base level tied to the

establishment and the expansion of the northern hemisphere

major continental ice sheets. Massive accumulations of neritic

CaCO3 at low latitudes in a relatively short time are expected

to have dramatically modified the oceanic carbonate mass

balance, decreased the [CO3 = ] in the water column, and can

explain an interval, centered around MIS 11, marked by a clear

global dissolution pulse from subthermocline to abyssal

depths..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A9: Sea Level

57

LATE HOLOCENE SEA-LEVEL VARIATIONS AND

CONGLOMERATE PLATFORM FORMATION AT

THE CHAGOS ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN

Dullo, Wolf-Christian .* Anton Eisenhauer * GEOMAR

Research Center for Marine Geosciences, Wischhofstrasse

1-3, 24148 Kiel/Germany. Email: cdullo@geomar.de

Emerged conglomerate platforms extending up to 100 m and

more seawards belong to the most interesting geological

features of the Chagos and other Indian Ocean atolls. In order

to constrain the formation and timing of their horizontal

progradation we dated fossil corals from various platforms of

the Chagos Islands applying the U/Th mass-spectrometry

technique. Seven out of eleven coral ages cluster in a narrow

time frame from about 2.8 to 3.8 ka B.P.. This chronological

information is in accordance with independent observations

from other Indian Ocean islands showing a similar age

distribution. A qualitative model discusses the formation of

these platforms in the light of the generally decreasing Indian

Ocean sea level since about 6.5 ka. The prominent cluster of

coral ages is then interpreted as to reflect a time of intense

coral growth and horizontal reef progradation due to a

relatively stable sea level above its present position,

corresponding to a time of generally warmer climate from

about 2.8 to 4.3 ka B.P.. Only a few and scattered coral ages

fall along the period before (6.5 to 4.3 ka B.P.) and after (2.8

ka B.P. to present) the prominent time interval of enhanced

platform formation. This scattered coral ages may reflect

periods of rapid sea level oscillations or may be interpreted as

fossil corals displaced from their original position.

CORAL GROWTH DURING RAPID SEA-LEVEL

CHANGES.

Esat Tezer M*. Department of Geology, The Australian

National University, Canberra ACT 0200. Email:

tezer.esat@anu.edu.au

Rapid sea-level change over the last glacial period and

during glacial to interglacial transitions has been established as

a recurrent mode of climate variability. Because of this, at

uplifting sites such as the Huon Peninsula, the previously held

views of reef growth patterns have had to be revised. The most

prominent Terrace at Huon represents the Last Interglacial

(5e), often situated at elevations beyond 200 m above present

sea-level, with other, lower elevation, major terraces

representing stages 5a, 5c and stage 3. Recent dating of these

terraces reveal that the structure of 5e extends below stages 5a

and 5c, and possibly underlies a part of stage 3. Therefore,

corals that grew during periods of rapid sea level oscillation

through the stage 6 to 5 transition are now overlain by coral

terraces of stages 5a and 5c. However, these corals can be

accessed at many locations through caves and patchy cover of

younger overlain reefs. Some corals collected and dated from

terraces representing stages 5a and 5c have much older ages

relating to an earlier sea-level history. In particular, we have

located a number of well preserved corals in a large cave

overlain by stage 5c corals. The cave appears to have corals

that represent at least four sea-level transgressions through the

same location, but at effectively different elevations due to

rapid uplift, over a period from 145 ka to about 90 ka. This

finding highlights the complexity of the coral record in an era

dominated by rapid climate change but also the opportunity it

presents for documenting rapid sea-level changes. I will

discuss the sea-level curve we have derived from this record

and compare it with sea levels during the stage 2 to 1

transition.

AGGRADATION OF THE OAHU CARBONATE

SYSTEM IN THE LATE QUATERNARY.

Fletcher C.*, Clark Sherman, Eric Grossman, Jodi

Harney, Colin Murray-Wallace, Ken Rubin. *University of

Hawaii, Department of Geology and Geophysics, 1680 East

West Rd., Honolulu, HI, USA 96822 Email:

fletcher@soest.hawaii.edu

The Oahu insular shelf, Hawaiian Islands, is a gently-dipping

terrace (depth 0 to ~20 m) ending in a seaward-facing vertical

wall (depth ~20 to 30 m). Cored facies indicate it is a fossil

reef complex. Th-U ages of in situ corals date to MIS 7

(223.3±1.4 to 202.7±1.9 kyrs: d

234 Ui 145 to 165‰). Named the

Waianae Reef, it formed when paleosea-level was -14 to -18

m. Later accretion occurred along the seaward front of the

Waianae Reef in late MIS 5 (110.1±7 to 82.8±5 kyrs: d

234 Ui

145 to 165‰). Stage 5 corals formed when sea level was

below present. The terrace front displays a prominent fossil

intertidal notch at –24 m, potentially marking the fall of late

Stage 5 sea levels or a melt-water pulsed jump during the early

Holocene. Holocene accretion is limited by accommodation

space and flexural uplift. Where antecedent relief and wave

energy shadowing provides for Holocene growth, accretion

opportunistically infills the karstified basement beginning in

the range 8 to 9 kyrs. Both “catch-up” and “keep-up” Holocene

facies are observed. Carbonate eolian deposits correlate largely

to late Stage 5 and Holocene time based on AAR analyses.

Unconsolidated beach and shoreface sands are typically fossil,

with ~70% dating 0.5 to 4.5 kyrs and ~12% of modern age.

AGE, STRUCTURE AND CORAL COMMUNITY OF AN

OFFSHORE REEF PLATFORM, EGYPT, RED SEA

Fletcher C.*, Mathew Barbee, Christopher Conger, Dolan

Eversole, Eric Grossman, Jodi Harney, John Rooney,

Clark Sherman.

University of Hawaii, Department of Geology and

Geophysics, 1680 East West Rd., Honolulu, HI, USA 96822

fletcher@soest.hawaii.edu

Located 7 km offshore the southern Egyptian mainland,

Geziret Suyul is a carbonate reef platform of approximately 12

km

2

, one in a chain characterizing this coast. A small parabolic

cay of well-sorted fine to medium carbonate sand, oriented

along strike of the dominate NW trade winds (300 – 320

o

), is

the only emergent feature at high tide. The majority of the

platform surface is characterized by presently intertidal fossil

reef-framework facies (indicating a fall in relative sea level),

carbonate sand shoals responding to tidal and wave-driven

currents, beachrock, and coralgal flats with increasing coral

cover toward leeward and windward margins. Platform slopes

are characterized by sand chutes and fields, limestone

outcrops, soft corals, algal turfs, and scleractinian corals.

Shallow (0 to 10 m) coral communities are characterized by

abundant (>10%) Porites sp. (lobata, lutea, rus, solida),

Acropora sp. (digitifera, hemprichii, nasuta, valenciennesi,

valida), Pocillopora verrucosa, and Montipora informis;

deeper communities (10 to 40 m) have abundant Porites sp.

(lobata, lutea, rus, solida), Montipora sp. (danae, informis),

Pocillopora verrucosa, Goniastrea edwardsi, and Acropora

valida. Wireline cores with a maximum penetration of 15 m

provide the internal structure (largely algal-dominated with

coral-rich facies of “catch-up” behavior) and age (prob. Early

Middle Holocene: samples still under analysis) of the platform

interior..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A9: Sea Level

58

LATE QUATERNARY HISTORY OF REEF

ACCRETION AND DIAGENESIS AT KWAJALEIN

ATOLL, MARSHALL ISLANDS.

Gray, S.C.*, Lewis, S., and Hunt, C.D., Jr. *Marine and

Environmental Studies, University of San Diego, 5998

Alcala Park, San Diego, CA, U.S.A.

Email:sgray@acusd.edu

The relationship between reef growth, sea-level change, and

diagenesis during the Holocene and late Pleistocene was

investigated through a lithologic, petrographic, mineralogic

and AMS 14 C dating study of two cores drilled into a rim islet

of Kwajalein Atoll, Marshall Islands. XRD and petrographic

analyses revealed that the Holocene reef is primarily aragonite

with some high-magnesium calcite. Secondary low-magnesium

calcite and primary aragonite (without low Mg

calcite) characterize the mineralogy of the Pleistocene reef

platform. Reservoir corrected AMS 14 C ages indicate that a

Holocene reef was established at Kwajalein 7030 +/- 75 years

B.P. on a Pleistocene reef platform, which is presently 25-27

m below sea level. Comparison of 14 C ages of the deepest

corals to published sea-level curves suggests Holocene reefs

colonized Pleistocene substrates relatively soon after flooding

of the platform. Subsequently, reef growth lagged behind sea-level

rise until the outer reef rims reached sea-level. The

average rate of reef accretion over the past 7030 years was 3.3

+/- 0.3 m/1000 years. Average reef accretion rates were

higher (5.8 m/1000 yrs.) between 7030 and 4795 yrs. B.P.

when reef growth was "catching up" to rapidly rising sea level.

The islet formed more recently than 1140 yrs. B.P. The depth

of the Holocene/Pleistocene boundary at Kwajalein is deeper

than the boundary reported for Enewetak or other Pacific atolls

in “tectonically stable” environments (e.g., Cook Islands,

Tarawa, Mururoa) where Holocene reefs colonized submerged

Last Interglacial reefs.

SUBMERGED PLEISTOCENE COASTAL LAKES AND

DROWNED REEFS IN HAWAII

Grigg, Richard W.* Earle, Sylvia A; Gittings, Stephen R;

Evans, Kip; Lott, Dave; and McDonough, John. *Dept. of

Oceanography, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii.

Email: rgrigg@iniki.soest.hawaii.edu

At the last glacial maximum (LGM), about 21,000 years ago,

the Hawaiian Islands of Maui, Lanai and Molokai were inter-connected

by two karstified limestone bridges creating a super-island

that has been named, Maui-Nui. Approximately 120

meters of sea-level rise during the Holocene Transgression

flooded and then drowned both bridges separating the islands

by narrow channels. A new multibeam high resolution

bathymetric survey of the channels between the islands,

coupled with observations and video transects utilizing

DeepWorker 2000 submersibles, have revealed the existence

of numerous drowned reef features including irregular

concentric basins, ribbon reefs, reticulate ramparts, patch reefs

and reef pinnacles. The concentric basins contain flat lagoon-like

bottoms and are rimmed by steep sided limestone walls.

Many of the walls are incised by horizontally oriented notches,

possibly eroded by former sea or lake levels. At one stage or

another during the transgression, all of the basins appear to

have been shallow shoreline lakes. Today, the undercut

notches serve as habitat for two species of commercially

harvested black coral (Antipathes dichotoma and A. grandis)

and bottom fish.

CARIBBEAN-WIDE LOSS OF A. PALMATA 7,000 YR

AGO: SEA-LEVEL CHANGE, STRESS, OR BUSINESS

AS USUAL?

Hubbard, D.K.*, Gill, I.P., Burke, R.B. Dept of Geology-Oberlin

College, Oberlin, OH, USA, 44074. Email:

dennis.hubbard@oberlin.edu

Cores through shelf-edge reefs at 3 Caribbean sites (U.S.

Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Florida) show similar depositional

histories. A. palmata reefs developed at the shelf break shortly

after flooding (ca. 10,000 ybp - cal 14 C age). Approximately

7,000 ypb, accretion stopped at all three sites and the locus of

reef development shifted 4-10 km landward to head-coral

reefs. These three examples closely match patterns of ancient

“backstepped reefs”. A survey of A. palmata dates from the

Caribbean reef literature indicates a near or total disappearance

of A. palmata from the Caribbean at this time. The

synchronicity between sites with widely varying

oceanographic/sedimentary settings argues for an extrinsic

control. However, no evidence for a rapid rise in sea level

exists. Closely spaced cores yield different stratigraphic

sequences (i.e., local environmental controls dominate over

any sea-level signal). Data to implicate disease, inimical

waters, or other factors commonly equated with “give-up”

reefs are equivocal. A computer model based on the average

rate of sea-level rise at the time and calcification rates from

these and nearby reefs closely matched the actual “start-up”

and “give-up” times, measured rates of accretion (cores), and

the ultimate reef thickness at all three sites without a sudden

and rapid rise in sea level. Perhaps we should not be using

such events in the geologic past as universal indicators of

drastic environmental or climatic change.

SKIPPED REEF INITIATION AND DELAYED REEF-SLOPE

FORMATION DURING RAPID SEA-LEVEL

RISE AT HIGH-LATITUDE, KUME ISLAND,

RYUKYUS.

Kan, H.*, Nakashima, Y., Takahashi, T., Koba, M.,

Adachi, H., Naito, G. Faculty of Education, Okayama

University, Okayama 700-8530, JAPAN. Email:

kan@cc.okayama-u.ac.jp

Seventeen drill cores from Kume Island located 26°20'N in

the central Ryukyus exhibit a significant reef initiation and

growth sequence during Holocene sea-level rise at high-latitude.

Reef started to grow in 7470yBP at –15m and

7380yBP at –10m to form the present reef-flat where tabular

Acropora assemblages accumulated at the average rate of

4m/ka. However, initiation occurred in 6250yBP at –20m

beneath the reef-slope terrace where massive coral assemblage

is accumulating at the rate of 1 to 2m/ka. Although –20m

substratum had been provided at an appropriate depth before

7500yBP, reefs skipped it under the rapid sea-level rise and

started to grow on the shallower landward substrate at

7500yBP. It contrasts to the early initiation and continuous or

give-up reef growth sequences in tropical region. Our result

implies the high-latitude reefs would not possibly respond to

further rapid sea-level jump immediately..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A9: Sea Level

59

THE ROLE OF SEA LEVEL ON THE EVOLUTION OF

BRAZILIAN REEFS DURING LATE QUATERNARY.

Leão Zelinda M. A. N.* and Ruy K. P. Kikuchi.

Laboratório de Estudos Costeiros, Universidade Federal da

Bahia, Rua Caetano Moura 123, Salvador 40210-340,

Bahia, Brazil. Email: zelinda@ufba.br

Holocene reef growth, in Brazil, began as early as 7220 cal

yrs B.P. (calibrated years before present), a further evidence

that reef initiation, after 8000 yrs B.P., was a global scale

event. But the last post-glacial sea level oscillations that

occurred along the coast of Brazil, left distinctive imprints on

the development of the reefs. A drowned phase must have

occurred during early Holocene, before the 5100 yrs B.P.

maximum sea level (+5m above present position), which

characterizes the “give-up” facies of coralline algae rhodoliths

developed above submerged reefs found at the shelf edge. At

the inner shelf initial reef growth follows the “catch-up”

pattern of vertical accumulation of the reef structures, and this

occurred when sea level was already at or above its present

position. This reef growth phase is characterized by a vigorous

and rapid upward accretion reflected by reef accumulation

rates in the order of 7 mm/y. An ultimate stage started when

the reef structures reached sea level and from then to the

Present, during the regressive phase of sea level, the

development of nearshore reefs is characterized by a passage

from a phase of reef aggradation to their dominant lateral

growth. This period responds for the sub-aerial exposure of the

top of the reefs, which are now subject to heavy sedimentation,

high levels of turbidity and the intertidal reef community to

intense solar radiation.

LOCAL EXTINCTION OF ACROPORA CORAL

SPECIES ON NIUE ISLAND (SOUTH PACIFIC)

DURING A REGRESSION CAUSED BY TECTONIC

UPLIFT.

Paulay, Gustav * and Carden C. Wallace. *Florida

Museum of Natural History, University of Florida,

Gainesville FL 32611-7800. Email: paulay@flmnh.ufl.edu

Like other remote islands of the south Pacific, Niue enjoyed

a greater diversity of reef corals of the genus Acropora during

the Plio-Pleistocene than is currently present on its reefs. This

is demonstrated from a comparison of fossil assemblages from

the fossil lagoon and fore reef of this uplifted atoll, with living

assemblages that now inhabit its narrow fringing reef system.

Several widespread Indo-Pacific species absent today occur as

fossils. Several of the local extinctions may be attributed to

loss of, and changes in, habitats accompanying the Pleistocene

uplift of the island. The uplift transformed Niue from a large

atoll with a shallow lagoon, to an emergent limestone island,

with consequent loss of all lagoonal habitats. The local

extinction shown by Acropora and other faunal elements

provides a model for what happened to the faunas of central

Pacific islands in general during each glacio-eustatic

regression in the Pleistocene. The absence of some species

may not be attributable to habitat loss, as suitable habitats

remain, even if reduced in extent. Failed recolonization of

these, in particular the larval-brooding, species, may be a result

of the isolation of the island and the unstable nature of

upstream distributional boundaries. A caution is taken against

interpreting biogeographic events based on current surveys and

models based on simple ecological processes.

PLEISTOCENE (5e) SEA LEVEL DECIPHERED FROM

DETAILED STRATIGRAPHY OF CORAL REEF

SEQUENCES:

Precht, William F. * PBS&J, 2001 NW 107 th Ave., Miami,

FL 33172, Email: bprecht@pbsj.com

Exposures of reefal limestones from the Pleistocene

(Sangamon, Marine Isotope Stage 5e) of Jamaica present an

opportunity to evaluate the stratigraphic history relative to

high-order eustatic changes in sea level. Outcrops from

localities on both the northern and western coast show similar

relationships between relative sea level history, sedimentary

sequences, internal facies mosaics, and subsequent

overprinting by diagenetic processes. Evaluation of wholly

preserved stratigraphic sections indicate that, vertically, the

Sangamon is composed of three discrete shallowing-upward

depositional stages, which can be correlated within and

between complexes. This stratigraphic evidence strongly

suggests the occurrence of a triple-high sea stand during the

last major interglacial maximum. The three pronounced reefal

sequences appear to be correlative with warm substages 5e5,

5e3 and 5e1 of the Greenland Ice-Core Project (GRIP),

respectively. The lower two sequences are separated by a

distinct stratigraphic discontinuity. This surface represents a

drop in relative sea level in the middle of Stage 5e and is

marked by indicators of subaerial exposure. This surface is

correlative with cool substage 5e4 from the GRIP.

RESPONSE OF ALGAL REEFS TO SEA LEVEL

CHANGES AND CLIMATE DURING THE LATE

QUATERNARY ALONG THE WESTERN

CONTINENTAL MARGIN OF INDIA.

Rao, Purnachandra V.*, L. Montaggioni, K.H. Vora and F.

Almeida *National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula

– 403 004, Goa, India. Email: esa6019@newsup.univ-mrs.fr

Bathymetric and shallow seismic studies on the outer

continental shelf off western India, at depths between 75 and

110 m, indicate the presence of pinnacles and reef-like

structures, 4 m to 14 m high. Carbonate nodules are the

predominant samples recovered from these geomorphic

features and range from 8,000 to 12,000 years B.P. in age.

Three types of nodules occur (1) foraminifera - dominated with

Discogypsina, Gypsina plana, Rupertina stabilis, Homotrema

ruber. (2) coralline algae – dominated, with Lithophyllum,

Lithothamnium, Spirolithon, Mesophyllum, Porolithon,

Hydrolithon, Lithoporella (3) mixed, encrusting foraminifera

and coralline algae. Ferruginized coral chunks, belonging to

Porites, have been recovered from two pinnacles located at

105 and 110 m depth off Mangalore ; their 14 C ages are 12,180

and 13,270 years B.P. On the carbonate platform, mound-shaped

structures, resembling bioherms, are common. The

limestones recovered from the mound-shaped structures

contain abundant Halimeda grains and faecal pellets. Faecal

pellets corespond to Palaxius genus of Thalassinidea tribe,

Palaxius habanensis, P. decum lunulatus, Upogebia deltura,

Favreina salevensis. The age of the limestones ranges from

9,200 to 8,400 years B.P. The timing and growth conditions of

the algal and foraminiferal nodules were correlated to climatic

conditions and glacio-eustatic sea level positions during the

late Quaternary. Ecological succession of different organisms

implies changes in light and nutrient conditions during their

formation..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A9: Sea Level

60

GROWTH HISTORY OF THE HOLOCENE RAISED

CORAL REEF AT KIKAI ISLAND OF THE CENTRAL

RYUKYUS, SOUTHWESTERN JAPAN.

Sasaki K* and Omura, Akio. *LLRL, Kanazawa Univ.,

Ishikawa 923-1224, Japan. Email: sasak1@llrl.ku-unet.

ocn.ne.jp

Holocene raised coral reefs are developed encircling the

whole island of Kikai, central Ryukyus, southwestern Japan,

which has been uplifted since the last interglacial maximum. It

is thus possible to discuss a pattern of reef growth in response

to relative sea level change. The well-developed raised reef at

the northeastern coast was investigated by using five cores

drilled throughout the Holocene sediments with high recovery

(> 70%). The total of thirty-one corals was dated by the _-spectrometric

230 Th/234 U method. The Holocene reef, underlain

directly by unconsolidated Plio-Pleistocene mudstone, is

composed of two lithologic units with the maximum thickness

of 25.8 m and age of 9.56±0.15 ka. The lower unit is consisted

of a mixture of terrestrial grains derived from the basal

mudstone and limestone with Holocene bioclastics in contrast

to the upper reef limestone unit representing a typical reef

zonation of coral community. A distinct time lag between the

maximum transgression at 7.5 ka and facies change to the

upper limestone at 6.6 ka indicates that a regression-induced

reduction of terrigenous inputs has triggered the rapid growth

of Holocene reef under the low-turbidity condition. After

catching up with the sea level, the reef was emerged by

episodic uplift events. During the stage of regression, spurs

were prograded and grooves were buried and cemented to

facilitate a characteristic process of physical erosion at the

level of mean high-tide, which constructed continuous terrace

surfaces carving into the main reef slope dominated by the

spur-groove system.

LATE HOLOCENE SEA-LEVEL CHANGES AND

TECTONIC UPLIFT AT KIKAI-JIMA, RYUKYU

ISLANDS, JAPAN

Sugihara, K. * , T. Nakamori, Y. Iryu * Fukuoka Univ.,

Fukuoka, JAPAN, Email: sugihara@fukuoka-u.ac.jp

Kikai-jima (Kikai Island) is surrounded by four Holocene

raised coral reef terraces, which are thought to be an offlapping

sequence of reef deposits caused by combined effects of

seismic uplifts and Holocene sea-level changes. Many studies

have been conducted to discuss Holocene sea-level changes

and reef growths, but there are relatively few references in

which reliable paleobathymeters (sea-level indicators) were

given. We have found that Pocillopora verrucosa, one of the

most abundant coral species on the upper reef slope of fringing

reefs in the Ryukyus, is overwhelmingly dominant in the

shallowest part of reef slope (< 2 m deep) in Kikai-jima.

Therefore, this species is considered to be available as a

dipstick for the Holocene reef deposits in this island. Our

results, combined with hitherto known and new radiometric

dates (109 dates in total), clearly show that the four terraces

were formed in response to 4 repeated tectonic uplifts (at

approximately 7, 4, 3, and 1.5 ka) and that the sea-level was

about 1.5 to 2 m higher at about 6-7 ka than the present.

RESPONSE OF SOUTHEAST FLORIDA AND

BAHAMAS HOLOCENE RELICT REEFS TO

DEGLACIAL SEA-LEVEL RISE. Toscano, M. A.*

Macintyre, I. G.. *NOAA/NESDIS/ORA/ORAD E/RA3,

NOAA Science Center Rm 711, 5200 Auth Road, Camp

Springs, MD 20746 USA. Email:

mtoscano@nesdis.noaa.gov

One hundred sixteen (116) high-quality dates from samples

collected off the southeast coast of Florida, Bahamas, USVI,

Panama, and Belize (16 TIMS U-TH coral, 49 14 C coral, and

51 14 C peat dates) provide a detailed record of coral-reef

accumulation in response to sea-level rise over the last 10.6 ka.

South of Miami at Sand Key and Carysfort Outlier Reefs,

Holocene framework dates from 9-5 ka, at depths of d20 to

d7m. North of Miami, three shore-parallel ridges preserve

Holocene reefs ranging in age from 10.6 to 8.0 Cal kaBP

(lower ridge; d27 to –16.5 m MSL) and 7.4 to 6.8 Cal kaBP

(upper ridge; d9.5 to –7.8 m MSL). Dated mangrove peats that

closely tract sea-level positions record initial flooding of the

Florida shelf at about 8.5 Cal kaBP, which immediately

predates the demise of the lower outlier reef tract near Miami.

The Sand Key profile stopped accreting at 6.9 ka. Only the

Carysfort profile survived to 5 ka in a protected area. A

shallower d5.5 to –7.3 m) reef tract on the eastern edge of the

northern Bahamas experienced a similar die-off around 3.9 Cal

kaBP when the back-reef platform was flooded. Because post-10.6

ka sea-level rise rates are well within the range of

Acropora palmata framework accumulation rates, any gaps

specifically in the record of A. palmata must be accounted for

by coincidence with platform flooding, local

environmental/climatological constraints, or missing data,

rather than by reef drowning related to sudden pulses of sea-level

rise in the last 8000 years.

THE RESPONSE OF CORAL REEFS TO SEA-LEVEL

CHANGE : EVIDENCE FROM THE RAISED

HOLOCENE REEFS AT KIKAI-JIMA.

Webster J.M. * , and P. J. Davies. *School of Geosciences,

Division of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney

2006. Australia. Email: jody@es.su.oz.au

Kikai-jima (central Ryukyu Islands, Japan) is fringed by

exposed terraces of Holocene reefs, formed by periodic local

tectonic uplift associated with regional subduction/collision.

The terraces form four topographically distinct features (TI-IV)

around the island and represent reefs that grew to sea-level

at 9000-6065 y BP, 6065-3390 y BP, 3790-2630 y BP, and

2870 to 1550 y BP. The reef terraces were uplifted sequentially

around 6050 y BP (4 m), 3390-3790 y BP (2.5 m), 2630-2870

y BP (1 m) and 1550 y BP (2.5 m). Five locations were studied

to define reef development in response to rapid periodic

relative sea-level fall and different stillstand recovery periods.

Significant horizontal variations in total coral abundance,

genera number, diversity, eveness and the coverage density of

Acropora sp. and Faviids occur both within and between the

terraces. Stratigraphically, drill core and outcrop data record

shallowing upward sequences characterised by tabulate

Acropora sp. overlying massive Porites sp. and Faviids. These

biological variations represent growth strategies responding to

initial colonisation, episodic perturbation (relative sea-level

fall) and differing recovery times during stillstands, and

indicate a reef ecosystem stable and strong enough to recover

after substantial perturbations..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A10:Turbid Environments

Session A10: Coral Reefs in Turbid Environments: Geological and Ecological

Significance

61

ADAPTATION OF CORAL REEFS IN A MARGINAL

ENVIRONMENT.

Bak, RPM , Meesters, EH. *NIOZ, P.O. Box 59, 1790 AB

Den Burg, The Netherlands. Email: rbak@nioz.nl

Coral reefs are known to flourish typically in clear

oligotrophic waters but, contrary to this dogma, many reefs

occur under marginal conditions such as high turbidity and/or

high sedimentation environments. The question we pose is:

how are reefs adapted to such marginal environments? As a

model system we studied the reefs of the turbid Bay of Banten,

NW Java, Indonesia. Reef surveys (transects) along a string of

islands showed changes in community characteristics (inshore-offshore):

Coral colony partial mortality decreased, coral cover

and species richness increased. Asexual recruitment was

dominant on all reefs, but sexual recruitment was still

occurring (~10%). High turbidity (k' = 0.17-1.26) and

sedimentation (2.5-63 mg cm -2 day -1 ) did not correlate with reef

development. Resuspension of bottom sediments, possibly

preventing negative effects of sedimentation, paralleled

patterns in reef development. Variation also occurred at the

level of the coral organism. Chlorophyll a levels were high in

coral colonies (Porites massive) in turbid conditions compared

to less turbid conditions (depth < 4m, 36 versus 15 mg cm -2 ).

Most of the changes in community structure are probably the

result of phenotypic adaptation at the organismic level. There

are also indications of adaptation sensu stricto, representing

genetically based variation. We found RNA/DNA ratios in

coral tissue, which are presumed to reflect tissue growth

characteristics, to be consistently higher in corals living in

turbid environments. However, under the most extreme

turbidity conditions RNA/DNA ratios were not higher.

Apparently, corals are able to adapt to some degree to higher

turbidity levels.

CARBONATE-CLASTIC INTERACTIONS AND THE

IMPLICATIONS FOR CORAL REEF SURVIVAL;

TERTIARY EXAMPLES FROM SPAIN.

Burton L.*, Moyra Wilson and Maurice Tucker.

*Department of Geological Sciences, University of

Durham, South Road, Durham, England. DH1 3LE.

Email: l.m.burton@durham.ac.uk

The Vic Basin (NE Spain) and the Fortuna Basin (SE Spain)

provide well-exposed examples of carbonate production and

development within predominantly siliciclastic semi-arid shelf

environments. The aim of this paper is to show the response of

coral reefs and other important carbonate-producing organisms

to terrigenous siliciclastic sedimentation in terms of species

diversity, organism morphology and biotic zonation. This

paper also aims to explain the evolution of the carbonate-clastic

successions in response to changing sediment influx,

climate and relative sea-level change. The methods employed

were 1) the production of detailed sedimentary logs, 2)

palaeoshoreline-normal transects across carbonate-clastic

successions, 3) production of photomontages and 4) detailed

sampling of lithofacies for petrological and geochemical

analysis. This study has implications in understanding

carbonate production and coral reef development and survival

in modern turbid waters.

CORAL COMMUNITIES IN VARIOUS ECOLOGICAL

CONDITIONS AT NORTHERN VIETNAMESE REEFS.

Dautova T.N.*, Yu.Ya.Latypov, S.Sh.Dautov. *Institute of

Marine Biology, RAS, Vladivostok, Russia. Email:

daut@mail.primorye.ru

The specifics of reefs of Bay Thy Long Archipelago (Gulf of

Tonkin, South-China Sea) are determined by effect of

monsoon climate, heavy terrigenous sediment flow and

freshening water by rivers. The studied reefs, six of which was

studied ecologically, differed significantly by coral populations

and conditions. The reefs in the closed island bays had small

average total water flow Qint, which was even less above coral

settlements. This reefs were specified by low values of

suspended load in water body SCOL (25-33 g/(m 2 day)) and of

bottom suspended load SBOT (16-60 g/(m 2 day)), which was

calculated with resuspension effect estimation, and by small

values of resuspension intensity RI above coral settlements

(0,2-0,5, arb. units). As a result almost all bottom layer

suspended matter settled here. Oportunistic corals of Porites,

Pavona, Favia, Favites, Goniastrea genera prevailed on this

reefs. Well washed, open reefs was characterised by high load

of SBOT (69-100 g/(m 2 day) ) and SCOL (45-61 g/(m 2 day)),

high Qint, increasing above coral settlements, and high RI

(0,6-0,9 arb. units). This reefs was dominated by Acropora,

Gonyastrea, Goniopora at the reef flat and slope. This relation

of coral communities structure to the physical conditions is

explained by various environment adaptations of this corals.

Porites and Pavona colonies with good self cleaning system

are dominant in the silting, poor water exchange conditions.

Fast growing and more aggressive Galaxea, Goniopora,

Acropora take advantage in favourable conditions.

PORITES CORALS RECORD HIGHER TRACE

ELEMENT CONCENTRATIONS (ZN, PB, Y, LA, CE)

DURING INCREASED SEDIMENTATION, MISIMA

ISLAND, PNG.

Fallon, Stewart J., McCulloch, M.T. White, J.C., Barnes,

D.J., Lough, J.M. *Research School of Earth Sciences, The

Australian National University, Canberra, ACT. Australia.

Email: Stewart.Fallon@anu.edu.au

In 1989 open pit gold mining commenced on the island of

Misima in Papua New Guinea. Open pit mining by its nature

causes a significant increase in sedimentation, both natural and

mining-induced. This increased sedimentation affected the

nearby fringing coral reef to varying degrees, causing coral

mortality (complete suffocation) in some areas. This sediment

consists of soft mine waste which is made up of quartz

feldspar, greenstone and schist. These rocks have distinct

chemical constituents (rare earth elements [REE], zinc and

lead etc.), which are entering the near-shore environment in

considerably higher than normal concentrations. Using laser

ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-

MS) we analyzed eight colonies (2 from high

sedimentation, 2 transitional, 2 minor and 2 control sites) for

Y, La, Ce, Zn and Pb. All sites show low steady “background”

levels prior to the commencement of mining. After mine

construction began in 1988, all sites aside from the control

show dramatic increases of Y, La, and Ce associated with the

increased sedimentation. Zn and Pb increase after 1989 when

the ore processing began. The concentration of these elements

in these corals decreases as the distance from the mine

increases..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A10:Turbid Environments

62

RESPONSE OF A REEF TO SEDIMENT OVERLOAD:

MOLOKA’I, HAWAI’I

Field M.*, Michael Bothner, Paul Jokiel, and Andrea

Ogston. *US Geological Survey, Pacific Science Center,

University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064. Email:

mfield@usgs.gov

The coral reef off southern Moloka’i hosts some of the most

continuous and densest live coral in the Hawaiian chain. The

reef consists of a broad (1 km) and shallow (1-1.5 m) reef flat

succeeded seaward by extensive spur and groove development

to depths of 25 m. Erosion rates of the adjacent volcano

terrain appear to have dramatically increased due to

deforestation, agriculture, and overgrazing; terrigenous mud is

now accumulating on the reef flat and along the shoreline, and

corals in a number of locations are degraded and necrotic. Our

study focuses on the processes of mud transport and

accumulation on the reef, and their impact on coral viability.

Excessive sedimentation from land run-off and past reef

dredging events appear to have had a substantial impact on

coral health that is superimposed on other stresses from natural

processes (e.g. large waves) and anthropogenic activities (e.g.

fishing, anchors). Corals are stressed and impoverished in

several locations on the inner reef and fore reef (less than 50 %

live coral coverage at 10 m depth, compared to ~90 %

elsewhere). Their status reflects both excessively large

sediment loads and also entrapment of fine sediment on the

reef flat. The inner reef flat is typically mantled with 5-15 cm

of mud, and no live coral is present. Sensors on an

instrumented tripod show that mud may be resuspended by

trade wind processes, and that net transport is to the west and

offshore towards the zone of impoverished coral. Pb 210,

Cs137, and trace metal analysis are being conducted on

sediment cores from expected depositional sites in the reef

platform to investigate changes in sediment input resulting

from major storms, land use and coastal development.

MIXED SILICICLASTIC-CARBONATE SEDIMENTS

FROM A HIGH VOLCANIC ISLAND LAGOON, FIJI.

Gussmann O.A.* and A.M. Smith. University of Otago,

Department of Marine Science, PO Box 56, Dunedin, New

Zealand. Email: GUSOL423@student.otago.ac.nz

Modern lagoonal sedimentation in the Navua-Suva Lagoon,

Fiji, derives from both allochthonous siliciclastics and

autochthonous marine carbonates. Sediments are characterized

by a high insoluble load, small grain size, a wide range of

textures, and a high degree of mixing. Sediment facies are

controlled by the adjacent shallow-marine area and its

carbonate sediment productivity, and by rate and distribution

of siliciclastic sedimentation. Molluscs and Halimeda

dominate the mostly lagoonal skeletal composition.

Preliminary budget calculations indicate that 96% of the

siliciclastic supply by-passes the lagoon; about 0.3 Mt/y is

accumulating in the lagoon, which is not yet enough to inhibit

potential carbonate production (0.1 Mt/y). Contemporary

allochthonous siliciclastic and autochthonous skeletal

carbonate sedimentation in the lagoon results in true

syndepositional (in situ) mixing. We predict that tropical in

situ mixing of carbonate and siliciclastic sediments is more

common than previously appreciated (the high volcanic island

mass effect ), which makes them excellent testing grounds for

the study of carbonate-siliciclastic interactions.

ADAPTATION TO LIFE ON TURBID REEFS: A

CORAL ENERGY-NICHE MODEL WITH A

WORKED EXAMPLE

Anthony, Kenneth R.N. Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove *, and Bette

L. Willis *Department of Marine Biology, James Cook

University, Townsville 4811 QLD and the *Centre for

Marine Studies, University of Queensland, 4072 QLD

Australia. Email: Kenneth.Anthony@jcu.edu.au

The conditions on inshore fringing reefs are often in strong

contrast to those on offshore reefs. Periodically high sediment

concentrations inshore can severely reduce light levels

compromising coral photosynthesis, and high rates of

sedimentation may smother coral tissues. Nevertheless, many

inshore reefs display high coral cover, suggesting that inshore

corals have become adapted or acclimated to periodically

turbid conditions. Traditional models of coral energy budgets

poorly account for the physiological mechanisms for

acclimation in corals since these models use fixed parameters

for the functional responses of energy acquisition to available

resources, and ignore variation in energy losses among levels

of resources or stressors. Here, we present a model that enables

analysis of the effect of dynamic functional responses on the

coral energy balance. Based on experimental physiological

data and model predictions for two coral species we analyse

the role of photo-acclimation and heterotrophic capacity in

delimiting the resource niches of corals on turbid reefs.

Sensitivity analyses of the model suggest that three factors are

critical for maintaining a positive energy balance on turbid

reefs: (1) a capacity to vary the parameters of the P-I curve

within short time frames, (2) minimised respiratory and

excretory losses under high turbidity, and (3) a high capacity to

utilise heterotrophic sources of energy.

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR CORAL REEF

DEVELOPMENT IN TURBID WATERS IN BRAZIL.

Kikuchi, R. K. P. * and Leão, Z. M. A. N. * Universidade

Estadual de Feira de Santana, Feira de Santana, Brazil.

Email: rkpkikuchi@geocities.com

The Brazilian continental margin is characterized by a

transition of siliciclastic to carbonate sediments. Our study

focuses on turbidity and sedimentation rate on bank reefs of

the northern coast of Bahia State, Brazil, between latitudes

12°33’S and 12 °44’S and longitudes 37°55’ W and 38°05’ W,

where a coral community of early successional stages develops

in a high energy environment. The bank reefs are generally 3

to 5 m high, with their tops 5 to 15 m deep, within 2 km from

the coast. A small river drains to the area affecting but the

reefs closest to shore. Coralline algae cover up to 90% of reef

surface. Coral community is composed by 9 species, the most

important being endemic species such as Mussismilia hispida,

M. braziliensis, Siderastrea stellata, Favia gravida and the

cosmopolitan Agaricia agaricites. An average Secchi disk

depth of 4,5 m characterizes water turbidity and mud fills

many reef cavities and surface depressions. Summer

(November-March, dry season) sedimentation rates, though,

are relatively low, varying from 0.06 mg cm-2 d -1 up to 1.25

mg cm-2 d -1 . River plume in the summer has a small area of

influence and sediment discharge in that season is small,

around 50 kg d -1 . A higher sediment discharge, to be measured

this winter (May-August, rainy season), may respond for a

higher sedimentation rate during this season. The dispersal of

the sediment during the remaining time of the year may be

carried out by the constant waves with periods of 6-7 s that

dominate the region..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A10:Turbid Environments

63

TURBIDITY EXCEEDENCE CURVES AND INFERRED

SEDIMENT ACCUMULATION RATES FROM FIELD

DATA AT NEARSHORE CORAL REEFS OF THE

CENTRAL GBR.

Larcombe Piers*. *Marine Geophysical Laboratory,

School of Earth Sciences, James Cook University,

Townsville 4811, Australia. Email:

piers.larcombe@jcu.edu.au

Worl dwide, many researcher s wor k on cor al reef s i n tur bi d

coastal and shelf envi ronment s, but f ew fi el d studies have focused

upon the links between t he coral r eef s and t hei r dynam ic

sedi mentary envir onment. In t erm s of coral physiology, durations

of t urbidity and sedim entar y impacts of a few hours ar e

part icularly r elevant, because l onger exposure to hi gh levels may

induce st resses l eading to coral deat h. Ti me-seri es oceanographi c

data taken at var ious nearshore and i nner- shelf coral reefs near

Townsvi ll e ( centr al Gr eat Bar rier Reef shelf ) all ow hi gh- quali ty

deli neati on of exceedance cur ves f or turbi di ty. F or the nearshor e

reef of P aluma Shoals, m ost notabl e i s a str ong non- li neari ty of

the exceedance curves. I n par ticul ar inter est i s that rel at ively li tt le

ti me occurs at mi d- range turbidi ty (15- 50 NT U) compared t o

lower ( 0- 15 NT U) or hi gher (50-200 NT U) levels. T his r elates t o

the energy characteristi cs of the sam pl ed ti me- period, and the

non- uni form natur e of the availabl e bed sedi ment. Both these

fact ors are regional i n scale. T he fi el d dat a can al so be used t o

infer t im e-ser ies of i nstantaneous rates of sedim ent accumulat ion

onto the sea f loor, which r ange up to 123 mg/cm 2/ day f or periods

of 2 hour s. This rate is 3- 4 order s of magni tude great er than the

aver age r ate of sediment accumul at ion over t he last 6- 7000 years

in t he ar ea, and indicat e t he over whelm ing domi nance of

sedi ment transpor t on the shelf, r elati ve to net accum ulati on.

CORAL COMMUNITIES IN TURBID AND

EUTROPHIC WATERS ON GULF OF TONKIN.

Latypov Yu. Ya. *, T. N. Dautova. Institute of Marine

Biology FEB RAS, Vladivostok, 690041, Russia. Email:

ltpv@online.marine.su

The originality coral reef of Gulf of Tonkin (South-China

Sea) is defined by influence of a drain rivers bearing turbid

and freshening of water. The salinity can be reduced up to

26 o /oo and temperature of water can fall to winter time up to

16 o C. The Red River have annual discharge of 137 billion m

water and 116 million ton suspended sediments. Directly on a

coral reef in usual time is besieged up to 70-100 g/m 2 of

deposits, which quantity during typhoons is increased by the

order. The distribution of corals is determined by intensity of

a turbidity of a deposit, both in the certain sites, and on all reef.

More 160 species of Scleractinia belonging to 45 genera were

identified. Acroporidae create the high coral diversity (26% of

species composition) as with the majority of Indo-Pacific reefs.

The reefs of Gulf of Tonkin have from 59.4 to 71.7% species

in common with reefs of South Vietnam. There was a

reorganization in composition and structure of communities

under influence constant turbidity and eutrophication of

waters. The Poritidae and the Faviidae was dominate in coral

community instead of branchy Acroporidae, characteristic for

the majority is reef. Its form not only a framework of a reef,

but also play an essential role in expansion of its area. A

passive colonization of new sites of a bottom occurs by

destruction massive colonies. The new organogenous

substratum is formed on a slope reef, on which the corals and

other representatives a phito - and zoobenthos can settle. These

factors are very important for Gulf of Tonkin with its shallow

water, abundance soft grounds and limitation of a firm

substratum with removal from coast.

SEDIMENT IMPACTS ON LAGOON REEFS WITHIN

DISCOVERY BAY, JAMAICA: CONSEQUENCES FOR

CORAL COMMUNITIES AND CARBONATE

PRODUCTION

Macdonald, I.A.* and Perry, C.T., *Department of

Environmental & Geographical Sciences, Manchester

Metropolitan University, Chester Street, Manchester, M1

5GD, U.K. Email: I.Macdonald@mmu.ac.uk

Sedimentation on reef corals is widely documented but

detailed case studies relating directly to sediment stress on reef

communities are limited. In addition, there is currently a

paucity of data relating to coral preservation processes under

such conditions, despite potential consequences for rates and

styles of carbonate accumulation. This study examines the reef

lagoon communities at Discovery Bay, Jamaica. In addition to

naturally turbid conditions additional fine grained bauxite

sediment accumulates in the south-west region of the Bay.

This anthropogenic stress has been present for over thirty years

and is not subject to large seasonal fluxes as reef systems in

the proximity of fluvial sources may be. The paper documents

initial studies into hermatypic coral communities (i.e. species

diversity, live coral cover, colony size) within this bauxite

impacted setting and comparisons are made with, 1) other less

impacted, but naturally turbid areas of the lagoon, and 2) data

from previous studies of sediment impacted systems. In

addition, ongoing work on carbonate sediment production

(carbonate content, sediment composition, grain size) and

coral/sediment preservation processes (bioerosion,

encrustation) will be discussed.

UPTAKE OF SUSPENDED AND DEPOSITED

PARTICULATE MATER ASSOCIATED NITROGEN BY

SCLERACTINIAN CORALS.

Mills, M.M. * , F. Lipschultz, and K.P. Sebens. *Department

of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park,

Maryland 20742, USA, Email: millsmatt46@hotmail.com

The uptake of suspended and deposited particulate associated

nitrogen by four species of scleractinians, utilizing suspension

or mucus feeding, was measured using stable isotopic tracer,

15 N. Particulate matter collected at a reef in Bermuda was split

into < 63µm and > 105µm size fractions and living organisms

labeled with ( 15 N-NH4 + )2SO4. The corals were incubated in

flow chambers with the labeled particulate matter in

suspension (< 63µm), or layered onto the surfaces of the corals

(> 105µm). The three mounding species, S. radians, M.

franksi, and D. strigosa, all showed uptake of particulate

matter nitrogen using both feeding modes, while the branching

species M. mirabilis had no particulate matter nitrogen uptake.

Only the coral host was enriched with 15 N with no tracer

appearing in the symbiotic zooxanthellae. Specific uptake

rates for the three corals ranged from 0.001h -1 to 0.015h -1 .

Corresponding particulate matter dry weight ingestion rates

ranged from 80 - 720 µgDW•cm -2 •h -1 . These results are the

first to quantify scleractinian nitrogen benefits from

heterotrophic uptake of suspended particulate matter or

particulate matter deposited onto coral surfaces. The present

results suggest that differences in colony morphology allow

some corals to take advantage of this potentially nutritious

food source more than other corals..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A10:Turbid Environments

64

REEF FLAT PHYSICAL PROCESSES AND SEDIMENT

TRANSPORT OBSERVATIONS: MOLOKA’I,

HAWAI’I.

Ogston, Andrea*, Michael Field, Curt Storlazzi School of

Oceanography, Box 357940, University of Washington,

Seattle, WA 98195-7940 Email:

ogston@ocean.washington.edu

An instrumented tripod was deployed off south-central

Moloka'i on the broad, shallow reef flat in approximately 1.3-

m water depth. The instrumentation was designed to examine

the physical processes and sediment transport regime as part of

the U.S. Geological Survey's Coral Reef project. Hourly

bursts of current, wave, suspended-sediment concentration,

salinity and temperature data are presently being obtained for a

year-long period. In the initial deployment, both tidal and

wind-driven currents were observed to contribute to the

circulation on this reef flat. During periods of stronger trade

winds, near-bed currents were predominantly offshore and to

the west. Near-bed orbital velocities due to both locally-generated

waves and incoming swell were strongly modulated

by tidal fluctuations of the water depth at the tripod location,

and were, at times, of high enough magnitude to suspend fine-grained

sediment. The near-bed flow and the presumed

direction of sediment transport on the shallow reef flat

appeared to be controlled by the interaction of tidal and wind-driven

currents and sea-level elevation which varies according

to tide height, and wind- and wave-generated set-up over the

reef flat. In the initial two-month deployment of the proposed

year-long record, the limited data suggests increased

suspended-sediment concentrations occurred during periods of

peak trade winds, due to resuspension, and at times of low tidal

elevation, possibly due to advection from the inner reef flat.

EVOLUTION OF REEF-BUILDING SCLERACTINIA IN

TURBID ENVIRONMENTS: A PALEO-ECOLOGICAL

HYPOTHESIS.

Potts, D.C. * . Institute of Marine Sciences, University of

California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA. Email:

potts@biology.ucsc.edu

Evidence is presented for radiations of reef-building corals

during periods of poor reef development in habitats resembling

those of modern, inshore shelves, rather than in more "typical"

oceanic habitats. Indications of a history of adaptation to

turbid environments include: 1.The Holocene is "atypical",

having one of the longest and highest periods of stable sea-level

since the mid-Pliocene; 2. Mean Plio-Pleistocene sea

levels (45-50m below present) approximated the average depth

of modern tropical shelves; 3. Hence, typical Plio-Pleistocene

coral habitats probably were shallow shelves exposed to high

frequency transgression-regression cycles; 4. Analogous

inshore habitats today are often close to sea-grass and

mangrove communities, and exposed to high terrigenous

organic, nutrient and sediment inputs; 5. Corals in such

habitats often have high growth rates, and assemblages may be

diverse, despite unusual species compositions and growth

forms; 7. Because they often grow on unconsolidated,

anaerobic muds with limited carbonate accretion, such

assemblages may not be recognized as "reefs" or studied by

"reef" scientists. It is proposed that turbid shelf environments

have always been common for corals, and more continuous in

space and time than oceanic habitats; that several scleractinian

radiations (e.g. Triassic, Paleocene, Oligocene) occurred

during reef hiatuses; and that adaptations for success in turbid

environments "pre-adapted" corals for success in oceanic

settings.

TISSUE THICKNESS: A METHOD TO ASSESS THE

PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE OF MASSIVE CORALS

TO SEDIMENT STRESS.

Rotmann, S.*. *Australian Institute of Marine Science,

Townsville, Qld. 4810, Australia; Email:

s.rotmann@aims.gov.au

Monitoring the health of living corals usually requires

complex and expensive physiological measurements. The

thickness of the tissue layer (TTL) in massive Porites alters

along environmental gradients, including gradients in sediment

stress. This paper presents preliminary results from an

investigation of TTL response to elevated sedimentation at

Lihir Island, PNG, where the third biggest gold mine in the

world has been in operation since 1997. TTL was measured

along an impact gradient due to disposal of large amounts of

soft waste. It was also measured at different depths along the

gradient and in different size classes of corals. TTL was

measured by removing small cores from the summit of

colonies. Results suggest that TTL of massive Porites

represents a simple and reliable indicator of coral health.

TURBIDITY AND SEDIMENTATION AS STRESSORS

TO FLORIDA REEF CORALS.

Szmant, A.M.* C. Yeung and K. Cohen. *Dept. of

Biological Science, University of North Carolina at

Wilmington, 1 Marvin K. Moss Rd., Wilmington NC 28403

USA; Email: szmanta@uncwil.edu

Recent Florida reef decline has been accompanied by claims

of increasingly turbid and silty reef waters as a cause of the

decline. Suggestions that the turbidity is related to nutrient

enrichment prompted an investigation of levels of

sedimentation stress and turbidity. Turbidity sensors and

sediment traps were deployed in the upper Florida Keys, from

Oct. ‘96 to March ‘98. Sedimentation rates of fine particles

were higher inshore and near coastal passes, while those of

coarser particles were higher offshore (more wave energy).

Sedimentation rates averaged >100 g/m2/day, a level

considered stressful to corals. N content of resuspended

sediments were higher inshore, were greater than the N content

of surrounding sediments, and were primarily associated with

finer fractions; however, P content was higher offshore, as well

as higher than surrounding sediments. These results suggest

that inshore areas are accumulating finer nutrient rich particles,

while offshore areas are being rid of such particles by storm

resuspension. Sediment resuspension rates were high

everywhere and likely a major stressor to Florida corals.

Spectral analysis of turbidity records were compared with

those of concurrent wind records, showing that most of the

turbidity in the area is due to resuspension during 13-day cycle

events. Florida coral reefs, at the northern limit of reef

development in the Western Atlantic, are exposed to greater

climate extremes than those in the Caribbean; it appears that

most of the documented sedimentation and turbidity stress is

climate related..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A10:Turbid Environments

65

PARTICULAR MATERIALS IN THE LARGE CORAL

REEF LAGOON OF MAYOTTE HIGH ISLAND (SW

INDIAN OCEAN): NATURE AND SEDIMENTATION

RATES

Thomassin, Bernard A*. *CNRS-UMR n° 6450 "Dimar",

C.O.M., Univ. de la Méditerranée, 13007 Marseille, France

& G.I.S. "Lag-May".Email: thomassi@com.univ-mrs.fr

Mayotte I. (N Mozambique Channel, 12-13°S) is an eroded

volcanic island (with the lagoonal islets: 376km 2 of lands)

showing a very jagged coastline (successions of caps and deep

bays). It is surrounded by a very large and deep coral reef

lagoon (surface near 1,500km 2 , up to 15km large, average

depth: near 40m, with 70-80m deep canyons) that belts a near

continous ribbon barrier reef system. Seasonal winds, NW-N

monsoon during the wet austral summer and SE-S dry

tradewinds during the winter, and secondarily a high tidal

range (up to 4m) are the main factors inducing water

movements inside this lagoon, according to the coastal

geomorphology and to the presence of functioning passages

through the narrow modern barrier reefs (up to 2km large) and

the drowned pleistocene fossil barrier reef platform (up to 7-

10km large in some areas, at 35-30m deep today). Monsoon

rainfalls above the lagoon vary between 500 up to 1500mm of

water per year; but coastal rivers show important swellings few

hours after storms, with huge sediment transport into the bays

and the lagoon. Tropical storms and hurricanes are uncommon,

but few were very catastrophic. Lagoonal waters can be

subdivided in two categories: (a), those landwards in the inner

areas which show neritic features, peculiarly in the bays with

mangroves, with the highest contents of suspension materials,

chlorophyll a and C, linked with the highest values of NH4 and

Si; (b) those seawards in the outer areas which show oceanic

features, with lowest values of these parameters.

Phytoplankton seems not very rich. To estimate the

sedimentation rate and the features of this decanting materials

on bottoms in a large bay and in front in the outer open lagoon

an experiment was conducted during the 1989-90 year, using

two kinds of traps, collected near every 12-14 days. So it was

recorded that: in the bay, near 12 kg of dry material*m -2 *y -1

decants in a rainy year (about 2600 mm of water on the nearest

land) while in the open outer lagoon near 6.8 kg of dry

material*m -2 *y -1 settles down. In the bay, most of this fine

materials (issued from lateritic alterites and detrital materials)

showed highest values of the degraded chlorophylls in

comparison to living chlorophyll a (average ratio chloro a /

phaeopigments = 0.02 to 0.3), low N content (average: 0,3% in

dry season up to 1,1% after rainfalls), highest values in lipids

and proteins during the dry season in comparison to the values

in rainy season. These results are analyzed with comparisons

of data from the other similar environments (high island

lagoons) opposed to different ones (low island or atoll lagoon).

CORAL COMMUNITIES OF NARIKEL JINJIRA,

BANGLADESH.

Tomascik, T.* and Paiker, S.A. Parks Canada, 300-300

West Georgia St., Vancouver, BC, Canada V6B 6B4;

Email: tomas_tomascik@pch.gc.ca

The present study was conducted on Narikel Jinjira, a small

island located about 210-km south-southeast of the

Ganges/Brahmaputra Delta. The objective of the study was to

conduct an environmental assessment of the island’s coral

reefs, and to identify major environmental threats to the future

sustainable use of coral reef resources. The weather and

coastal oceanographic processes in the area are heavily

influenced by a subtropical monsoonal climate that prevails

over Bangladesh. Seawater salinity during the dry season

(November/February 1997) fluctuated between 25.0‰ and

32.0‰, while SSTs ranged from 22°C to 29°C. The turbidity

of inshore waters, as measured by the Secchi disk, ranged from

1.5 m to 8.0 m. The results of this study refute previous studies

that documented an existence of coral reefs at Narikel Jinjira.

However, the rocky subtidal that extended from the seaward

margin of the intertidal to about 300 m offshore supported a

relatively diverse veneering scleractinian coral community. A

total of 66 scleractinian coral species, belonging to 22 genera,

were collected and recorded during the study. The genera

Porites, Favites, Goniopora, Cyphastrea, and Goniastrea were

the most abundant. Corals accounted for only about 8% of

substrate cover, while benthic macrophytes covered over 80%

of the available rocky substrate. The coral community

supported a diverse fish and invertebrate fauna characteristic

of coral reef ecosystems. Based on visual counts, there were 34

reef-associated fish families represented by 86 species. The

most abundant reef-associated fish herbivores were the

Pomacentridae, Scaridae and Acanthuridae.

GROWTH OF SIDERASTREA SIDEREA AND PORITES

ASTREOIDES IN CLEAR AND TURBID WATERS.

Torres, Juan L.*. *UPR, Dept. of Marine Sciences, PO Box

3210, Lajas, PR 00667 USA, Email: jltorres@caribe.net

The linear extension rates obtained from cores of the two

reef-building Caribbean coral species Siderastrea siderea and

Porites astreoides were measured and compared to

sedimentation rates prevailing at the different study sites.

Sedimentation rates as well as sediment composition were

significantly different between control and stressed sites. Data

revealed no significant differences in the linear extension rates

of S. siderea between clear and turbid waters suggesting the

high resistance of this species to sedimentation. In fact, the

growth of neither growth band (high or low density bands) was

statistically significant between sites. On the other hand, cores

from P. astreoides revealed an average growth of 2.30 ± 0.36

mm/yr, and a predominance of high density bands over low

density ones at all years. Considering the low growth rates of

this species, it not surprising that the greater part of the

skeleton is comprised to a high density level. Our results

compare to those reported in the literature for both species

even though this becomes the first study that takes into account

the differences in growth between the different density bands,

which seems to be a factor when considering different

sediment regimes..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A10:Turbid Environments

66

SEDIMENTATION RATE MEASUREMENTS:

EFFECTS OF TRAP DESIGN AND IMMERSION TIME.

van der Wateren, Peter*; Nacorda, Hildie, Maria E.;

Vermaat, Jan E. and Yap, Helen T. *The Marine Science

Institute, University of the Philippines, Diliman, 1101

Quezon City, The Philippines;. Email:

peterwat@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

Sedimentation rates are generally compared regardless of

trap design and trap immersion time. The aspect ratio of

tubular traps is often seen as the most important parameter in

describing the trap. For the present study two in situ

experiments with different sediment traps were performed.

Tubular traps with different diameters yielded significantly

different sedimentation rates (g dry weight.dm -2 .day -1 ). Smaller

traps yielded higher sedimentation rates. Differences in aspect

ratios (4, 5 and 6) had no effect on the amount of sediment

trapped. Four tubes of 1” diameter inside a pipe of 3” diameter

attached to a stake did not trap differently from 1” tubes that

were individually mounted to a stake. The average catch of

sediment (g dry weight.dm -2 .day -1 ) over a period of 14 days

differed significantly between traps that were emptied at

different time intervals (every 1, 3, 7, 14 days). Shorter

intervals resulted in higher catches. In addition, a coral surface

simulating trap is introduced. It consists of an acrylic disk

covered with a disk cut from a plastic doormat that features

polyp-like structures. Preliminary results using the disk-traps

are compared with the results from tubular traps.

SPECIAL HARDGROUNDS FOR THE INITIAL

DEVELOPMENT OF CORAL REEFS IN

NONCARBONATE ENVIRONMENTS.

Wang S.W. * and Dai C.F.. *Institute of Oceanography,

National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Email: wsw@nmns1.nmns.edu.tw

The Pleistocene coral reefs in SW Taiwan developed on

several local structural highs, which are characterized by: (1)

rapid facies change from underlying mudstones upward into

fossiliferous sandstones, then into the basement of reef

limestones, and (2) being located within a foreland basin and

in close association with anticlines and faults. However, it is

still uncertain that how these coral reefs built up in a

noncarbonate environment dominated by fine-grained

siliciclastics. Based on studies of 4 quarry outcrops and 21

drilling cores, we found localized lenticular dolomitic

mudstones, tubular dolomitic structures, and muddy

conglomerate which consists of dolomitic mudstone pebbles

and cobbles near or at the tops of “soft” mudstones. Besides,

we found abundant in situ lucinid bivalves in one of those

lenticular dolomitic mudstones, in which the upper parts

consist of encrusting coralline algae and scleractinian corals,

then overlaid by bioclastic limestone. Base on the tectonic

settings and special occurrences of those dolomitic mudstones

and fossil lucinids, we suggested that they are the so-called

“cold seep carbonates", which developed during the

shallowing of structural highs in SW Taiwan and served as the

hardgrounds for the initial development of coral reefs in

noncarbonate environments.

CLASTIC INFLUENCE ON DELTA-FRONT REEFS,

BORNEO

Wilson, Moyra E.J.* *Department of Geological Sciences,

University of Durham, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK, Email:

moyra.wilson@durham.ac.uk

Clastic sedimentation on shallow marine shelves is generally

thought to inhibit carbonate production. However, modern and

Neogene carbonates within the Mahakam Delta in Borneo

were affected by high clastic input. Studies of these modern

and ancient delta-front reefs shows that coral patch reefs

developed in less than a few tens of metres water depth on

delta-front mouthbars, whereas Halimeda dominates in deeper

water reefs. In outcrop the coral reefs consist of lithologies

dominated by platey, branching, head, branching and platey

corals passing successively up section from base to top of the

carbonate unit. These cycles represent apparent shallowing

then deepening of the depositional environment, inferred to be

related to amounts of clastic input. The development of these

delta-front reefs was controlled by a complex array of factors,

including climate, relative-sea level changes, oceanographic

factors, sediment and nutrient input. Carbonates buildups are

common along certain horizons and this study explores local

and regional factors which may have influenced the initiation

of carbonate production. This study has implications for the

interactions between clastics and carbonates in tropical marine

settings and shows that carbonate producers can thrive in areas

of high clastic input.

CHANGES IN ZOOXANTHELLAE DENSITIES AND

CHLOROPHYLL-A CONCENTRATIONS IN THREE

CORAL SPECIES AFTER SHORT-TERM SEDIMENT

BURIAL.

Wong, C.C.*, Yeung, K.P., P.O. Ang, Jr. *Department of

Biology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin,

N.T., HKSAR, China. Email: put-ang@cuhk.edu.hk

Responses of three common coral species were monitored

after full burial with sediment in two experiments at Tung Ping

Chau, Hong Kong from Oct 1999 to Jan 2000. In the first

experiment, colonies of Porites lobata, Goniopora columna

and Platygyra sinensis were buried in situ for 0 (control), 2, 6,

17, 24 and 48 h. Their zooxanthellae densities and chlorophyll-a

concentrations were assessed immediately after burial. In the

second experiment, changes in these two parameters were

monitored in colonies of G. columna before burial,

immediately after 24 h burial, 4 and 40 days after burial.

Goniopora columna has the highest mean density of

zooxanthellae (1.7 x 10 7 cells cm -2 ) and chlorophyll-a density

(95 µg cm -2 ). Platygyra sinensis has only 1/3, and Porites

lobata only 1/10 of these values. For all these corals,

increasing burial time generally caused a decrease in both

these values. However, statistically significant decrease was

found only in 48 h treatment with a 50% drop in these values

compared with those of the controls. All coral colonies

survived the sediment burial except those buried for 48 h. For

G. columna, 24 h burial did not change the zooxanthellae

density and chlorophyll-a concentration significantly. These

corals recovered within 4 days after being released from the

burial stress..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A10:Turbid Environments

67

REEF PRODUCTION IN A SHALLOW, TURBID

ENVIRONMENT

Yates, K.K.* and Halley, R.B. U.S. Geological Survey, St.

Petersburg, Florida, U.S.A. Email: kyates@usgs.gov

Agricultural practices on the island of Molokai in Hawaii

have resulted in increased erosion and transport of sediment to

reefs surrounding the island. Reef productivity (including

calcification, photosynthesis, and respiration) was measured on

representative substrate types of a shallow reef flat located on

Molokai’s southern coast. Measurements were made on coarse

sand, coral rubble, and patch reef substrata over 24-hour time

periods during increased turbidity using a large incubation

chamber (Submersible Habitat for Analyzing Reef Quality,

S.H.A.R.Q.) to isolate water over the substrate and measure

changes in key geochemical parameters. In addition, air:sea

CO2 gas fluxes were measured along a transect across the reef

flat, perpendicular to the shore. Preliminary results indicate

that rates of calcification and photosynthesis range from 0.002

to 0.196 g CaCO3/m 2 /hour and 0.01 to 0.06 g carbon/m 2 /hour,

respectively, during light hours. Net dissolution of carbonate

sediments was observed during dark hours with respiration

rates ranging from 0.07 to 0.12 g carbon/m 2 /hour. Productivity

rates are similar to those measured on reef flats unaffected by

increased turbidity in the western and southern Pacific. Gas

flux measurements correspond to zonation of the reef flat with

net uptake of CO2 over algae-covered coral rubble near shore

and net evolution of CO2 associated with patch reefs offshore

near the reef crest. These results suggest that light attenuation

resulting from turbidity in shallow reef environments may be

insufficient to reduce reef production..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A11: Bioerosion

Session A11: Reef Bioerosion

68

CORAL REEF BIOEROSION IN TIMES OF CRISES –

THE LATE TRIASSIC/EARLY JURASSIC EXAMPLE.

Bertling.M* * Geologisch-Paläontologisches Institut und

Museum, Pferdegasse 3, D-48143 Münster, Germany;

Email: markus.bertling@uni-muenster.de

A study across a major reef crisis in Earth history was

performed because data on the fate of borers after reef decline

seem to be lacking. Scleractinian reefs flourished during the

Late Triassic (Norian and Rhaetian) but corals suffered a major

extinction phase soon afterwards. No reefs are known from the

earliest Jurassic (Hettangian) but identical coral taxa

reappeared later. Hence, similar substrate conditions prevailed

for coral borers during these 5 million years of crisis, and

samples could be evaluated for macroborings quantitatively.

Norian reefs suffered almost no bioerosion (abundance of

borings less than 0.01 /cm_) in the Alps but in northern Iran,

they were moderately bored (0.14/ cm_) with ”worms’’

dominating over bivalves and cirripeds. Late Rhaetian reefs

independently of the environment were only slightly bored

(0.09-0.11/cm_) by the same borers. In the Pliensbachian,

”worms’’ still dominated over bivalves and cirripeds (0.08-

0.12 borings/ cm_). The pattern of coral reef macroboring

hence remained essentially unchanged across the major end-Triassic

extinction phase of corals. This becomes obvious

especially when viewed against the different situation

prevailing from the Middle Jurassic onwards. This indicates

that coral borers had evolved together with their substrate (co-adaptation?);

they suffered the same fate during reef crisis and

reappeared with the same corals during recovery. It was only

the changing Middle Jurassic coral fauna which triggered a

different suite of borers, not the extinction phase.

LAGOON SPONGES FROM THE BUNAKEN MARINE

PARK (NORTH SULAWESI, INDONESIA):

INTERACTIONS WITH SEDIMENTS

Cerrano Carlo*, Bavestrello, Giorgio Boyer, Massimo

Calcinai, Barbara Lalamentik, Laurentius Th. X. &

Pansini, Maurizio. * Dip.Te.Ris., Università di Genova,

Corso Europa 26, I-16132 Genova. Email:

cerrano@dipteris.unige.it

Sponges hold complex ecological roles in coral reefs. Our

study take in account two populations of lagoon sponges from

the island of Bunaken, that are charcterized by a unusual

psammobiotic habitus, which support different ecological

adaptations. The considered species are Aka sp., Oceanapia

amboinensis, Spirastrella solida, Biemna fortis and Acarnus

tortilis. The study by corrosion casts of the aquiferous system

of these species shows different strategies of filtration among

the different sponge groups. The simultaneous presence of

boring (Aka sp.) and engulfing (O. amboinensis; S. solida and

B. fortis) sponges leads to a reworking of the organic

carbonates: i) boring sponges destroy the coral rocks

contributing to the production of the overlaying sediments; ii)

massive sponges incorporate sediments (more than 80% of the

sponge dry weight) structuring a second hard substrata and

modifing the interstitial pore water nearby the buried sponge

body.

FORAGING BEHAVIOR OF TWO TRIGGERFISH

(BALISTIDAE) AND ITS RELATION WITH CORAL

REEF BIOEROSION AT GORGONA ISLAND,

COLOMBIAN PACIFIC.

Francisco V.* and Fernando A. Zapata Departamento de

Biología, Universidad del Valle, Apartado 25360, Cali,

Colombia. Email: vafranci@biologia.univalle.edu.co

The feeding activity of several fishes influence the process of

reef bioerosion. We studied the foraging behavior of Sufflamen

verres and Pseudobalistes naufragium to examine their impact

on reef bioerosion at Gorgona island, Colombian Pacific. Fish

foraged mainly on coral substrates searching for invertebrates

associated with coral. Coral rubble (mainly Pocillopora spp.)

was the preferred foraging substrate in both species. Mean

foraging rates were 0.91 bites per min. for S. verres and 0.78

bites per min. for P. naufragium. During their feeding activity,

the fish fragmented coral into small pieces or turned it into

sediment. Thus triggerfish facilitate the natural erosion of

reefs, accelerating the transformation of coral debris into

sediment. Triggerfish abundance at Gorgona is high compared

to other reefs in the eastern Pacific. Therefore, the contribution

of these fish to bioerosion is particularly important at Gorgona.

We obtained preliminary estimates of bioerosion rates for

these species in one reef based on estimates of the amount of

substrate removed per bite, foraging rates and fish density

(1.13 kg m –2 year –1 for S. verres and 0.62 kg m –2 year –1 for P.

naufragium). Bioerosion caused by triggerfish at Gorgona is

lower than that caused by parrotfish (1.6 kg m –2 year –1 ) and

higher than erosion caused by urchins (0.19 kg m –2 year –1 ).

Scarus ghobban BIOEROSION RATES IN A GORGONA

ISLAND CORAL REEF – COLOMBIA (TROPICAL

EASTERN PACIFIC).

Jiménez J. M. * and F. A. Zapata. *Universidad del Valle,

A.A. 25360, Cali – Colombia, S.Am. Email: :

jumajime@mailcity.com

To estimate the bioerosion rates by Scarus ghobban in a

Gorgona island fringing coral reef (Tropical Eastern Pacific)

indirect and direct methods reported in literature were

combined. Fish size, time of day and reef zone as well as the

foraging substrates were considered. Bioerosion turned out to

be greater at the backreef and diminished towards the slope,

following the distribution and abundance pattern of the species

within the reef. Small individuals showed the greater

bioerosion rates in the reef as a whole (1.2 kg m -2 Year -1 )

given their greater abundance. On the other hand, a large

individual eroded more sediment than a small one (123.6 Vs.

8.2 kg Ind. -1 Year -1 , respectively) showing that bioerosion

rates per individual are proportionally inverse to fish size.

High densities and large body sizes found for S. ghobban in

this reef resulted in greater bioerosion rates (1.6 kg m -2 Year -1

) than the rates found for other scraping species, but lower

than the bioerosion rates found for excavating species in other

oceans..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A11: Bioerosion

69

BIOEROSION OF EXPERIMENTAL SUBSTRATES ON

HIGH ISLANDS AND ATOLL LAGOONS (FRENCH

POLYNESIA)- FIVE YEARS OF EXPOSURE.

Peyrot-Clausade,M.*, Hutchings, P.A., and Pari, N.

*Centre D’océanologie De Marseille, Umr Cnrs 6540,

Université De La Méditerranée, Station Marine

D’endoume, Rue De La Batterie Des Lions, 13007-

Marseille, France. Email: PEYROT@COM.UNIV-MRS.

FR

Rates of losses of CaCo 3 from bioerosion (grazing and

boring) and gains from accretion were determined from

experimental coral substrates exposed for 5 years and laid in

the lagoons of high islands and atolls in French Polynesia.

Significant differences in rates of grazing and boring were

found between sites. Maximum rates of grazing and boring

were found in the atoll lagoons (9.53 kg CaCO3 m -2 .y -1 at

Tikehau, 3.47 kg CaCO3 m -2 .y -1 at Takapoto). A positive

correlation was found between the density of algal turf and the

intensity of boring by clionid sponges which reachs 1.04 kg

caCO3 m -2 .y -1 . Rates of grazing by echinoids and scarids were

also positively correlated with high biomass of microborers.

These results were compared with those obtained after 6 and

24 months of exposure at the same site and rates measured

experimentally elsewhere. These studies allow us to develop

models as to the interaction between rates of grazing and

boring and the protective role of accretion by coralline algae

and the types of factors which influence the net rates of

bioerosion on “healthy” and “disturbed” reefs.

BIOEROSION RATE OF THE SPONGE CLIONA

CELATA (GRANT 1826) FROM THE CORAL REEFS OF

NORTH BAHIA, BRAZIL.

Reis, Maria Alice* and Zelinda Margarida Leão.

Universidade Santa Úrsula, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas

e Ambientais, Rua Jornalista Orlando Dantas 59, Rio de

Janeiro 22231-010, BRAZIL, Email aliceusubr@apc.org.br

The nearshore bank reefs along the north coast of Bahia,

Brazil, are subjected to the influence of a continent derived

highly siliciclastic sediment influx and a nutrient enrichment.

In order to compare the degree of coral infestation by the

sponge Cliona celata (Grant 1826) with reefs within a

carbonate dominate province, massive colonies of the endemic

coral Siderastrea stellata (Verrill 1868) were sampled from the

intertidal shallow pools (0.2 to 0.6 m deep) of the emergent top

of two isolated reefs, from the surface of a bank reef, 5m deep,

and of a reef located at depths around 10 m. This coral species

was chosen because it is amply distributed along the entire

coast of Brazil, and is particularly abundant in shallow reefs.

Five roughly hemispherical and partially living coral heads,

with diameters ranging from about 10 to 20 cm, were

haphazardly collected from each selected zone. X radiographs

of sliced coral colonies were performed for estimating the

percentage of skeleton removed, and the rate of coral growth.

Traces of bioeroding animals were identified in the coral slabs

according to track characteristics. The boring activity of

sponges, in the studied area, coincides with that of worldwide

investigated reefs. It is controlled either, by characteristics of

coral host, i.e. coral growth rate and density, as well as by

some local environment parameters, such as high levels of

water turbidity and sedimentation.

EFFECT OF PREDATION ON LIVE CORAL BY

SPARISOMA VIRIDE AT THE TAYRONA NATURAL

PARK (COLOMBIAN CARIBBEAN).

Reyes-Nivia, M.C.*, J. Garzón-Ferreira & A. Rodríguez-Ramírez.

*Instituto de Investigaciones. Marinas y

Costeras, INVEMAR, A.A. 1016, Santa Marta, Colombia;

Email: catarey@invemar.org.co

The effect of predation by the stoplight parrotfish

(Sparisoma viride) as a coral mortality agent, was evaluated

within SIMAC (National Monitoring System for the Corals

Reefs of Colombia). The. Surface and volume of live coral

removed by bite (measured with Vernier calliper) and change

over time of the affected areas (using video-image analysis)

were estimated for several species of hard corals. Bites were

made principally by terminal and initial phase S. viride (sizes

20-40 cm fork length). The means of surface and volume by

bite on the different species were: 38.7 cm 2 and 355.5 cm 3 in

Colpophyllia natans, 22.5 cm 2 and 31.8 cm 3 in Montastraea

annularis, 25.7 cm 2 and 97.9 cm 3 in Montastraea faveolata,

21.9 cm 2 and 25.9 cm 3 in Porites astreoides. At the beginning

of study, 43 colonies showed a total recently grazed surface of

7336.7 cm 2 on 4000 m 2 of reef area (with live coral cover=

35%). During the next three months, 42% of these colonies

were bitten repeatedly, being C. natans suffered the highest

grazing rate (4.63 cm 2 d -1 ), followed by M. faveolata (0.13

cm 2 d -1 ), while P astreoides was the only that showed live

tissue recuperation. After five months, the total affected area

increased by 49%. These results show that S. viride is able to

originate rapid and considerable damages on live coral

surfaces of reefs especially on C. natans. This kind of tissue

loss by depredation is uncommon and has been observed

recently in the Caribbean Sea.

INTERNAL BIOEROSION OF MUSSISMILIA FROM

EXPOSED AND SUBMERGED REEF FLATS,

EASTERN BRAZIL

Santa-Isabel, L. M* . Z. M. A. N. Leão, M. C. Peso-Aguiar

and R. C. F. Assis * Universidade Federal da Bahia,

Instituto de Biologia, Departamento de Zoologia, Campus

Universitário de Ondina, s/n. CEP 40170-290, Salvador,

Bahia, Brazil. Email: ledama@ufba.br

The internal bioerosion of dead corals, belonging to the

endemic genera Mussismilia (M. braziliensis and M. hispida),

was analyzed in specimens collected from an exposed and a

submerged reef flat at Guarajuba Beach (Bahia). Twenty coral

colonies were sliced (80 replicates) and x-rayed to identify

internal bioeroders and to estimate the degree of bioerosion

produced by each group. The most representative borers are:

the bivalves Lithophaga bisulcata, Gastrochaena hians,

Spengleria rostrata and Gregariella coralliophaga, the

sipunculids Phascolosoma antillarum and Aspidosiphon

elegans, and polychaetes Eunice wasinensis and Lysidice

ninetta. Total bioerosion is significantly lower at the exposed

reef flat, where sipunculids is the most important group.

Boring bivalves dominate in the submerged reef. The

polychaete exhibit low level of bioerosion in both studied

reefs. The lowest level of internal bioerosion registered for the

exposed reef is reflected by the diversity, abundance and

population density of bioeroders, which may be controlled by

the sub-aerial exposure of the reef organisms, the

characteristics of the coral species, as well as the periodic

migration of sand on the exposed reef flat..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A11: Bioerosion

70

CHANGING ENVIRONMENTS AND SPONGE

BIOEROSION - IS THERE A CONNECTION?

Schönberg*. Carl von Ossietzky *Australian Institute of

Marine Science, PMB 3, Townsville MC, QLD 4810,

Australia. Email: christine.schoenberg@mail.uni-oldenburg.

de

Worldwide, reefs are suffering from destruction. Bioerosion

is a natural form of carbonate degradation, with sponges being

major agents of tropical reef bioerosion. However, little is

known about natural levels of sponge bioerosion and the

factors influencing them. It is unknown what factors may

increase natural sponge bioerosion to levels that disrupt natural

reef growth rates. Occasional field observations of increased

sponge bioerosion associated with elevated nutrient levels have

been reported, however, this has not been experimentally

tested. The Australian sponge Cliona orientalis is very

common on the inshore Great Barrier Reef and has been used

in several experiments to study growth and erosion

capabilities. Influences of nutrient levels, water movement and

substrate porosity were investigated. Results indicate that C.

orientalis growth is enhanced by increased water movement,

whereas high nutrient levels are detrimental. However,

bioerosion is enhanced by both factors. Porosity of natural

substrate, which in turn is influenced by nutrient levels and

water movement, is indirectly proportional to erosion by the

sponge. Varying levels of substrate porosity have little

influence on sponge growth itself, unless the substrate is very

dense, i. e. C. orientalis grew better in Tridacna shells than in

coral substrates. Results imply complicated interactions

between factors influencing growth of and erosion by C.

orientalis. Therefore it is very difficulty to predict how sponge

bioerosion will behave with changing environments.

ROLE OF THE BORING MICROFLORA AND

MEIOFAUNA COMMUNITIES IN THE DESTRUCTION

PROCESSES OF CORAL REEFS. VARIABILITY OF

BIOEROSION IN EXPERIMENTAL CORAL

SUBSTRATES ON THE GBR, AUSTRALIA.

Tribollet A. *, Decherf G., Hutchings P. and Peyrot-Clausade

M. *Centre d’Océanologie de Marseille, Station

Marine d’Endoume. Rue de la batterie des Lions, 13007

Marseille (France). Email: tribollet@com.univ-mrs.fr

Increasingly coral reefs world-wide are under considerable

stress and are experiencing damage. Dead corals are available

for colonisation by boring organisms and subsequently for

grazers, which both participate in reef destruction. Several

studies on bioerosion of coral substrates by macroborers and

grazers have been undertaken on the GBR. In contrast, very

little is known about the development of the microboring

communities through time and their bioerosion rate spatial

variability. Boring communities were studied after one year of

colonizing experimental coral substrates Porites lobata at six

different stations along a cross shelf transect from the coast out

into the Coral Sea, in far North Queensland. Dominant species

of microborers and subfamilies of boring meiofauna and

macrofauna were identified and counted. Their biomass and

bioerosion rates as well as bioerosion of grazers and accretion

rates were quantified in order to establish the calcium

carbonate balance sheet of the experimental substrate. External

erosion of these blocks varied considerably from 0.28 ± 0.12kg

of CaCO3 m -2 .y-1 on Snapper Island (coastal site) to 3.5 ± 0.5

kg of CaCO3 m -2 .y-1 on Ribbon Reef and Lizard Island. Such

significant between sites differences reveal the impact of

terrigenous inputs on the coastal sites and the influence of the

grazers on the microboring communities.

LONG TERM DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS OF

ECHINOMETRA MATHAEI ON SUVA BARRIER REEF,

FIJI.

Vuki, V.C* and Zann,L.P* *Marine Studies Programme,

University of the South Pacific, P.O. Box 1168, Suva, Fiji.

Email: Vuki_V@usp.ac.fj

Suva Barrier Reef lies between one and five kilometers off

the coast of Suva. It is one of the most polluted and overfished

reefs in the South Pacific. A narrow lagoon of about 10m deep

separates the reef from the city of Suva. Suva Barrier Reef has

experienced an almost continuous presence of E.mathaei since

1979. Large numbers of E.mathaei were observed at six sites

from 1979 to 1999. They are major bio-eroders on the reef flat

and contribute to changing the structure of the reef framework

from hard coral rock substratum to rubble and sand. The

occurrence of large numbers of E.mathaei is associated with

Acanthaster planci predation and high fishing pressure on

Suva Barrier Reef. It is possible that anthropogenic factors

contribute to the high densities of E.mathaei on Suva Barrier

Reef. Adults and juveniles are consistently more frequent here

than in any other Fijian reefs studied. The removal through

fishing and gleaning of predators must affect the high densities

of E.mathaei..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A12: Hydrodynamics

Session A12: Hyrdodynamics of Reefs and Modelling of Circulation in Lagoons

71

EFFECTS OF WAVES ON NUTRIENT UPTAKE INTO

THE BIOSPHERE 2 MESOCOSM.

Atkinson, M*, *Department Of Oceanography, University

Of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hi 96822, Usa. Email:

marlinatkinson@aol.com

…Waves increase nutrient uptake to an experimental coral reef

community. Biosphere 2 ocean is a self-contained, 850 m 2 ,

3.1 m-deep coral reef mesocosm, maintaining a mixed

community of macro-algae, corals, fish, and associated

invertebrate crytofauna. Water motion in the mesocosm is

controlled by a vacuum-driven wave machine, producing

waves 10 cm to 130 cm high . Waves propagate onto a reef-flat,

break and create back-reef currents. Nutrient uptake rates

were measured over a two year period by raising water

concentrations to 10 mM NH4 and 1 mM PO4 and then

measuring a decay in nutrient concentration to ambient

nutrient concentrations (NH4 ~ 0.2 mM, PO4 ~ 0.05 mM ).

Nutrient uptake rates were first-order

(Uptake=S[Concentration], with rate constants, S, similar in

magnitude (4.7 to 10.8 m d -1 ) to published rates for flumes and

for field measurements during Encore experiment). Wave

heights were varied and currents measured 10 cm above the

bottom at 20 locations within the mesocosm during a summer

and winter period. Rate constants, S, for NH4 and PO4 (4.7

–10.8 m d -1 ) were positively correlated to water velocities

(from 2.3-8.3 cm s -1 ) and consistent with mass transfer

relationships. These results are the first measurements of

increasing nutrient uptake from water motion created by

waves, supporting the contention that reef communities

residing in higher wave environments experience increased

metabolic exchange with the environment.

A 3D COUPLED PHYSICAL-BIOGEOCHEMICAL

MODEL TO SIMULATE INFLUENCES OF MAJOR

HYDRODYNAMIC FORCING ON THE EVOLUTION

OF PELAGIC ECOSYSTEM IN THE SOUTH-WEST

LAGOON OF NEW CALEDONIA.

Bujan S.*, Pinazo, C., Douillet, P., Grenz, C., Fichez, R..

*National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (

NIWA ) PO Box 8602 Christchurch New Zealand. Email:

s.bujan@niwa.cri.nz

Evolution of knowledge on physical processes and

biogeochemical cycling of the south-west lagoon of New

Caledonia bring enough material today to allow their

integration for the development of a determinist modelling for

this ecosystem. A 3D hydrodynamic model with 21 vertical

sigma levels and a spatial grid of 500 m was coupled with

biogeochemical equations. The resulting model was used to

calculate phytoplanktonic biomass and nutrient concentrations

in the 2000 km 2 wide south-west lagoon of New Caledonia.

Simulations were achieved for several wind driven

hydrodynamic conditions and as a function of : the light and

nutrient effects on pelagic primary production, the effect of

temperature on the biological processes, and the impact of

freshwater inputs during the rainy season. Several realistic

scenarios are established and results compared with field data

from the Ecotrope Program for the validation. Simulations

showed that the biological flows are very sensitive to the wind

with a general influence of south boundary conditions, in

concordance with the dominant trade wind. Even during the

summer rainy season, impact of terrigeneous nutrients on

pelagic ecosystem is reduced to shallow, wind protected bay

directly influenced by the main river (Dumbéa). The vertical

resolution of the model provide useful information to explain

seasonal variations in lagoon phytoplankton.

PHOSPHORUS SUPPLY FOR ATOLL BIOLOGICAL

PRODUCTIVITY

Charpy, Loïc* *IRD, COM, rue de Batterie des Lions

13007 Marseille, France lcharpy@com.univ-mrs.fr

Origin of phosphorus for whole atoll productivity is

discussed using biogeochemical data from Tikehau atoll

(French Polynesia), new concept on coral reef fractal

dimension and recent advances in modeling groundwater flow

in an atoll platform. The conclusion is that horizontal flow of

oceanic waters, in spite of low P concentration is largely

enough to sustain atoll productivity.

DETERMINATION OF THE HYDRODYNAMIC

CIRCULATION OF THE LAGOON OF SUVA (FIJI)

USING MODELISATION AND MEASUREMENTS.

Douillet P*, Kumar. *Centre IRD, BP A5, Nouméa, New

Caledonia. Email: douillet@noumea.ird.nc

The lagoon of Suva, Fiji, is subject to significant

anthropogenic and terrigenous inputs and a precisely

determining water circulation is a perquisite to a better

knowledge of the fate of such inputs. In coastal circulation and

environmental studies a high level of resolution is generally

needed and numerical modelling is the only satisfactory

method. 2-D and 3D modelling where used to calculate

instantaneous current in space and time. As tide, wind and

freshwater inputs represented the three major driving forces,

numerical modelling was associated to data collection of

current speed and direction, water levels, wind, river

discharge. Validation of the models, realised by the

comparison of computations and measurements, showed a

good agreement. From the instantaneous bi-dimensional model

used to determine tidal currents it was possible to calculate the

long term trajectories of water that represent the effective

displacement of the water masses resulting from several

complete tidal cycles. Wind driven currents calculated by the

three-dimensional model showed how circulation generate

specific vertical structure in the lagoon. The influence of

freshwater inputs by the Rewa river on the circulation is

presented and discussed.

BOUNDARY CURRENTS AND BARRIER REEFS.

Furnas, Miles *. *Australian Institute of Marine Science,

Townsville, Queensland 4810, Australia. Email:

mfurnas@aims.gov.au

Well organized boundary currents flow along the seaward

margins of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR: East Australian

Current), Ningaloo Reef (Leeuwin Current) and the Papuan

Barrier Reef (PBR: Kiri Current). Wind-stress along the

Ningaloo Reef system and the western PBR is strongly

favorable to Ekman upwelling. While upwelling can bring

large quantities of nutrients to the surface, stimulating

productivity, cold water from the thermocline would retard

coral growth. A dynamic balance between wind stress and

geostrophic pressure gradients in the Leeuwin and Kiri

Currents inhibits large-scale or continuous upwelling. Along

southern GBR, the geostrophic structure of the EAC favors

large-scale intrusive upwelling which is counter-balanced by a

cross-shelf pressure gradient set up by wind stress from the SE

trade winds. Intermittent upwelling has also been recorded

along southern Java and the Gulf of Panama. Barrier reef

development appears to be favored in settings which receive

episodic nutrient inputs from upwelling processes, but are not

continuously subject to low-temperature upwelled waters..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A12: Hydrodynamics

72

MODELLING GENE CURRENTS BETWEEN CORAL

REEF ISLANDS.

Hearn, C*, Black, R, Johnson, M, and Hatcher B,

Oceanography, University College, University of New

South Wales, ADFA, Canberra, Act 2600, Australia.

Email: C.Hearn@adfa.edu.au

This paper presents a model of the transport of larvae

between coral reef islands in the Easter Group of the Abrolhos

Islands off Western Australia. It investigates the relationship

between model inter-island hydrodynamic connectivity and

observed genetic connectivity. Its outcome provides new

information on the role of ocean dispersal in gene flow. This

basic question of the spatial scales over which ocean currents

can carry genetic information is critical to our knowledge of

the interdependence of marine systems, and the management

of biodiversity. The study involves two species of inter-tidal

snail, one a direct developer Bembicium vittatum and the other

a planktonic disperser, and spans spatial scales of hundreds of

metres to tens of kms. The numerical model SPECIES was

run for a period of one year using combined wind, wave, tidal,

and Leeuwin Current forcing with all of these forcing factors

varied seasonally. At first sight, B. vittatum, which has no

planktonic stage, might be thought to have no means of

moving between islands but the genetic variances point

strongly to the existence of such hydrodynamic connectivity

and this is presumably due to rafting of the egg masses. A

comparison is made between the observed genetic variance Gst

of B. vittatum, between various inter-island sites, and the

SPECIES model hydrodynamic connectivities based on the

dispersal of surface water between the same sites.

OBTAINING INFORMATION ON CORAL REEF

FRICTION AND SOME IMPLICATIONS FOR

NUTRIENT UPTAKE.

Hearn, C* and Atkinson, M. *Oceanography, University

College, University of New South Wales, ADFA, Canberra,

ACT 2600, Australia. Email: c.hearn@adfa.edu.au

Changing sealevel over a coral reef affects the strength of

wave-driven currents. This effect has the potential to provide

considerable information on the nature of friction and turbulent

energy dissipation on reefs. Current-depth (c-d) coefficients

are introduced that describe the fractional change of across-reef,

and lagoonal, current with change in depth of water over

the reef flat. The c-d coefficients can be easily measured by

tidal analysis of reef, or lagoonal, currents and have the

potential to provide information on some of the most poorly

understood aspects of reef hydrodynamics. This paper derives

c-d coefficients theoretically using both an analytical

hydrodynamic model, and the three-dimensional numerical

model SPECIES. Comparisons are then made with data from

two reefs. The first is Ningaloo Reef in northwest Australia,

which is a typical barrier reef with a narrow coastal lagoon,

and the second is Kaneohe Bay in Oahu, Hawaii, where the

reef is unusually wide. The analysis uses mixing length theory

based on various roughness lengths for different types of coral.

The modelled turbulent energy dissipation is used to determine

both the Stanton number (which measures the ratio of the

uptake of phosphorus to its net flux over the reef flat), and its

variation with the depth of water over the reef; comparisons

are made with Atkinson-Bilger roughness theory.

SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN DENSITY

DISTRIBUTIONS AND CIRCULATION PATTERNS AT

MAJURO ATOLL, THE REPUBLIC OF THE

MARSHALL ISLANDS.

Kraines, Steven*, Masahiko Isobe, Hiroshi Komiyama.

*Dept. Chemical System Engineering, University of Tokyo,

7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656 Japan. Email:

steven@prosys.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp

As a part of an ongoing project to study the negative effects

of human activities on coastal margin ecosystems and how

they might be mitigated, we have been investigating the

circulation patterns at Majuro Atoll. Majuro Atoll is

characterized by the nearly complete closure of the southern

atoll rim by US army engineers in the 1950’s. This closure of

exchange channels between the lagoon and the open ocean

may have altered the circulation and residence time of water in

the atoll lagoon. In order to clarify the mechanisms that

determine the circulation in the lagoon, we measured vertical

and horizontal distributions of temperature and salinity every

three months from April 1998 to June 1999, characterizing

density distributions for each season. We used a robust

diagnostic three dimensional residual currents circulation

model to simulate the circulation patterns for each of the

measured density distributions. The circulation patterns within

the lagoon, which have been shown to be driven primarily by a

combination of wind stress, wave induced radiation stress, and

density variations, varied significantly. Water exchange times

between the lagoon and the ocean ranged from 11.5 to 14.2

days. In conclusion, seasonal variations in wind, density and

wave height have non-negligible effects on the circulation

patterns at Majuro Atoll.

BOUNDARY LAYER MIXING AND CIRCULATION

OVER ROUGH TOPOGRAPHY: FLOW OVER CORAL

REEFS.

Monismith, S.G.*, M.A. Reidenbach, J.R. Koseff, A. Genin,

G. Yahel. Environmental Fluid Mechanics Laboratory,

Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-4020 USA.

Email: monismith@ce.stanford.edu

A field study was conducted in Eilat, Israel, the Red Sea to

study the role that bottom roughness plays on mixing and

turbulence in the overlying water column. The motivation for

this work is the fundamental role that turbulence plays in coral

reef ecology. Fluid flow acts to transport nutrients, larvae,

wastes and numerous other constituents to and from a reef. The

structure of the flow near the reef, within the turbulent bottom

boundary layer, is related to the complex structure of the

topography of a reef. This turbulent flow controls exchanges of

both mass and momentum between the corals and the

overlying water. In this study, flow measurements were made

using Accoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCP), Accoustic

Doppler Velocimeters (ADV), and Conductivity, Temperature,

Depth (CTD) probes. A detailed bathymetric study was also

conducted to capture the roughness of the reef. Three different

sites were measured, two over the reef system and, as a control

experiment, one site over a sandy bottom. To test the

relationship between form drag and skin friction, nylon

sheeting was also placed over one test section whithin the reef

to study the relative contributions of form drag and skin

friction. Detailed measurements of near-bottom turbulence

give a measure of Reynold’s stresses and bottom shear

stresses. Mixing coefficients were measured using calculations

of turbulence dissipation and shear. Combining these

measurements with velocity profiles throughout the water

column give us a complete picture of circulation in and above

the reef..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A12: Hydrodynamics

73

FIELD-OBSERVATION ANALYSIS OF PHYSICAL

ENVIRONMENTS OF A FRINGING REEF AT

ISHIGAKI ISLAND UNDER INFLUENCES FROM

INLAND AND OFFSHORE.

Nadaoka K.*, Y. Nihei, R. Kumano, T. Yokobori, T.

Oomija. Graduate School of Information Science and

Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 O-okayakma,

Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8552, Japan. Email:

nadaoka@mei.titech.ac.jp

To investigate the physical environments of a fringing coral

reef, especially possible influences both from inland and

offshore, we have conducted a field survey at Shiraho coast in

the Ishigaki Is., Okinawa, Japan, by deploying 16 moored

buoys in and around the reef, on which various sensors for

continuous measurements of water temperature, salinity,

turbidity and chlorophyll.a concentration were installed.

Several bottom-mounted current meters and wave gauges were

also. The results show, e.g., the abrupt decrease and increase of

the water temperature during the attack of a typhoon, resultant

temperature being about 1 degree lower than before. The main

cause of this abrupt change and the difference between inside

and outside the reef in the thermal response to the atmospheric

agitation are investigated. For normal atmospheric conditions,

the overall characteristics of currents in the coral reef is found

to be governed by the dynamic balance among tide, waves and

wind effects. Thermal environments in the reef are also

examined by a heat budget analysis, indicating that it is

influenced both by the atmospheric conditions and the

temperature difference between in and outside the reef. The

salinity and turbidity variations near the river mouth and their

cause are also investigated.

NEARSHORE WAVE MODELLING FOR BEACH

WITH CORAL REEFS ALONG THE RED SEA.

Rakha K.A. and Abul-Azm A.G.*. *Irrigation and

Hydraulics Dept., Faculty of Engrg., Cairo University,

Giza, Egypt. Email: ecma@access.com.eg

The Sahl Hasheesh development is located about 20 km

south of Hurghada City along the Red Sea coast in Egypt. The

shorefront is almost 12 km with a large sandy bay situated in

the middle of the development. A small island is located about

2.5 km east of the shoreline with a coral shoal (water depth of

6.0m) surrounding the island. This paper provides the

nearshore wave conditions calculated using the RCPWAVE

and the REF/DIF models. Both models are based on the Mild

Slope Equations (MSE) valid for bed slope up to 1:3. The

simulations performed showed that the RCPWAVE model is

not suitable for this specific site due to the complexity of the

bathymetry involved. The model produced spurious results at

areas with the waves propagating parallel to steep coral edges.

These spurious results increased for the cases with larger

angles between the direction of propagation and the wave

direction. Results obtained using the REF/DIF model showed

to be more realistic compared to those obtained by RCPWAVE

model. This paper shows that for areas with complex coral reef

formation -as in the Red Sea- more research is needed to

develop models capable of incorporating all the relevant

physical processes.

A LABORATORY STUDY OF FINE-SCALE MIXING

AND MASS TRANSPORT ABOVE A CORAL REEF.

Reidenbach*, M.A., J.R. Koseff, and M.A.R. Koehl.

*Environmental Fluid Mechanics Laboratory, Stanford

University, Stanford, California 94305-4020, USA. Email:

mar10@stanford.edu

Dissolved chemical cues have been shown in the laboratory

to induce settlement by the larvae of various benthic

invertebrates. One such species is the nudibranch, Phestilla

siboga, whose larvae metamorphose in response to a species

specific metabolite from its prey, the coral Porites compressa.

To determine how such chemical cues affect larval settlement

in nature, a detailed understanding of how dissolved cues

disperse in ambient water flow is needed. In this study, a

constructed reef made of P. compressa skeletons was placed in

a water flume capable of producing both a mean current and

surface waves. The flow environment in the flume was driven

to mimic the turbulent flow measured in the reef dominated by

P. compressa in Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii. Using laser-Doppler

anemometry (LDA), detailed flow fields above the constructed

reef were measured. The structure of the odorant field leaching

off the corals was studied using a planar-laser induced

fluorescence (PLIF) technique. In this technique, rhodamine

dye was spread over the surfaces of the coral and leached into

the water column. The dye was fluoresced with the laser, then

digitally photographed, and the resulting images were

interrogated to quantify the structure and mass transport of the

dissolved constituent. The fine scale spatial structure of

chemical filaments from the reef not only reveals the spatial

and temporal patterns of concentrations encountered by larvae,

but also sheds light on how rough reef topography affects

mixing processes.

EFFECTS OF ACROSS-SHELF HEAT TRANSPORT ON

SUMMERTIME REEF TEMPERATURES.

Smith, Ned P.* *Harbor Branch Oceanographic

Institution, 5600 Highway 1 North, Fort Pierce, Florida

34946 U.S.A. Email: nsmith@hboi.edu

A finite-difference computer model is used to simulate

across-shelf heat transport and the resulting temperature

fluctuations under upwelling and downwelling conditions.

Bottom topography and summertime weather conditions are

based on historical data from Lee Stocking Island, Exuma

Cays, Bahamas. Results suggest that advective heat transport

is highly sensitive to wind direction, and that temperature

changes occur over time periods of 1-2 days. In contrast, local

heating and cooling, primarily in response to incoming solar

radiation, net outgoing longwave radiation and evaporation,

occurs over time periods on the order of one week and longer.

Under normal midsummer weather conditions, advective

warming and cooling dominates local warming and cooling.

Heating under clear skies is significantly reduced if wind

directions are upwelling favorable and produce advective

cooling. Even for relatively cloudy conditions, near-bottom

heating at the reef can be significant if wind directions are

downwelling favorable and warm water floods onto the inner

shelf..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A12: Hydrodynamics

74

ALONG-REEF CURRENTS FORCED BY OBLIQUELY

INCIDENT WAVES

Symonds, G*. *School of Geography and Oceanography,

University College, ADFA, University of New South Wales,

Canberra, Australia.

Email g.symonds@adfa.edu.au

As normally incident waves break on the seaward facing reef

slope cross-reef gradients in cross-shore wave momentum

produce wave setup of order 0.1 to 0.5m and cross reef

currents of order 0.1 to 1m/s. The magnitude of the setup and

cross-reef currents depends on factors such as the incident

wave height, the depth over the reef, the width of the reef flat

and bottom friction. In addition to setup and cross-reef

currents, obliquely incident waves will also force along-reef

currents due to cross-reef gradients in the along-reef wave

momentum flux. The situation is similar to alongshore

currents on beaches forced by obliquely incident waves for

which numerous theoretical and observational studies have

been reported in the literature. In this paper some of these

models are applied to an idealised reef which differs from a

beach in that the bottom slope through the surf zone is

typically an order of magnitude larger and there is not

necessarily a shoreline. The steeper bottom slope produces

narrower surf zones and hence stronger along-reef currents

than the equivalent, less steep beach with the same incident

wave height. However, high friction coefficients on the reef

will reduce current speeds. The absence of a shoreline allows

strong cross-reef flows which, through non-linear interaction

with the along-reef flows, may provide an efficient mechanism

for lateral mixing of along-reef momentum. Analytic and

numerical results using both uniform and randomly distributed

incident wave fields will be discussed..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A13: Dust and Geoscience

Session A13: Dust and Caribbean-wide Coral Reef Decline: an Hypothesis and

Geosceintific Contributions to the Understanding of Coral Reefs

75

BALI AS A REEF HABITAT.

Borel Best M.* & Boekschoten, G.J. *National Museum

Natural History, Naturalis P.O.Box 9517, 2300 RA Leiden

The Netherlands. Email: Best@naturalis.nnm.nl

Geological and biological data on balinese reefs are

presented. The oldest reefs developed on top of neogene pillow

lava flows. From these, only travertine remains as redeposited

karstic infillings. Sections of early and late pleistocene reefs

are preserved in the bukit peninsula. Post glacial reef

originated in several submarine settings: along limestone cliffs

and denuded volcanic hardnecks, on lava outflows and on

residual boulder coasts washed by oceanic surfs from lahar

deposits. Because of a varied topography and the presence of

active volcanoes, reefs developed under a multitude of

different environmental stresses. Living reefs are discussed,

and compared to other reefs in indonesia in respect to coral

composition and biodiversity.

PLEISTOCENE REEFS IN THE SOUTHERN RED SEA

AS FORAGING HABITAT FOR HOMINIDS.

Bruggemann J.H.*, M.M. Guillaume, R. von Cosel, R.T.

Buffler, B. Negassi, S.M. Berhe, Y. Libsekal, R.C. Walter.

*Experimental Zoology Group, Wageningen University,

P.O. Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Email: henrich.bruggemann@morf.edc.wag-ur.nl

The discovery of early Middle Stone Age tools in primary

context within a raised Pleistocene reef terrace on the Red Sea

coast of Eritrea, dated to 125 +/-7 ka, suggests that early

humans were harvesting food from marine habitats during the

last interglacial (Walter et al. 2000). Sediment characteristics

and faunal compositions of these marine deposits are currently

under investigation to reconstruct potential resources for these

hominids in time and space. Vertical changes in sediment

facies represent a depositional cycle from the onset of the last

interglacial marine highstand to still stand. This transgressive

cycle begins with an oyster-bearing cobble lag deposit,

followed by a biostrome with molluscs, echinoids and

scattered corals, and concludes with the development of a

fringing coral reef. Lateral facies changes, especially in coral

growth form and position, suggest the remains of a complete

fringing reef sequence. Comparison with modern coral fauna

in the area indicates that it developed in an open-marine,

shallow and calm embayment. In the course of the

transgression cycle, food sources changed from oysters

attached to rocks to free-living, diversified molluscs and

crustaceans, related to the development of a coral reef

ecosystem. This change in potential food sources provides

clues to interpret the pattern of distribution of bifaces and

obsidian flakes and blades in the terrace, and to the adaptation

of early humans to marine habitats. Walter et al. (2000).

Nature 405: 65-69

CARBONATE DYNAMICS ON HIGH ENERGY REEF

FRONTS.

Chisholm J.R.M.*. *Observatoire Océanologique

Européen, Centre Scientifique de Monaco, Avenue Saint-Martin,

MC98000, Monaco; email:

j.chisholm@aims.gov.au

Reefs in high energy environments grow to sea level because

their shallow windward margins are dominated by coralline

algae, not by corals. Coralline algae have been likened to the

cement that binds together the bricks from which reefs are

built, inferring that their contribution to carbonate deposition is

substantially less than that of corals. Measurements of crustose

coralline calcification on the windward reef at lizard island,

northern gbr, indicate that low rates of vertical accretion are a

product of high rates of erosion, not of low rates of carbonate

deposition. Calcification was measured in situ by isolating

samples within an incubation chamber and then following

changes in the o2 concentration and ph of the surrounding

seawater induced by their metabolism using sensors connected

to a submersible respirometer. Removal of water samples

during certain experiments enabled determination of changes

in seawater total alkalinity (at). Incorporating the measured

changes in chemical parameters into equations describing the

seawater carbonate equilibrium enabled calculation first of the

metabolic quotients of samples and second of their rates of

carbonate deposition. Concomitant measurement of light

enabled calcification to be regressed against irradiance and

whole day net calcification to be estimated by integrating the

resulting equations with half sine curve models of the diurnal

change in solar irradiance. These calculations indicate that

coralline calcification can contribute up to 10.3 kg caco3 m -2 y -1

on reef crests that have a surface relief factor of 3.1 when

they cover 100% of the reef.

CORAL REEFS OF THE AMERICAS.

Cortés.J.* *Centro de Investigación en Ciencias del Mar y

Limnología (CIMAR), Ciudad de la Investigación,

Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, San José 2060,

Costa Rica. Email: jcortes@cariari.ucr.ac.cr

The American continent has three main coral reef areas:

Brazil, Caribbean and eastern Pacific. Brazilian reefs are

peculiar in their structure and coral composition. Caribbean

reefs are the best studied, most diverse, largest, and extensive.

Eastern Pacific reefs are small, isolated and built by a few

corals. The present day reef building coral species

composition is the result of tectonic events and ocean currents.

The opening of the south Atlantic and the uplift of the Andes

resulted in the separation of the Brazilian and the Caribbean

faunas, which is reaffirmed by the ocean currents. The

Caribbean and eastern Pacific were separated by the rise of the

Central American isthmus, and the present day fauna of the

eastern Pacific is the result of ocean circulation. The corals

and structure of these three areas are very different but the

impact of natural and anthropogenic disturbances are similar.

International cooperation is needed to study, protect and used

the coral reefs of the Americas..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A13: Dust and Geoscience

76

CORAL MICROATOLL SEISMOCHEMISTRY AND

THE GREAT TAMBORA ERUPTION OF 1815 AD.

Gagan, M.K. * , Sieh, K., Hantoro, W.S., Lynch, H.S.,

Edwards, R.L. and Zachariasen, J. Research School of

Earth Sciences, The Australian National University,

Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia. Email:

Michael.Gagan@anu.edu.au

We present a new method for reconstructing seismic uplift

associated with palaeo-earthquakes and volcanic aerosol-induced

reductions in solar irradiance using carbon isotope

ratios d

13

C) in Porites spp. microatolls. We tested the

hypothesis that d

13

C in Porites skeletons is sensitive to light

intensity by sampling a slab cut horizontally into a large, dead

Porites spp. microatoll from southwest Sumatra, Indonesia.

High temporal resolution measurements (bi-weekly) of d

13

C in

the coral skeleton show an abrupt increase in

13

C in response to

the 0.7 m co-seismic uplift of the coral during a magnitude 8

earthquake that rocked southwest Sumatra on 10 February

1797. The increase in coral d

13

C immediately following uplift

is a response to higher light intensity in the shallow water

where the coral continued to grow. We then established an

annual chronology using the clear annual cycle in the coral

d

13

C to see if we could detect any volcanic aerosol-induced

reduction in solar irradiance following the great 1815 AD

eruption of Mt Tambora in Sumbawa, Indonesia. The coral

d

13

C record shows sharply lower values for ~16 months

immediately following the eruption that equate to solar

irradiance levels lower than those during a typical cloudy

monsoon season. Microatolls appear to be extraordinary

natural instruments for extending the record of earthquakes

and volcanic eruptions into the pre-instrumental past.

NUTRIENT INFLUX FROM AFRICAN DUST AT

VIRGIN ISLANDS NATIONAL PARK.

Garrison, V.*, J. D. Ray, L. Ashbaugh and T. Cahill.

Biological Resources Division, U.S. Geological Survey, P.O.

Box 710, St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands 00831. Email:

ginger_garrison@usgs.gov

The Saharan Air Layer transports approximately one billion

tons of African dust annually to the Caribbean and Americas to

the west and the Mediterranean to the north. Originating in an

area stretching from Chad to Mauritania, the dust is composed

primarily of clay soil minerals and transports nutrients and

biological organisms to the oligotrophic waters of the

Caribbean. At Virgin Islands National Park (VINP) in the

northeastern Caribbean, mean aerosol (<2.5 _m)

concentrations are among the highest nationwide and reported

to exceed 21 _g/m 3 during dust events. In this study, we

estimate the annual influx of nutrients (ammonia, nitrate,

nitrite, and phosphorous) and trace metals (Fe, Hg, Pb) from

African dust to Virgin Islands waters and coral reefs, using

PRIMENET data from VINP.

NATURAL HYDROCARBON SEEPAGE: A CONTROL

ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF CARBONATE REEFS

AND BUILD-UPS IN AND AROUND THE MARINE

RESERVES OF CARTIER ISLET AND ASHMORE

REEF, NORTH-WEST SHELF, AUSTRALIA.

Glenn, Kriton & Geoffrey O’Brien Australian Geological

Survey Organisation, GPO Box 378, Canberra, 2601

Email: Kriton.Glenn@agso.gov.au

The newly declared Cartier Marine reserve and Ashmore

Reef (a Category ‘1’ marine park) are shelf edge coral reefs

located on Australia’s North-West Shelf, a prolific

hydrocarbon province. The reefs are situated at a major

geologic and oceanographic boundary, with the conjunction of

the Indonesian Through Flow (ITF) and the Indian Ocean

providing diverse genetic opportunities fed by significant

nutrient upwelling. Ashmore Reef (~150 km 2 ), and Cartier

Islet (36.3 km 2 ) rise from depths of >400m, harbour a wide

range of habitats, and are considered a vital regional genetic

‘bank’. Remote sensing studies (synthetic aperture radar,

geochemical sniffer, airborne laser fluorosensor and seismic

data) and sediment sampling have demonstrated that the

majority of reefs and build-ups in the area are associated

spatially with active and palaeo-hydrocarbon seeps. These

seeps are localised over either fault systems which tap the

reservoir, along migration fairways, or at the pinch-out of the

regional Cretaceous top seal. The data suggest that the reefs

and the build-ups formed via a sequential process. Firstly,

hydrocarbon seepage localised seafloor biological

communities, which formed topographically positive features.

DUST TO DUST: IRON AS THE FUNCTIONAL LINK

BETWEEN EOLIAN DUST AND MARINE

INFECTIOUS DISEASES.

Hayes M.L.*, E.A. Shinn and R.T.Barber. *Duke

University Marine Laboratory, 135 Duke Marine Lab Rd.,

Beaufort, NC USA. Email: mhayes@duke.edu

Recent variability in climate (NAO and Sahelian

precipitation) and eolian dust transport have been well-documented

in the scientific literature. Observations of recent

increases in the outbreak rate of marine infectious diseases

have also been widely documented. Analysis of climate, dust

and disease time series suggests that significant changes

occurred in the early to mid-1970s, particularly between 1972

to 1976. We propose that the mid-1970s climate shift

increased the amount of iron supplied to the oceans via

atmospheric deposition of dust, thereby altering the

micronutrient (iron) supply that under normal climatic

conditions limits growth and virulence of pathogenic microbes.

In order to test this iron/virulence hypothesis, we developed a

mesocosm infectious disease model based on the temperate

scleractinian (stony) coral Oculina arbuscula and confirmed

bacterial pathogens. This model allows controlled inoculation

experiments with pathogens grown under varying

micronutrient conditions. These experiments specifically test

whether iron-replete growing conditions can increase virulence

enough to alter the dose/response curve of the pathogen-coral

mesocosm. We have mechanically generated pseudo-eolian

dust from sediments collected in the Lake Chad Basin of the

African Sahel (N’Djamena, Chad). The geochemical

similarity of this pseudo-eolian dust to Caribbean eolian dust

samples confirms the connection between Lake Chad supply

source sediments and the material actually deposited in the

Caribbean Basin..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A13: Dust and Geoscience

77

COMPOSITION AND DISTRIBUTION OF

RELATIVELY FINE-GRAINED SEDIMENTS OFF

MIYAKO-JIMA, RYUKYU ISLANDS, JAPAN.

Iryu, Yasufumi* Takayuki Ogoshi, and Yoshihiro Tsuji.

*Institute of Geology and Paleontology, Graduate School of

Science, Tohoku Univ., Sendai 980-8578, Japan. Email:

iryu@dges.tohoku.ac.jp

Examined were composition and distribution of relatively

fine-grained (< 4 mm in diameter) sediments in reef to shelf

areas off Miyako-jima, Ryukyu Islands, Japan. The sediments

from selected 50 sites were embedded in an epoxy resin and

then made into thin sections. Composition of organic skeletons

(benthic foraminifera, planktonic foraminifera, corals,

bryozoans, molluscs, coralline algae, Halimeda, and other

bioclasts) and intra-/extraclasts were determined by point

counting method. Eight sedimentary facies were discriminated

by Q-mode cluster analysis. They are: coralline algal-molluscan

facies (no particular environment), coral facies

(reef), intra-/extraclast facies (shelf edge to upper shelf slope),

benthic foraminiferal gravelly facies (outer shelf), benthic

foraminiferal sandy facies (reef to inner shelf), planktonic

foraminiferal facies (shelf slope), fine bioclast facies (shallow

(< 50 m) restricted environment and deep (> 200 m) shelf

slope), and coarse bioclast facies (shelf to upper shelf slope).

SUPRATIDAL AND INTERTIDAL LITHIFICATION

ON RAINE ISLAND, NORTHERN GREAT BARRIER

REEF, AUSTRALIA.

Jell J.S.*. *Department of Earth Sciences, The University

of Queensland, St Lucia 4072, Australia. Email:

j.jell@earth.uq.edu.au

Raine island lies 620 km north-northwest of cairns on a

detached reef of the northern great barrier reef. Raine island

has a suite of geomorphic features which, in combination, are

not reported from reef islands elsewhere on the great barrier

reef. The dominant geomorphic feature is a phosphate rock

platform which forms the island core. The phosphate rock is a

classical example of a recent insular phosphate deposit that has

formed by cementation and replacement of holocene carbonate

sands by phosphate leached from a superficial blanket of avian

guano. The main phosphate mineral is dahllite, which occurs

as microlaminated grain coatings and as bioclast replacement.

Whitlockite occurs as minor pore-fillings. The platform is

surrounded by a scarp which is indicative of a period of

significant island erosion. Surrounding the phosphate platform

is a broad swale zone, which is underlain at shallow depth by

lithified beach sediments with carbonate cements mainly as

thin fringes of aragonite loosely coating the grains.

A CLASSIC CARIBBEAN ALGAL RIDGE, HOLANDES

CAYS, PANAMA: AN ALGAL COATED STORM

DEPOSIT.

Macintyre Ian G., Peter W. Glynn, and Robert S. Steneck.

National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian

Institution, Washington, DC 20560 USA. Email:

Macintyre.Ian@NMNH.SI.EDU

Holandes Cays, Panama, long considered a classic Caribbean

algal ridge, can no longer be classified as such because

crustose coralline algae have played a very minor role in the

formation of its relief. Six core holes drilled across the outer

ridge of Holandes Cays indicate that the relief was formed by

storm deposits. In addition, the crustose coralline flora is more

characteristic of coral reefs than that associated with algal

ridges. Twenty-seven radiocarbon dates reveal that these

deposits accumulated 2,000 to 3,000 years ago. The present-day

surface of this ridge is extensively bioeroded and is

dominated by a thin cover of crustose coralline algae, but little

substrate accumulation has occurred over the past 2,000 years.

HOLOCENE SEDIMENTS OF THE HERON-WISTARI

REEF PLATFORM: A NEW MODEL FOR PLATFORM

REEF EVOLUTION.

Opdyke, Bradley N.* David A. Ryan, & John S. Jell, *The

Australian National University, Department of Geology,

Canberra ACT 0200. Email: Bradley.Opdyke@anu.edu.au

The combination of core and seismic data from the Heron-Wistari

reef platforms have allowed the development of a new

conceptual model for the evolution of carbonate facies on the

antecedent platforms during the Holocene. Rather than the

fore-reef, reef, back-reef and lagoon facies growing straight up

to sea level, as is illustrated in most text books, these facies on

the Heron and Wistari platforms change dramatically. During

the post-flooding "catch-up" phase of reef growth most of the

surface of both platforms was covered with coral growth.

Only after the windward side of the reef caught up with sea

level, at approximately 4000 ybp did the modern facies

distribution get established..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A13: Dust and Geoscience

78

METEORIC SOLUTION TEMPLATE FOR ATOLL

MORPHOLOGY.

Edward G. Purdy* and Edward L. Winterer. *PetroQuest

International Inc. “Foxbourne”, Hamm Court, Weybridge,

Surrey, KT13 8YA, UK, EGPurdy@compuserve.com

A data base of 301 atolls from the Pacific, Indian and

Atlantic oceans has been analyzed with respect to factors

governing maximum atoll lagoon depth. Statistically

significant correlations between maximum atoll lagoon depth

and both atoll area and present day rainfall are viewed as the

combined effect of paleo-rainfall with catchment area in

contributing to lagoon depth. The reality of solution predicated

atoll morphology is documented by the gross saucer-shaped

morphology of several of the Lau, Fiji islands and the

subsurface Cretaceous Golden Lane Atoll of Mexico, where

evidence of reef rim construction is lacking but evidence for

significant solution relief is compelling. Anewetak drill data

demonstrate the preservation of only about 8 m of lagoonal

sediment for the past 400 kyrs, compared to a Holocene

lagoonal sedimentation rate of about1m ka -1 that would fill the

lagoon in about 60 kyrs. The implication is that most lagoonal

sediment has been removed by erosion during sealevel

lowstands. Additionally the role of reefs in contributing to

modern atoll rim construction appears generally limited to

approximately 10 m, leaving more than 20 m of relief to be

explained at most atolls. Subsidence rates of even 5 cm ka -1 do

not suffice to explain the subsea depth of this unconformity.

Calculations of solution rates relative to the residence time of

sea level below given depths during the past 700 ka suggests

that the observed atoll relief is in part inherited from more than

one Pleistocene glacial stage or perhaps even before then.

SMALL-SCALE UPWELLING AS A CONTROL FOR

REEF HEALTH AND FRAMEWORKS. PRELIMINARY

FINDINGS FROM THE BAHAMAS AND THE

ARABIAN SEA.

Riegl, Bernhard*, Werner E. Piller. Institut für Geologie

und Paläontologie, Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz,

Heinrichstrasse 26, 8010 Graz, Austria.

Email:bernhard.riegl@kfunigraz.ac.at

Coral health and framework development was investigated in

Eleuthera, Cat Island (Bahamas) and Khor Fakkan (Arabian

Sea, United Arab Emirates) in 1999. In the Bahamas, coral

cover and reef framework development was found to be better

in Eleuthera than in Cat Island. However, coral mortality,

bleaching and disease frequency was much higher in Eleuthera

than in Cat Island. Repeated small-scale upwelling of water

about 2 degrees colder than surface waters was observed on

Cat Island and the shelf-edge reefs were covered by this water.

It is assumed that in bleaching years, when sea-surface

temperatures are elevated and corals bleach, such moderate

upwelling can protect the Cat Island corals from bleaching.

The coral's price for this protection is the disadvantage of

having to live in a colder environment with ensuing lower

calcification and framebuilding rates. In the Arabian Sea,

Shark Island experiences frequent small-scale upwelling

events which lead to a temperature stratified water column.

Pocillopora frameworks were found to be dead above 5m but

completely alive underneath. The geometry of the reef and the

mortality signs allow speculation that this mortality in shallow

water was also caused by surface waters heated above

bleaching threshold, while corals growing in water deeper than

5m were protected by cool, upwelled water.

CORAL REEFS AND THE THREAT OF SOIL DUST

Shinn, E. A.* and Charles W. Holmes. U.S. Geological

Survey, St. Petersburg, Fl 33701 Email: eshinn@usgs.gov

Whereas dredging, boat groundings, deforestation, sewage,

storms, overfishing, and related anthropogenic actives threaten

coral reefs locally, most researchers agree that diseases,

possibly associated with El Nino-warming events, are the

major threats faced by coral reefs today. The mechanisms for

coral pathogen distribution therefore should be of major

concern. Water currents are inferred to be the most common

pathogen transport mechanism. However, atmospheric

distribution appears to be an emerging, viable alternative.

Increasing African soil-dust transport into the Caribbean and

Florida (hundreds of millions of tons per year) has been shown

to deliver high levels of iron and phosphorus as well as fungal

and possibly bacterial pathogens. African soil dust also

contains elevated levels of mercury and pesticides. Other

studies have also shown that soil dust is ingested by corals and

becomes part of the sclerochronological record. Here we

report that African soil dust is unusually radiogenic. African

soil dust contains elevated levels of 7 Be (half-life 53 days) and

210 Pb (half-life 23 years). Gamma radiation levels of dust

landing in the Caribbean exceed acceptable breathable levels

for humans as defined in NCPR report No. 32. We speculate

that radiation from ingested particles may affect corals directly

and/or enhance susceptibility to anthropogenic stresses. For

example, the period of maximum dust flux in the Caribbean

and Florida is June through August when waters are the

warmest and coral expulsion of symbiotic algae is most likely.

MICROBIAL ACTIVITY AND SEDIMENT

INTERACTIONS IN MODERN MICROBIALITES

FROM A LAGOONAL ENVIRONMENT (TIKEHAU

ATOLL, FRENCH POLYNESIA)

Sprachta, S. * , G. Camoin, S.Golubic, P. Gautret & Th.

Lecampion * CEREGE, B.P. 80, UMR 6635 CNRS,

Europôle Méditerranéen de l’Arbois, F-13545 Aix-en-Provence

cedex 4, France. Email: sprachta@cerege.fr

Tikehau atoll (french polynesia) provides the opportunity to

document the development of microbialites (stromatolitic

structures, gelatinous masses and mats) in a lagoonal

environment apparently in pristine conditions. Their

distribution in time and space is clearly governed by short-term

environmental and/or climatic changes. Dome-shaped

stromatolitic structures are produced by three distinctive

phormidium species (phormidium spp.1 and 2 and p.

Hendersonii) and a possibly new species of schizothrix which

exhibit a clear depth zonation between 3 and 25 m. Greenish

and shapeless gelatinous masses hanging from the ceiling of

caverns in coral reefs are produced by the sheathed

filamentous cyanobacterium phormidium laysanense at depths

between 5 and 7 m. Microbial mats are well developed at all

depths on the flanks of pinnacles where they form coatings

over various substrates. Biosedimentological and biochemical

data indicate various sources of carbonates within the

microbialites involving several processes dominated by

organomineralization processes that occur on, or at the expense

of, decaying microbial fabrics and interstitial mucilage

(microbial extracellular polymer secretions) released by

microbial organisms in the pores of the organic network..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A13: Dust and Geoscience

79

CORAL REEF COMMUNITIES ON THE PACIFIC

COAST OF COLOMBIA: GEOLOGIAL ASPECTS.

Vargas-Angel, Bernardo. *University of Miami, RSMAS-MBF,

4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149,

USA. Email: bvargas@rsmas.miami.edu

Well-preserved Holocene reef framework deposits provide a

historical window to compare coral reef community

composition in the recent past. Eight sediment cores were

studied from each of two coral reefs of the Pacific coast of

Colombia; La Azufrada and La Chola. Composition analyses

revealed that reefs are mainly built by fast growing

Pocillopora damicornis with minor contributions of

Psammocora. Evidence indicated that La Azufrada

experienced a temporal change in coral community

composition. Pocillopora damicornis was replaced by

Psammocora as the dominant species for near a century

between ca. 200-300 YBP. _ 18 O thermometry suggested that

changes may be possibly linked to the Little Ice Age (LIA).

Cores extracted from La Chola reef did not present clear

evidence of LIA-related community changes. Secondary

evidence is used to draw inferences on the magnitude and

severity of the LIA on a local scale. Additional findings

indicated that framework deposits at Chola reef were richer in

fine (<62µm) sediments, and terrigenous clasts than La

Azufrada reef. These results are interpreted as evidence of

increased terrigenous influx in this region. The development of

relatively vitally calcifying communities in environmentally

“poor” conditions is an example of the co-occurrence of

carbonate and siliciclastic sedimentation.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GORGONIAN

CORAL (CNIDARIA: GORGONACEA) DISEASES AND

AFRICAN DUST STORMS.

Weir, JR * , V Garrison, E Shinn, and GW Smith.

*University of South Carolina, Dept of Marine Science,

EWS Bldg., Columbia, SC 29208 Email:

julianna@mail.biol.sc.edu

Recently, the number of reports of diseases affecting

gorgonian corals in the Caribbean has increased due, at least in

part, to increased sea surface temperatures and/or

anthropogenic factors. There are many types of

microorganisms that can cause these diseases. For example,

Aspergillus sydowii, a common terrestrial fungus causes

aspergillosis in two species of sea fans, Gorgonia ventalina

and G. flabellum. Until recently, the source of this and other

pathogens remained unknown. One hypothesis is that dust

storms originating over African deserts transport various

microorganisms, including several types of fungi, into the

Caribbean. Once deposited, these organisms may cause

disease among gorgonian corals. We isolated and compared

fungal strains during dust events and non-dust events in the

Caribbean. A. sydowii was among the isolates collected during

the dust events. Subcultures were used to inoculate healthy G.

ventalina from the Bahamas. In addition, known pathogenic

and non-pathogenic strains were tested as positive and

negative controls. Dust isolates of A. sydowii showed

pathogenic activity on G. ventalina. These results show that

pathogens can be carried in African dust. We are investigating

the possibility that other pathogens may also be carried in

these dust storms.

CALIBRATION OF THE RADIOCARBON TIME-SCALE

Yokoyama Y., T.M. Esat*, K. Lambeck and K. Fifield. The

Australian National University, Canberra ACT 0200.

Email: tezer.esat@anu.edu.au

Uranium series and radiocarbon ages were measured in

corals from the uplifted coral terraces of Huon Peninsula (HP),

Papua New Guinea, to provide a calibration for the

radiocarbon time-scale over the past 30,000 years to 50,000

years. Improved analytical procedures, and quantitative criteria

for sample selection, helped screen diagenetically altered

samples. The base-line of the calibration curve follows the

trend of increasing divergence from calendar ages, as

established by previous measurements. In addition, four well

defined peaks of excess atmospheric radiocarbon concentration

(>200% relative to current levels) were observed correlated

with the timing of specific reef growth at HP. These peaks

appear to be synchronous with Heinrich events and

concentrations of ice-rafted debris found in North Atlantic

deep sea cores. The time sequence of events are as follows: An

initial abrupt sea-level high is followed by a large increase in

atmospheric radiocarbon as the sea-level subsides. Over 2000

years the atmospheric radiocarbon drops to below present

ambient levels. Each of these four periods bears a close

resemblance to ice-calving episodes of Dansgaard-Oeschger

and Bond cycles and the slow-down or complete interruption

of the North Atlantic thermohaline circulation. We attribute the

pulses of increased atmospheric radiocarbon to the cessation of

the North Atlantic circulation..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A14:Diadema

Session A14: Caribbean Reefs 17 Years After Mass Mortality of Diadema antillarum

80

Diadema antillarum: A FACILITATOR OF RECOVERY

ON THE REEFS OF DISCOVERY BAY, JAMAICA.

Cho, Leandra*, Woodley, J. *Centre for Marine Sciences,

University of the West Indies, Mona, Kingston 7, Jamaica.

Email: leancho@uwimona.edu.jm.

The reefs of Discovery Bay have suffered from large-scale

degradations since 1980, which resulted in a decline of coral

diversity and abundance. The status of the reefs near

Discovery Bay was assessed in 1997 to investigate the extent

of degradation on Jamaican reefs. Was the excessive

abundance of macroalga due to nutrient pollution or to a lack

of herbivores? Data was collected from 27 reef sites, and three

depths based on percentage cover. Coral cover was lowest at

15m, 10.7 ±3.3% but was approximately the same for 5 and

10m, 15.8 ±7.2%. Macroalgae cover increased with depth from

34.3 ±12.1% at 5m to 61.8 ±8.0% at 15m. The abundance of

Diadema was 1.54 ±1.5 m 2 at 5m, 0.1 ±0.3 m 2 at 10m, and

they were absent at 15m. This was an increase in density in

shallow waters since the last 5 years. Coral cover has increased

significantly at all three depths (from <5% to 13.8 ±5.7%)

since 1989, due partly to recruitment by opportunistic

colonizers such as Porites astreoides, and Agaricia agaricites

and at 5m, due to grazing by Diadema antillarum. Cover by

macroalgae has decreased (from 79% to 50.6 ±11.5%),

especially at 5m, where the abundance of Diadema and other

urchins has increased in recent years. The nutrient levels on

the fore reef were very low, with infrequent surface pulses of

1.0-1.5 dM of DIN and 0.1-0.2 dM of DIP, related to rainfall.

POPULATION FLUCTUATIONS OF THE RED

URCHIN ECHINOMETRA VIRIDIS SINCE 1989 IN

SOUTHWEST PUERTO RICO.

Sean P. Griffin*, Angie McGehee and Ernesto Weil.

*University of Puerto Rico, Dept. of Marine Science, P.O.

Box 908, Lajas, Puerto Rico, 00603, USA.

Email:griffin@caribe.net.

In coral reefs, sea urchins may function as key species

controlling community structure, biomass of macroalgal

communities and structural dynamics of the invertebrate

community. Mass mortality events of urchin populations can

then produce drastic changes in the structure and dynamics of

these communities, as was the case of the black sea urchin

Diadema antillarum in the Caribbean in 1983. When a better

competitor species disappears, the niche void could become

occupied by another, formerly subdued, species. This seems to

be the case for some populations of the Caribbean red sea

urchin Echinometra viridis. Recent population densities of E.

viridis were estimated for three patch reefs in La Parguera,

southwest Puerto Rico and compared with densities recorded

in 1989 and 1995 in the same reefs. Similar methods were used

in all surveys. A transect line was laid along different depth

intervals (0–1, 1–2, 2–3, 3–4, and 5–6 m). Mean densities were

estimated using 1 m 2 quadrats placed every other meter along

the transect line (n=8/depth interval). Results indicate high

variability in urchin densities through time with significant

lower densities in 1995 and significant higher densities in

2000. Shallow areas (1–4 m) had significantly higher mean

densities in all reefs and throughout the years. Two of the

patch reefs, Las Palmas and Ahogado, had significantly higher

peak mean densities (41 urchins/m 2 ) than the other, Cayo

Lopez (23 urchins/ m 2 ). The significant increase in densities of

E. viridis through time in these Caribbean reefs could be a

result of the prolonged absence of D. antillarum, an aggressive

competitor.

CARICOMP MONITORING INDICATES CHANGES IN

TRENDS ON EASTERN REEF, TOBAGO DUE TO

1997/1998 EL NINO EVENT.

Guppy, Reia *. *Institute of Marine Affairs, P.O. Box 3160,

Carenage Post Office, Trinidad and Tobago. Email:

rguppy@ima.gov.tt

Eastern Reef is part of the fringing Buccoo Reef, Tobago

that has been monitored by the Institute of Marine Affairs for

five years through the regional CARICOMP program. The reef

was monitored once a year, and parameters included coral,

algal and sponge growth, fish and sea urchin abundance,

nutrients and temperature. During the first three years of

monitoring, coral, algal and sponge growth showed an upward

trend in the mean % cover, whereas in 2000, there was a

marked decrease except in the mean algal cover. Fish and sea

urchin abundance also appeared to follow similar trends in

2000 as their numbers were noticeably reduced from in 1998.

Although the cause has not yet been determined, additional

data suggests that the cause may be associated with the

1997/1998 El Niño event. Temperature recordings were

higher than normal during that year, and visual observations in

March 1998 on Eastern Reef indicated a severe bleaching

event, from which the corals may not have recovered.

WHEN DID CARIBBEAN DIADEMA ANTILLARUM

EXPAND ITS POPULATIONS? AN ANSWER FROM

GENETICS.

Lessios, H.A.* M. Garrido, B.D. Kessing. *Smithsonian

Tropical Research Institute, Box 2072, Balboa, Panama.

Email: lessiosh@naos.si.edu

Diadema antillarum is a sea urchin which until 1983, when

mass mortality removed 97 % of the individuals, was the most

abundant herbivore and most important bioeroder of Caribbean

reefs, affecting every aspect of benthic ecology in the area.

There is disagreement as to whether its high population

densities were “natural” or due to overfishing of its predators

and competitors. The populations have not recovered in the

intervening 17 years. Isozyme data collected before and after

the mass mortality had showed no evidence of a genetic

bottleneck. Subsequent to the mortality, we gathered data

from the ATPase 6 and 8 region of mitochondrial DNA from

hundreds of individuals from the Caribbean and from the

eastern Atlantic (which was not affected by the mass

mortality), as well as from the eastern Pacific D. mexicanum.

These data indicate that the Caribbean populations are

characterized by a star-like phylogeny, a unimodal mismatch

distribution of haplotype differences, and excess variability

relative to eastern Pacific and eastern Atlantic populations.

Thus, rather than having undergone a genetic bottleneck,

Caribbean D. antillarum shows the signs of population

expansion. By estimating mutation rates from divergence

between D. antillarum and D. mexicanum, separated at a

known time by the Isthmus of Panama, we date the expansion

as having occurred in the Pleistocene, 200,000 ya. Thus, the

view that high abundance before 1983 was due to

anthropogenic effects and that the mass mortality represented a

“natural correction” is not supported by genetic data..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A14:Diadema

81

PROLONGED HERBIVORE DEFICIENCIES

SUPPRESS RECOVERY OF AN ALGAE-DOMINATED

"CORAL" REEF.

Murray, R. A.* *Discovery Bay Marine Laboratory,

University of the West Indies, Discovery Bay, Jamaica.

Email: rmurray@dbml.org

As a result of prolonged multiple stresses, initially natural

and now mainly anthropogenic, north coast jamaican reefs still

have low coral cover and are generally macroalgal dominated.

These reefs have been in decline since hurricane allen (1980),

and show little sign of recovery 20 years on. Many studies

have recognised the regional importance of the echinoid

herbivore diadema antillarum, but more work is required to

identify other important herbivorous components in the system

to provide a more complete understanding of the trophic

imbalance that persists between producers and consumers.

Investigation of the relative and potential impacts of some of

the principal herbivorous fish species at discovery bay

(sparisoma chrysopterum, scarus iserti, and acanthurus

bahianus) suggests that at least one local species is capable of

having a significant grazing impact, especially in terms of

macroalgal displacement (often not achieved by other

herbivores). Observations have been made on reef substrate

composition, algal productivity, herbivore distribution and

grazing potential. Profound differences in grazing potential

between subjects were found, along with a high degree of

consistency in algal preferences. Rates of algal productivity

and consumption recently observed at discovery bay indicate

that whilst current levels of grazing may provide some stability

to the system’s standing crop, they remain inadequate to effect

a shift back from algal to coral dominance. It is suggested

however that a selective increase in the abundance of at least

one principal herbivorous fish may contribute positively

towards this aim.

STATUS AND TEMPORAL TRENDS AT CARICOMP

CORAL REEF SITES.

CARICOMP, Warner, G.F.*, *Centre for Marine Sciences,

University of the West Indies, Mona, Kingston 7, Jamaica,

W.I. Email: gfwarner@uwimona.edu.jm

Twenty-one forereef (10m deep) sites in the Caribbean

region, with a wide variety of relief and morphology, have

been monitored by the CARICOMP protocol since 1993. Mean

percent hard coral covers at 20 sites have shown only slight

changes. Of sites reporting data spanning at least three years,

five sites showed slight upward trends, six downward and four

no change. High coral mortality occurred at Moroccoy,

Venezuela, in 1996. Recent mean coral cover varied from

44.79% at La Parguera, Puerto Rico, to 5.77% at Cayo Coco,

Cuba, and only 1.12% at the hardground site of Puerto

Morelos, Mexico. With few exceptions, sites with relatively

high coral cover (>20%) lie east of a line from Panama through

the Windward Passage and south of latitude 15 o N. Sites

differed in coral community composition, but overall the five

most abundant species (mean % cover) were Montastraea

annularis sensu lato (8.23%), Agaricia agaricites (1.38%),

Porites astreoides (1.25%), Colpophyllia natans (1.24%) and

Diploria strigosa (1.23%). Using all stations and years, within-station

coral cover showed no relationship with either algal

cover or numbers of urchins (all species), and algae were not

correlated with urchins. However, at stations with >2 Diadema

m -2 , fleshy algae were virtually absent. Nine sites reported the

presence of Diadema, compared with three in 1995, but many

sites are still dominated by algae rather than by corals. No

widespread reductions in coral cover have occurred during the

1990s even though it has been a period of intense hurricane

activity and bleaching events.

LAGOONAL GRASS-BED SEA-URCHIN APPEARS ON

WEEDY REEFS

Woodley, Jeremy*, Peter Gayle, Kenneth Fedorka,

Loureene Jones, Nancy Judd, Courtney Washburn.

*Centre for Marine Sciences, University of the West Indies

(Mona), Kingston 7, Jamaica. Email:

woodley@uwimona.edu.jm

Jamaican north coast coral reefs have suffered, in the last 17

years, a phase shift to dominance by macroalgae. Contributory

factors include the mass mortality of the herbivorous

sea-urchin, Diadema antillarum, in 1983. The recovery of

Diadema has been slow and restricted to depths shallower than

about 10 m. Prior to 1983, the browsing sea urchin,

Tripneustes esculentus, was abundant in turtle-grass beds in

the back-reef at Discovery Bay, but was never seen on the

fore-reef. Since the mid-1980s, small numbers of this urchin

have recruited to the dense beds of algae on the shallow

fore-reef. In 1991, and again in 1996-98, it became locally

abundant at sites on the West Fore-reef (1.9 ± 0.76 m -2 in April

1998 at 8 m on Monitor Reef, a site monitored for

CARICOMP). On neither occasion did the high Tripneustes

populations survive: by April 1999, its abundance had fallen to

0.3 ± 0.29 m -2 , and dead tests were frequently seen.

Tripneustes is a browser, reducing fleshy algae to a low turf,

while ignoring calcareous algae. The abundance of fleshy

algae at that site decreased from 0.96 kg wet weight per m 2 in

October 1997 to 0.27 kgm -2 in April 1998. The temporary

clearance of algae may have facilitated the migration of

Diadema populations into deeper water: their abundance at the

8 m site rose from 0.04 ± 0.9 m -2 in September 1996 to 0.2 ±

0.2 m -2 in April 1999..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A15: Sponges

Session A15: Functional Roles of Sponges on Coral Reefs

82

MORTALITY OF SPONGES IN NEW BRITAIN (PAPUA

NEW GUINEA).

Cervino J.M.*, G. W. Smith, & K. Winiarski. *Marine

Science Dept., University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC

Dept. of Marine Sciences 29208 Email:

cnidaria@earthlink.net

Ianthella basta sponges in New Britain (Papua New Guinea)

showed progressive mortality during 1996-2000. Sponge fans

are mottled with brown lesions, rotted tissue, and large holes

surrounded by brown tissue with mucus smothering the ostia

evident under light microscopy. Ianthella showed 90%

mortality at six sites within 2 km from the shore, but no

mortality was observed at 10 sites 20 km away from shore,

suggesting a terrestrial source of stress. Infected tissues show

fungal filaments and increased density of gram negative

bacteria compared to controls. Tissue necrosis was also seen

on the undersides and bases of Jaspis sp., Xestospongia sp. &

X. testudinaria (Haplosclerida) at all locations. Although

upper portions appeared normal, their bases were rotted away,

causing colonies to fall over when touched. Further

investigations and microbial analyses are needed to identify

pathogens and determine their origins.

DOES ALGAL-INVERTEBRATE SYMBIOSIS

PROMOTE THE ECOLOGICAL SUCCESS OF

SPONGES ON CORAL REEFS?

Davy S.K., A.J. Grant, D. Trautman, M.A. Borowitzka

And R. Hinde* *School Of Biological Sciences, University

Of Sydney, Nsw 2006, Australia. Email:

rhinde@bio.usyd.edu.au

The symbiosis between corals and zooxanthellae has long

been cited as the predominant reason for the ecological success

of coral reefs. This is because these symbioses are

phototrophic and can recycle and conserve essential elements

such as nitrogen. Both these factors promote survival in

oligotrophic tropical seas. However, corals are not the only

ecologically important organisms on reefs, with sponges in

particular making a significant contribution to reef biomass

and function. As with corals, many reef sponges harbour

microalgal symbionts, and some sponges also form

intercellular symbioses with macroalgae. It has long been

known that, like corals, symbiotic sponges have the potential

to be phototrophic. However, the nutritional interactions in

sponge-algal symbioses are only now becoming clear. Here we

discuss findings from our biochemical, physiological and

ecological studies on the intercellular symbiosis between the

Indo-Pacific reef sponge Haliclona cymiformis and the red

macroalga Ceratodictyon spongiosum. We suggest that the

nutritional interactions in sponge-algal symbioses are

comparable to those in coral-zooxanthella symbioses, as

similarities exist with respect to carbon fixation and

translocation, and the recycling and conservation of nitrogen.

We propose that, as for corals, symbiosis with algae is a

significant factor in the ecological success of sponges on

tropical reefs.

ALLELOPATHIC ACTIVITIES OF CARIBBEAN

SPONGE EXTRACTS.

Engel, Sebastian and Joseph R. Pawlik.* *Center for

Marine Science, UNC-Wilmington, 5001 Masonboro Loop

Rd, Wilmington, North Carolina, 28409, USA. Email:

PawlikJ@UNCWil.edu

Although there is anecdotal evidence for allelopathic

interactions between coral reef invertebrates engaged in spatial

competition, only a few studies have established the

involvement of chemical agents in field experiments. We have

developed a technique in which crude organic extracts of

marine sponges were incorporated into hard, stable gels that

serve as a substratum for overgrowth by invertebrates in the

field. Extracts of 20 species of Caribbean sponges were

assayed in the Florida Keys using three overgrowth sponges:

Tedania ignis, Lissodendoryx isodictialis, and Haliclona

hogarthi. The allelopathic effects varied between extracts of

different sponge species, but were consistent across

overgrowth organisms. Of the extracts tested, 30% inhibited

sponge growth ( Amphimedon compressa, Aplysilla longispina,

Aplysina cauliformis, Dysidea etheria, Ectyoplasia ferox, and

Phorbas amaranthus), while 15% promoted overgrowth

(Agelas wiedenmeyeri, Geodia gibberosa, and Halichondria

sp.). The remaining 55% of extracts had no effect on sponge

growth. Our technique represents a more ecologically relevant

method for assaying the allelopathic properties of extracts of

marine organisms. Moreover, it provides evidence that sponge

metabolites may act as allomones by preventing overgrowth of

some sponge species, and as both allomones and kairomones

by enhancing overgrowth of others.

SMALL TO LARGE SCALE PATTERNS IN

BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL AUSTRALASIAN

SPONGES – HETEROGENEITY AND

PREDICTABILITY OF CORAL REEF PORIFERA.

Hooper, J.N.A * & Kennedy, J.A. *Queensland Museum,

P.O. Box 3300, South Brisbane, Q 4101, Australia. Email:

JohnH@qm.qld.gov.au

Biodiversity of marine sponges (species distributions,

richness and application of predictive numerical models) was

examined at small (local), medium (regional) and larger

(provincial) scales throughout tropical Australasia. Species

richness varies considerably between study sites, at all scales;

does not necessarily follow latitudinal gradients; and numerical

modeling is ineffective in predicting species richness without a

priori knowledge of the diversity of habitats contained within

study sites. Species distributions are even more heterogeneous,

with few ubiquitous and many rare species producing

relatively low patterns of similarity between faunas, at all

scales. High species endemism does not generally correlate

with high diversity. Biodiversity modeling increases in

accuracy at larger scales, but perhaps becomes less relevant to

resource management and assessment at these scales. At the

small-scale high heterogeneity in species distributions enables

only major community patterns to be discerned (e.g. near-shore

vs. off-shore ). Predictive models are ineffective at this

scale. At the medium-scale biogeographic trends are more

easily discerned between sites, although levels of similarity

have a median value of only about 33%, with endemism

mainly a function of connectivity vs. isolation, whereas at the

larger-scale biogeographic influences produce relatively

homogeneous provincial faunas and lead to more accurate

predictive numerical models. Alternate hierarchical-based

classifications are explored as potential tools for marine

conservation planning and assessment..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A15: Sponges

83

THE NATURAL DIET OF OBLIGATE AND

FACULTATIVE COELOBITE (CAVITY-DWELLING)

SPONGES IN A CARIBBEAN CORAL REEF.

Kötter Iris * and Jakob Pernthaler. * Center for Tropical

Marine Ecology, Fahrenheitstr. 1, 28359 Bremen,

Germany. Email: Ikoetter@uni-bremen.de

An in situ enclosure experiment was carried out in Curaçao

to determine the diet and feeding rates of seven species of

coelobite (cavity-dwelling) sponges in a Caribbean coral reef.

The objective of the study was to test whether food-scarcity in

coral reef cavities favours filter-efficiency in coelobite filter

feeders. We found that obligate coelobites, occurring

exclusively in cavities, had lower clearance rates than

facultative coelobite sponges occuring both, inside crevices

and on the outer reef surface. Filtering efficiencies in the

facultatively cryptic Chondrilla nucula, Clathria raraechelae,

Halisarca caerula, Merlia normani and Ulosa ruetzleri

averaged 1.0 µg C phytoplankton (cm 3 sponge) -1 h -1 , 0.9

million cyanobacteria (cm 3 sponge) -1 h -1 and 77 million

bacteria (cm 3 sponge) -1 h -1 . The two obligate coelobite species

suitable for experiments, Desmanthus incrustans and

Diplastrella megastellata, removed only 0.4 µg C

phytoplankton (cm 3 sponge) -1 h -1 , 0.2 million cyanobacteria

(cm 3 sponge) -1 h -1 and 22 million bacteria (cm 3 sponge) -1 h -1 .

The low diversity and filtering performance of obligate

coelobite sponges in Curaçao indicates that in spite of the low

ambient food concentrations, food limitation is not a selective

factor in the framework cavities of this Caribbean reef.

ENVIRONMENTALLY INFLUENCED VARIABILITY

IN MORPHOLOGY OF CINACHYRA AUSTRALIENSIS

McDonald Justin I. *, John N.A. Hooper & Keith A.

McGuinness.

*Northern Territory University, Darwin, N.T. 0909

Email: j_mcdonald@site.ntu.edu.au

This study examined how environmental variability within

Darwin Harbour influenced form and tissue structure of

Cinachyra australiensis (Sollas 1886). External morphology

varied from the typical spherical shape of this species at

Channel Island (CI) and East Point (EP), to a flattened form at

Fannie Bay (FB). Across all sites a large proportion of dry

weight was inorganic matter, ie. structural spicule skeleton,

ranging from 62.9 to 78.2%. CI individuals, which

experienced highest water velocities and largest sediment size,

had greatest structural spicule content (78.2% ± 1.3 SE) and

lowest organic content (21.8% ±1.3 SD), followed by EP

(structural 73.6% ± 3.3 SE; organic 26.4% ± 3.3 SE).

Conversely FB, with lower water velocity and smaller

sediment size, had higher organic content (37.1% ± 2.7 SE)

and lower structural content (62.9% ± 2.7 SE). Sponges in high

velocity and large sediment environments may devote more

energy to spicule re-enforcement relative to organic content.

The low organic content of C. australiensis may indicate that,

despite the high abundance and relatively large size of this

species, it may be regarded as a more structural than dynamic

organism in the coral reef habitat.

EXAMINING THE POTENTIAL OF SPONGES AS

INDICATORS OF POLLUTION

McQuillan, Lea*. *Centre For Ecosystem Management,

Edith Cowan University, 100 Joondalup Drive, Joondalup,

WA. 6027

Sponge diversity in area affected by sewage and an area

unaffected were compared. The objective was to determine if

sponges could be used as indicator taxa to detect impacts on

temperate reef communities from marine pollution, specifically

that arising from sewage. Sampling took place in June 2000,

comparing three sites affected by sewage with three reference

sites. Quantifying the variation in sponge community

composition was determined by digital video, recording 10

replicate quadrats with an area of 0.25m 2 with three replicate

sites at each of the two sites (impacted and reference). The

results so far indicate that diversity of sponges is extremely

immense, over 60 species were collected in area of

approximately 20m 2 . Additionally variability between sites is

high, with the six reefs sampled at each of the two sites hosting

different sponge communities.

CHEMICAL DEFENSES OF CARIBBEAN APLYSINA

SPONGES. I. ROLES OF SECONDARY

METABOLITES IN MEDIATING SPONGE-MICROBIAL

INTERACTIONS.

Monica Puyana * , William Fenical and J. R. Pawlik.

*Scripps Institution of Oceanography. University of

California, San Diego. 9500 Gilman Drive La Jolla,

California 92093-0204. Email: mpuyana@ucsd.edu

The genus Aplysina can be considered a model in

understanding ecological interactions mediated by chemistry in

reef communities. The genus is well defined morphologically

and chemically. Most species are fairly common and usually

have a wide distribution. The chemistry of Aplysina is unique.

These sponges lack terpenes and possess a high percentage of

sterols, but most important, they contain an elaborate series of

brominated metabolites derived from tyrosine. These

metabolites exhibit a wide spectrum of biological activity in

in-vitro assays. It has been suggested that these metabolites

convey protection against potential pathogens or could prevent

the establishment of a microbial layer that would favor

subsequent fouling. We have detected several unhealthy

sponges by the observation of lesions and necrotic tissue.

However, there are very few isolated reports of disease or

microbial invasion in aplysinids, and usually these events

follow major anthropogenic or environmental disturbances..

El u c i d a t i n g t h e c a u s e s o f d i s e a s e i s a s i m p o r t a n t a s

d e t e r m i n i n g w h a t a r e t h e m e c h a n i s m s b y w h i c h

o r g a n i s m s o v e r c o m e m i c r o b i a l t h r e a t . T h i s i s t h e

p u r p o s e o f o u r s t u d y , u s i n g a s m o d e l o r g a n i s m s d i v e r s e

A p l y s i n a s p e c i e s . W e a r e i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e m e c h a n i s m s

b y w h i c h c h e m i c a l p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t m i c r o b i a l i n v a s i o n

i s a c h i e v e d u s i n g a l i q u i d c u l t u r e a s s a y a n d s u r f a c e

a s s o c i a t e d b a c t e r i a i s o l a t e d f r o m h e a l t h y a n d d e c a y i n g

s p o n g e s . A s s e s s m e n t o f a n t i b a c t e r i a l a c t i v i t y i s h i g h l y

d e p e n d e n t o n t h e t e s t s t r a i n ( s ) u s e d . N o t a l l t h e

b r o m i n a t e d c o m p o u n d s f r o m A p l y s i n a e x h i b i t

a n t i b a c t e r i a l a c t i v i t y a g a i n s t c o o c c u r i n g m a r i n e b a c t e r i a .

W e h a v e f o u n d h i g h l y r e s i s t a n t s t r a i n s i s o l a t e d f r o m

l e s i o n s o r n e c r o t i c t i s s u e s o f A p l y s i n a . S t r a i n s i s o l a t e d

f r o m d e c a y i n g u n r e l a t e d s p o n g e s ( n o t A p l y s i n a s p p . ) a r e

s e n s i t i v e t o t h e s e m e t a b o l i t e s , p r o v i d i n g a n i n d i c a t i o n

t h a t a g e n t s o f d i s e a s e a n d d e g r a d a t i o n i n s p o n g e s m a y b e

s p e c i e s - s p e c i f i c a n d i n s o m e i n s t a n c e s m a y c i r c u m v e n t o r

r e s i s t t h e c h e m i c a l d e f e n s e s o f s p o n g e s ..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A15: Sponges

84

CHEMICAL DEFENSES OF CARIBBEAN APLYSINA

SPONGES. II. HOW MANY SPECIES EXIST?

ADRESSING CHEMICAL VARIABILITY.

Monica Puyana* and William Fenical. Scripps Institution

of Oceanography. University of California, San Diego.

9 5 0 0 G i l m a n D r i v e L a J o l l a , C a l i f o r n i a 9 2 0 9 3 - 0 2 0 4 .

E m a i l : mpuyana@ucsd.edu

Sponges of the genus Aplysina are among the most

conspicuous and diverse sponges on Caribbean reefs. In the

Caribbean Sea, eight species of Aplysina are generally

recognized. Most species are widely distributed and may be

very important elements of the reef fauna in open and cryptic

environments. T h e g e n u s i s w e l l - d e f i n e d , f a i r l y d i s t i n c t i n

t e r m s o f m o r p h o l o g y a n d c h e m i s t r y . H o w e v e r , t h e r e i s

s t i l l s o m e d e g r e e o f c o n f u s i o n i n r e c o g n i z i n g c e r t a i n

s p e c i e s . C h e m i c a l l y , a p l y s i n i d s p o n g e s a r e e x t r e m e l y

d i s t i n c t . T h e y l a c k t e r p e n e s , m a n y p o s s e s s a h i g h

p e r c e n t a g e o f s t e r o l s , g e n e r a l l y w i t h t h e m o d i f i e d

a p l y s t a n e s k e l e t o n , a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t , t h e y c o n t a i n a n

e l a b o r a t e s e r i e s o f b r o m i n a t e d m e t a b o l i t e s d e r i v e d f r o m

t y r o s i n e . A l s o , m o s t s p e c i e s , u p o n d a m a g e o r d e a t h ,

e x h i b i t a s t r i k i n g c o l o r c h a n g e . T h i s i s d u e t o t h e

p r e s e n c e o f a g u a n i d i n e p i g m e n t t h a t b e c o m e s r a p i d l y

o x i d i z e d t o b l u e - p u r p l e , a l m o s t b l a c k . C h e m i c a l

v a r i a b i l i t y i s h i g h e v e n w i t h i n c o n s p e c i f i c s . H o w e v e r ,

t h e c a u s e s o f v a r i a b i l i t y r e m a i n u n k n o w n a n d c o u l d b e

r e l a t e d t o e n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d / o r b i o t i c p a r a m e t e r s . T h i s i s

t h e f i r s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t u d y a i m e d a t c l a r i f y i n g t h e

s t a t u s o f t h e g e n u s A p l y s i n a i n t h e C a r i b b e a n S e a u s i n g

t r a d i t i o n a l m o r p h o l o g i c a l a n d a c h e m o t a x o n o m i c

a p p r o a c h . W e a r e i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n

a n d v a r i a b i l i t y o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s p e c i e s : A p l y s i n a a r c h e r i ,

A . f i s t u l a r i s , A . i n s u l a r i s , A . f u l v a , A . c a u l i f o r m i s a n d A .

l a c u n o s a . C r u d e e x t r a c t f i n g e r p r i n t s c o r r e l a t e v e r y w e l l

w i t h t h e d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s .

BIODIVERSITY OF BACTERIA LIVING IN

ASSOCIATION WITH THE SPONGE CHONDRILLA

NUCULA.

Ritter J E, Zengler K, Trapido-Rosenthal H G*. *BBSR,

Ferry Reach, St George’s, GEO1, Bermuda. Email:

hank@bbsr.edu

Marine sponges have been the subjects of natural products

chemists’ investigations for a number of years, and these

chemists have had a record of successfully isolating novel

chemicals with interesting biomedical potentials. More

recently, it has been noted that many marine sponges harbor

large populations of symbiotic bacteria, a finding which has

led to the thought that these bacteria may be the organisms

responsible for many of the interesting chemicals that have

been found in sponge homogenates. However, attempts to

culture these symbionts prior to further taxonomic and

chemical studies have not always been successful. We have

begun to investigate the biodiversity of bacterial populations

that live in association with the sponges found in Bermuda's

marine environment using techniques that allow us to bypass

the culturing step. In one experiment, the sponge Chondrilla

nucula Schmidt was collected from shallow depths,

homogenized and lysed. The 16S ribosomal RNA genes

present in the lysate were amplified by means of PCR. The

results of these experiments suggest that a considerably larger

number of prokaryotic species are present in the sponge than is

indicated by the small number that have been identified in

other studies by culturing or microscopic techniques.

Molecular methods thus have the potential to enhance our

understanding of the sponge-bacteria relationship at the

chemical, physiological, and ecological levels.

MULTIDISCIPLINARY GEOBIOLOGICAL

APPROACH TO A FUNDAMENTALLY

PROBLEMATIC GROUP OF CORAL REEF SPONGES:

CALCAREOUS SPONGES (PORIFERA: CALCAREA)

FROM THE GREAT BARRIER REEF.

Woerheide, G.*, Hooper, J.N.A, Gagan, M., Degnan, B.

M., Thiel, V. & Reitner, J.. *Queensland Museum, P.O.

Box 3300, South Brisbane, Q 4101, Australia Email:

GertW@qm.qld.gov.au

Calcareous sponges (Porifera: Calcarea) are an important

class of sponges. 18S rDNA data suggests that they might be

the link between Porifera and Ctenophora/Cnidaria. However,

our present knowledge of this group of sponges from Indo-Pacific

coral reefs is deficient – they remain a fundamentally

problematic class of lower metazoan at all levels. Prior to our

current investigations no one has worked on this class in

Australasia for the last 50 years. In this paper we will firstly

provide an overview of the current state of knowledge and on

problematic issues concerning this group, and then present new

data from multidisciplinary geobiological approaches to shed

new light on 'old issues'. Our studies range from (1) the

population level scale, where we used molecular approaches

(analyses of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences) to

investigate the population structure of selected allegedly

'cosmopolitan' taxa from the GBR to (2) species level

(alpha)taxonomy, using mainly morphological and cytological

characters to newly describe the GBR biodiversity, to (3) the

subclass and class level scale, where we used stable isotope

analysis (d 13 C/d

18 O) of calcareous spicules to test the

biological basis for the two subclass distinction in calcareous

sponges and biogeochemical approaches (analysis of lipid-biomarkers)

to investigate phylogenetic relationships.

SPONGE ASSOCIATIONS AS ENVIRONMENTAL

INDICATORS?

Wulff, J.L.*. *Biology Department, Middlebury College,

Middlebury, VT 05753, USA. Email:

wulff@jaguar.middlebury.edu

Distinctive sponge assemblages that are typical of particular

habitats on coral reefs and adjacent linked habitats, such as

seagrass meadows and mangrove roots, suggest that some

sponge species have quite specific requirements.

Understanding which environmental factors exert firm

constraints on distribution of common sponge species could

allow us to evaluate at least some important aspects of these

environments by observing the resident sponge species. In San

Blas, Panama, distribution and abundance patterns were

quantified for all 64 sponge species living in 5 defined habitats

(seagrass meadow hard substrata, islet mangroves, coastal

mangroves, shallow patch reefs, continuous shallow reef) at

similar depths and within 180 m of each other. Limitations on

habitat distribution of each sponge species were determined

using reciprocal transplants, feeding choice experiments, and

evaluations of water and substratum qualities. With respect to

environmental assessment, absence of sponge species was

difficult to interpret, due to vagaries of sponge recruitment.

However, at least in this case, presence of sponge species

provided reliable indications of environmental variables,

especially fish and starfish predators, turbidity, exposure, and

substratum size, continuity, and stability..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A15: Sponges

85

RAPID, PATHOGEN-CAUSED SHIFTS IN CORAL

REEF SPONGE COMMUNITY COMPOSITION

Wulff, J.L.*. *Biology Department, Middlebury College,

Middlebury, VT 05753, USA. Email:

wulff@jaguar.middlebury.edu

Influence of pathogens on population and community

dynamics of coral reef sponges may be underestimated

because pathogens can kill sponges rapidly, after which

denuded skeletons deteriorate, leaving no trace. Rapid healing

and regeneration of sponges after partial mortality further

decrease chances of accurate estimation of losses due to

pathogens. Documentation of sponge losses therefore requires

frequent censuses, with every sponge and its size (volume)

recorded at each census. On a shallow reef in the Panamanian

Caribbean, rates of infection, rates of progression (and

occassional cessation) of infections within individual sponges,

and population and community consequences of pathogen-caused

partial and entire mortality were monitored over a 14 yr

period. More than half of the original 39 sponge species were

lost during this period. The combination of differential

susceptibility to pathogens among species and the great speed

at which pathogens are able to devastate susceptible sponges,

resulted in rapid shifts in community composition. Sponges of

massive growth form and in keratose orders were

disproportionately represented among the species lost,

resulting in abrupt alteration of relative abundances of sponges

that serve different functional roles (e.g., carbonate eroders,

carbonate binders, harborers of primary producers, and food

for fish or starfish) in the coral reef community..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A16: Environment

Session A16: Environment and General Papers

86

AN EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF SHADING ON

COLOR CHANGE IN A CORAL AND CRUSTOSE

CORALLINE ALGA ON A FRINGING REEF,

ABROLHOS ARCHIPELAGO, BRAZIL.

Creed J.C. * , Marcia A. de O. Figueiredo, Debora O. Pires

and Clovis B. Castro. *Setor de Ecologia, IBRAG-DBAV,

Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rua São

Francisco Xavier 524, PHLC Sala 220, CEP 20559-900, Rio

de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil. Email jcreed@openlink.com.br

In December 1997 an experiment was set up on a reef of the

Abrolhos archipelago to monitor color change in the crustose

coralline alga Porolithon pachydermum and the coral

Mussismilia braziliensis during the summer increase in sea

temperature and light intensity. An experimental approach was

used to investigate the effect of reduced light (shading by

acrylic plates) on color change in these species in order to

separate changes due to irradiance from temperature. Color

was measured weekly along with environmental variables

during three months. Observer bias in color perception was

corrected a posteriori . There was a reduction in the red, blue

and yellow components of the color of the alga during the

experimental period. The coral also showed changes in color

over time. In both organisms, units shaded by opaque acrylic

plates had more color (red and blue) than controls (steel screw

or steel screw and clear acrylic plate). Differences developed

in red and blue after 2 (algae) or 4 (coral) weeks. These results

demonstrate that color changes occur in two key benthic reef

forming organisms and that color change was due to the

activity of visible light rather than UV or water temperature. In

the coralline alga, growth rates did not differ between

treatments and color change seemed to have no harmful effect,

contrary to that reported for “true” “bleaching” events.

STRUCTURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF

ZOOPLANCTON AT THE BAI THU LONG

ARCHIPELAGO.

Dautov S.Sh.* *Institute of Marine Biology, RAS,

Vladivostok, Russia. Email: daut@mail.primorye.ru

The Ba i Th u Long Archipelago (Gulf of Tonkin, South

China Sea) is close to the mouths of several large rivers, which

carry out a lot of silt and fresh water which lower the salinity

of sea water (to 29-30‰) in this area. The plancton at the Bai

Thy Long Archipelago was characterized by an abundance of

phytoplancton and diversity of protozoans. By the number of

taxa distinguished, the plancton was the most diverse at Bo

Hon (Station 10), Cong Tay, Bo Hom, and Cong Do Islands,

which at the open seaside extremities of islands situated. The

least number of species was recorded in plancton at the closed

bay of Bo Hon Island and at a isolated lake with sea water at

Bu Xam Island. The density of zoo- and phytoplancton was

much lower in the lake, neverthelesss, the plancton community

consisted of copepods, pteropods, chaetognaths,

appendicularians, jelly fishes, larvae of gastropod, and bivalve

molluscs and of ascidians.Most often copepods, chaetognaths,

pteropods, and siphonophores in holoplancton, and larvae of

polychaetes, crustaceans, bivalves, and ophiurs in

meroplancton occurred at the Bai Thy Long Archipelago.

Actinotrochae, tornariae, and sea urchins plutei were recorded

at stations with the most divers plancton. The presence of these

larvae could indicate of the quality of sea water at seaside

island coasts with water is more often exchanged during the

tide.

TEMPORAL FLUCTUATIONS IN TROPICAL

LAGOONS: RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN BENTHIC

COMMUNITIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL

PARAMETERS IN NEW CALEDONIA.

Frouin, Patrick *, Clavier, Jacques. *Laboratoire

d’écologie marine, Université de la Réunion, 15 avenue

René Cassin, 97715 Saint Denis Messag Cedex 9, France.

Email: Patrick.Frouin@univ-reunion.fr

Environmental factors rarely exhibit seasonal trends in the

tropics. However, in New-Caledonia, temperature, light and

rainfall show seasonal fluctuations. Particular organic carbon

and primary benthic production, which supply the

macrobenthos with energy, are clearly influenced by these

parameters. These variables regulate the general metabolic

response (respiration) of the benthic biota, which is mainly the

result of the activity of small organisms. However, few data

are currently available about macrobenthic responses to the

temporal variability of environmental factors and putative food

paths. We studied three macrobenthic communities in the

South-West lagoon of New-Caledonia, on a monthly basis over

one year, to identify the seasonal response of the macrobenthic

assemblages. Seasonal variability was not significant. That

result at the community level actually conceals several

population strategies for recruitment. The diversity of the

recruitment tactics is common in the tropics and corresponds to

an optimal use of environmental resources.

ANTHROPOMORPHY AND THE NANNOS. A QUASI-HISTORICAL

PERSPECTIVE.

Hubbard J.* KCL WC2R 2LS Email:

julia.hubbard@kcl.ac.uk

Anthropomorphy is not the stuff of science but of journalism.

But it can sometimes provide a useful reminder of the sorts of

problems that occur in nature. As such simple behavioural

observations on coral polyps can provide information on their

welfare and act as sources of preventative mareculture. We

may not know the preferred diet but we have evidence that

corals are isotonic with seawater and as such must be

intimately affected by its contents whether in solution or

nannoscopic form. We know that the ancient mariners

depended on submarine freshwater springs amongst coral reefs

therefore it comes as little surprise to find Montastrea thriving

alongside one of these springs. We know of marine yeasts that

are a form of fungi as well as their terrestrial counterparts that

are fine enough to infiltrate freshwater lenses during times of

heavy flooding. Advances in technology since corals and coral

reefs attained popular interest in the early nineteenth century

have given way to an increasingly technical literature. This is

replete with useful factual matter. Much is known of soil fungi.

But it seems that we are in danger of overlooking simple

observational details that can be sensitive indicators of

behavioural responses to stress that would have been noticed

previously. Since medical doctors accompanied the earlier

expeditions, physiology played a major influence on the

resultant works. These lack the necessary calibration required

of understanding causal relationships that one would expect to

result from medical and veterinarian observations prior to

treatment. Thus our findings are out of line with the

capabilities available..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A16: Environment

87

A CASE OF RED TIDE IN THE WATER OR WEST

SUMATRA

Indrawadi and Efendi, Yempita. *Fakultas Perikanan

Universitas Bung Hatta Padang, Indonesia. Email :

Incune@indosat.net.id

The phenomenon of the Red Tide in West Sumatra Waters

has happened since December 1997-January 1998. This case

has been watched and observed by Fishery Faculty of Bung

Hatta University together with a Study Club- "Terumbu

Karang Indonesia" (POSTERI) in Sumatra Region I. From the

field monitoring result, it was clearly seen that the color of sea

water changed into brown to reddish. There were many dead

fishes floating found on the surface of the sea. The ecosystem

of coral reef in the observed location broke up for almost 100

%. As the Red Tide happened until May 1998, there were no

teri fishes (Stolephorus sp) trapped by fishermen. It could be

said that almost all of West Sumatra Waters faced the Red

Tide. Even, according to the information given by Nias waters,

in North Sumatra also faced the same case. Based on the

analysis result of sea-water samples in the laboratories, it was

found that there were various types of plankton that caused

Red Tide. The various types found are Gonyaulax spinifera,

Pseudonitzshia punges, Trichodesmium thiebautii, Asterinella

japanica, Graminatophora marina, Navicula membranaceus,

Nitzschia longissima, Ditoma hyalina, Navicula concellata,

Biddulphia mobiliensis, Ceratinum forca, Odontella sinensis,

Ceratinum tripos and Protoperidium conicum. As a result of

the Red Tide, the ecosystem of coral reef is threatened, there

are many fishes die, Teri fishes (Stolephorus spp) are rarely

found, even there is no any fisherman who catch that fish.

ENVIRONMENT CONDITIONS IN THE GULF OF

TONKIN.

Khristoforova, N.K. *, Zhuravel, E.V. *Far East State

University, Vladivostok, 690600, Russia. Email:

nadezhda@tigdvo.marine.su

The northern part of the Gulf of Tonkin, named Ha Long

Bay, is declared by UNESCO as a World Natural Heritage site.

This bay is a shallow marine water basin with many vertical

limestone islands, surrounded by coral reefs. This unusual

place is visited by many tourists. The growing tourism press,

accompanied with wastes from hotels, located along the beach,

is the reason for the government and environmental societies to

worry. Moreover, for many years coastal industrialization,

shipping, coal-mining and coal-processing were and are active

near the coast. Two years ago an extensive coral bleaching was

observed here. It is obvious, that anthropogenic press is one of

the primary components of the ecological stress of this area.

Therefore, the aim of this work is to estimate the

environmental conditions in Ha Long Bay. The water quality

control parameters included: temperature, salinity, dissolved

oxygen, mineral and total phosphorus, detergents and phenols.

According to the results of sample analyses none of the

determined parameters exceeded the background level and all

data obtained have had typical values for tropical shallow

waters. Thus, it was concluded, that the bay has a high ability

for self-cleaning. The main reason of this phenomena is

suspended matter. Shallowness, closeness of the bottom

provide for precipitation of adsorbed on the suspended

particles organic and mineral chemicals and microbes into the

sediments. High water temperature promote destructive

processes. Turbidity complicate life of the reef inhabitants and

decrease the permissible biodiversity. On the other hand, this is

the ultimate source of the self-cleaning process.

PHOTOPRODUCTION OF REDUCED OXYGEN AND

IRON SPECIES IN TROPICAL MARINE

ENVIRONMENTS.

Szymczak, Ron*. *ANSTO Environment Division, PMB 1,

Menai, NSW 2234 Australia, Email: rsx@ansto.gov.au

Over-reduction of photosynthetic electron transport

components during photosynthesis under high irradiances

leads to elevated concentrations of oxygen and hydroxide

radicals which are damaging to corals’ cellular defence

mechanisms. However, formation of significant concentrations

of reactive oxygen species also occurs in seawater. One of the

major mechanisms involves the photoionization of naturally

occurring organic matter with concomitant reduction of

oxygen to superoxide, which subsequently disproportionates to

hydrogen peroxide. Recent studies have identified that deil

variations in the photogeneration of transient chemical species

play a significant role in the geochemistry, hence

bioavailability of the elements iron and manganese which are

required for production of oxygen scavenging cellular defence

mechanisms (SODs). Photochemical processes in marine

surface waters may also potentially impact on photosynthetic

processes and contribute to photoinhibition and bleaching.

OCCURRENCE OF STAGHORN CORAL (ACROPORA

CERVICORNIS) OUTCROPS AT HIGH LATITUDES IN

NEARSHORE WATERS OF FT. LAUDERDALE, FL,

USA.

Thomas*, J. D., Dodge, R. E., Gilliam, D.S. *National

Coral Reef Institute, Nova Southeastern University

Oceanographic Center, 8000 North Ocean Drive, Dania,

FL 33004, USA. Email: thomasjd@ocean.nova.edu.

Investigations by the National Coral Reef Institute (NCRI) in

May, 1998 revealed the occurrence of a number of robust

populations, or “thickets”, of A. cervicornis in shallow

nearshore waters off Broward County, Florida. These colonies

not only flourish at northern marginal temperature limits, they

are situated in the midst of significant anthropogenic stresssors

including coastal pollution, periodic ship groundings, and

extensive urbanization of the coastal zone. Investigations into

the ecology of these populations can provide a scientific

counterpoint to understanding the continuing collateral demise

of A. cervicornis Caribbean-wide. The Ft. Lauderdale

populations apparently persist in spite of being “upstream” of

Florida Keys’ populations of A. cervicornis which have been

decimated by waterborne disease agents. The fact that these

high latitude colonies have shown no significant signs of

disease or other infectious agents poses an important contrast

to past and current Caribbean occurrences. A number of

research projects involving these populations have been

initiated including population genetics, mapping and

distribution, classification and census, trophic and food web

dynamics, and essential fish habitat prey characteristics.

Continued detailed studies and mapping of such high-latitude

A. cervicornis reefs are of importance to provide greater

understanding of these apparently unique biological resources..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A16: Environment

88

NUTRIENTS AND ORGANIC MATTER IN THE

SEDIMENTS OF CORAL REEF AND SEA-GRASS BED

OF GULF OF MANNAR MARINE BIOSPHERE

RESERVE, INDIA.

Vinith-kumar, N.V., and Balasubramanian, T.. *Centre of

Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University,

Parangipettai – 608502, Tamil Nadu, India.

Investigations were made to collect information on sediment

nutrients and organic matter in the coral rich Gulf of Mannar

(GOM) endowed with seagrass beds and mangroves, during

July 1994 to June 1996. Samples were essentially collected

arou-nd two islands viz. Manoli and Hare. The sediments were

mostly sandy (95-99 %), carbonate mixed and with calcium

content of 8.8-40 %. The total organic carbon (TOC), total

nitrogen (TN) and total phosph-orus (TP) concentrations

varied between 0.69-5.73 mg/g, 163.43–487.21 µM and

7.14–33.45 µM respectively with significant variations

between stations and seasons. The C:N, C:P and N:P ratios

calculated were 0.88-0.30:1, 0.29-3.75:1 and 2.92-18.73:1

respectively. Higher nutrients, organic matt-er concentrations

and C:P ratios in the seagrass beds than coral reef sediments

reveled the influence of organic matter production and

subsequent release and absorption in sediments. It seems,

seagrass bed sediments act as reservoir for nutrients and

organic matter, whereas coral reef acts as user and sink..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A17: Proxy Records

Session A17: Proxy Records of Climate in Coral Skeletons

89

OXYGEN ISOTOPE AND STRONTIUM/CALCIUM

RECORDS FROM CORALS OF MID-HOLOCENE

CLIMATES AT OKINAWA ISLAND

Abe, Osamu* Eiji Matsumoto, Takehiro Mitsuguchi and

Toshio Kawana *Institute for Hydrospheric-Atmospheric

Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya, 464-8601, Japan.

Email: oabe@ihas.nagoya-u.ac.jp

Oxygen isotope ratios ( 18 O/16 O) in bio genic carbonates are

mainly controlled by the temperature and 18 O/16 O ratio in water

when the carbonates were formed. Based on the composite

analysis using the Sr/Ca and 18 O/16 O ratios in coral skeletons,

information on changes of past SSTs and surface seawater

18 O/16 O ratios can be obtained. The Sr/Ca and 18 O/16 O ratios of

two fossil coral specimens (5.8 ka and 6.4 ka) from Okinawa

Island, Japan, provide evidence for the prevalence of a stronger

evaporative regime in the northwestern Pacific results of

during the mid-Holocene as compared to today. Our findings

differ from results of general circulation models which indicate

wetter condition for the mid-Holocene tropical region. These

results suggest a possible intensification of the atmospheric

meridian circulation had increased in the mid-Holocene.

CORAL GROWTH RECORDS ACQUISITION BY

LUMINESCENCE IMAGING PLATES AND

ANALYTICAL TREATMENT : A TOOL FOR

APPREHENDING CLIMATE RECORDS

Bessat, F. * *Department of Physical Geography - Sorbonne

University, Paris, France. Email:

Frederic.Bessat@paris4.sorbonne.fr

Reef corals have proven to be sensitive monitors of the

marine environment. Their calcium carbonate skeletal material

preserves a detailed record of past environmental conditions

which can be used to reconstruct the history of climate

variability and understand its impact on the marine

environment. However, there were apparently conflicting

reports about aspects of density bands, especially their

appearance. Thus, it is no surprising that there emerged no

definite link between annual density bands in corals and

environmental factors. Conventional X-radiography has been a

widely used technique in the study of coral skeletons for nearly

thirty years. Measurements of coral skeletal densities have

been made by photodensimetry of X-radiographs

(Buddemeier), by gamma densitometry (Chalker and Barnes)

or more recently by computerized tomography (Logan, Heiss,

Bessat).The present work describes the use of to enhance the

density banding and develop a new method to obtain density

measurement directly on the X-radiograph. First, an experience

with luminescence imaging plates in marine biology

radiography is tested. Second, a methodological approach to

pretreatment of X-rayed skeleton slices of the massive coral

Porites sp. is described. Its allows the reconstruction of images

cleared of the signal characterizing coral individual skeletal

elements and noise.

A HISTORY OF NORTH ATLANTIC CLIMATE IN

BERMUDA BRAIN CORAL

Cohen A.L.*, Michael M. McCartney, Jackie van Etten

and Struan R. Smith *Woods Hole Oceanographic

Institution, Woods Hole, MA 02543 USA. Email:

acohen@whoi.edu

The North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) is an atmospheric

phenomenon which impacts the climate of Europe and North

America. In recent decades, the NAO has exhibited decadal

variability and a lower frequency trend which leads us to

enquire after its natural long-term behaviour and the possible

impacts of anthropogenic forcing. Instrumental data analysis

reveal an especially strong correlation between ocean

temperatures at Bermuda and the NAO since 1957. Large

colonies of the brain coral Diploria labyrinthiformis are

common on the Bermuda reefs, their size and low growth rate

indicates that individual colonies may live more than 500

years. We examined chemical and structural variations in the

skeletons of two small brain corals collected on the southern

reefs of Bermuda to assess the fidelity of this species as a

climate archive. Both d

18 O and skeletal density are strongly

correlated with North Atlantic climate over the past 40 years.

Winter-time d

18 O anomalies are well-correlated with the NAO

index but lag the instrumental dataset by three years. This lag

is unlikely to be climate-induced but rather caused by the

mixing of aragonite prisms with younger blocky crystals

deposited in the porous spaces of the excotheca as the coral

grows. The timing of backfilling is estimated from the number

of open pore spaces at the top of the colony and is used to

explain the apparent lag between coral SSTs at Bermuda and

the atmospheric circulation. Our data show that Bermuda

braincorals record a history of the NAO as chemical and

structural changes in their aragonite skeletons. However,

accurate interpretation of climate from the proxy record

requires that mechanisms of skeletal growth be well-understood.

OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE VARIABILITY IN THE

WESTERN INDIAN OCEAN SINCE 1696 A.D.: 18 O

AND BA/CA IN A KENYA REEF CORAL.

Dunbar, R.B.*, Cole J.E., McClanahan T.R, Muthiga N.

*Geological & Environmental Sciences, Stanford Univ.,

Stanford CA 94305-2115 USA. Email:

dunbarro@lmg.polar.org

Instrumental records of climate variability from the

equatorial Indian Ocean are scarce and short. Here we present

stable isotopic and trace element records of climatic change

acquired from large Porites heads from Malindi, Kenya (3°S,

40°E) that extend from 1696 to 1996 A.D. The record exhibits

a long-term warming trend of about 1.5°C that accelerates in

the latest 20 th century, superimposed on interannual-decadal

variability that persists throughout the record. Although

dramatic temperature excursions occurred during several

intervals of the 1700's and 1800's, the 1990's are the warmest

decade of the past 300 years. Interannual SST variations

reconstructed from the Malindi coral are coherent with ENSO

indices and other ENSO-sensitive coral records. In addition,

Ba/Ca levels in the coral skeleton exhibit a strong correlation

with ENSO indices, the result of ENSO-related rainfall

anomalies in East Africa. Recent work by Webster et al. and

Saji et al. suggest the existence of a climatic dipole internal to

the Indian Ocean, with periodic cooling off Sumatra and

warming off east Africa. The uppermost part of our coral

record is broadly consistent with dipole forcing but the extent

to which ENSO versus internal Indian Ocean phenomena

modulate interannual SST variability is not yet clear..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A17: Proxy Records

90

MID-HOLOCENE MONSOON DYNAMICS AND THE

SEASONAL EXPRESSION OF EL NINO IN THE

WESTERN PACIFIC

Gagan, M.K. * , Ayliffe, L.K., Hopley, D., Hantoro, W.S.,

McCulloch, M.T., Lynch, H.S. and Mortimer, G.E.

Research School of Earth Sciences, The Australian

National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia.

Email: Michael.Gagan@anu.edu.au

We present high temporal resolution measurements of

skeletal Sr/Ca, d

18 O, and d

13 C for modern and mid-Holocene

(6.2 to 4.8 ka) corals from the Australian Great Barrier Reef

and the island of Sumba, eastern Indonesia. Our aim was to

investigate potential changes in the Asian-Australian monsoon

and the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The modern

coral records show a 3-part sequence of environmental change

within the annual cycle that is diagnostic of El Niño in the

western Pacific, including: (i) relatively cool sea-surface

temperature (SST) in the austral winter indicated by both the

coral Sr/Ca and d

18 O; (ii) reduced cloudiness in spring-summer

indicated by the coral d

13 C values; and (iii) lower than average

monsoon rainfall in summer shown by the d

18 O. Results for

the mid-Holocene corals indicate that this time-slice may be

characterised by weak El Niños with a frequency of 6-9 years,

in contrast to the relatively strong, high frequency El Niños (2-

5 years) of the 1970s-1990s. In addition, the fossil coral

records show that rapid warming of SST in spring coincided

with strong evaporation and that the maximum in monsoon

rainfall was delayed by about two months. These changes in

the annual cycle of SST, evaporation, and rainfall support the

hypothesis that differences in the seasonal cycle of insolation

~5-6 ka ago altered the stability of the coupled ocean-atmosphere

system, including the dynamics of the Asian-Australian

monsoon and El Niño.

EXPANDING THE SCALES OF CORAL PROXY

RECORDS

Gill, IP*, Dickson, JAD and Hubbard, DK. Dept. of

Geology, University of Puerto Rico, present address:

Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of New

Orleans, New Orleans, LA 70148. email: igill@uno.edu

This study addresses two constraints of coral records: 1) the

length of record, normally limited to the coral life span, and 2)

the high apparent temporal resolution of the chemical record,

which is being continuously improved by new analytical

techniques. Regarding length of record, reef drilling allows

the construction of a composite coral record spanning the last

six millennia. Three fossil Montastrea annularis pieces from

two island-shelf study sites, Lang Bank, St. Croix, and La

Parguera, Puerto Rico were analyzed for stable isotope

variation (398±80, 1768±70 (La Parguera) and 5958±90 ybp

(Lang Bank)). The samples show no statistical difference in

annual average oxygen isotopic values, suggesting average

sea-surface temperatures did not change from 3960BC

(Holocene Temperature Maximum) to AD1600 (Little Ice

Age). With regard to increasing temporal resolution, SEM and

electron microprobe analysis of modern Montastrea annularis

skeletons reveals ornate radial 5-10 µm micro-banding

oriented transversely to annual banding. The micro-banding

displays density or solubility variation correlated to trace-element

compositional changes (notably Sr) and may not be

controlled extrinsically. This should suggest caution in

interpreting high-resolution proxy records until more is known

about the mechanisms and timing of coral skeletonization.

IDENTIFICATION OF SEASONAL TO DECADAL

TIMESCALE VARIATIONS IN THE ZONAL

CURRENTS OF THE CENTRAL EQUATORIAL

PACIFIC PRIOR TO 1955 USING 14 C IN CORAL.

Grottoli*, A. G., E. R. M. Druffel, S. T. Gille and R. B.

Dunbar. *Department of Earth System Science, University

of California, Irvine, CA 92697-3100. Email:

grottoli@uci.edu

Oceanographers have a limited record of the natural variation

of the width of the eastward flowing North Equatorial Counter

Current (NECC) and its relationship to El Niño Southern

Oscillations (ENSO). Here, we reconstructed the seasonal-to-decadal

variation in the zonal currents of the central equatorial

Pacific for the period of 1923-1955 using radiocarbon

measurements d

14 C) in a Porites coral skeleton from Fanning

Island (3 0 54'N, 159 0 19'W). Fanning lies in the path of the

South Equatorial Current (SEC) during most of the year.

During the warm phase of ENSO, the SEC weakens and the

eastward flowing NECC broadens extending south of 4 0 N,

laving Fanning Island. This southward expansion of the

NECC is more pronounced and lasts longer during El Niño

events. Since radiocarbon levels in the NECC are higher than

in the SEC, we were able to reconstruct the natural variation in

the placement of these two zonal currents associated with

ENSO from 1923-1955 from a Fanning coral. Initial results

indicate that prior to 1955, d

14 C averages -54l and maximum

d

14 C values seem to correspond with warm phases of ENSO.

The large range in d

14 C indicates a strong contrast between

warm and cool phases of ENSO in this region.

MULTISITE, MULTITRACER RECORD OF CLIMATE

CHANGE FROM INDIAN OCEAN CORALS.

Grumet Nancy *, Robert Dunbar, Julia Cole Stanford

University, Stanford Ca Usa. . Email:

NGRUMET@LELAND.STANFORD.EDU

Recent discoveries by climate dynamicists suggest that the

Indian Ocean exhibits an internal mode of variability similar to

the Pacific's ENSO phenomenon. However, a longer

perspective is required to document the presence/persistence of

an Indian dipole through time, and to assess Indian Ocean SST

interactions with ENSO events, the Afro-Asian monsoon, and

global climate change. High-resolution coral records from

coastal Kenya spanning 1° to 4°S (Lamu, Malindi, Watamu,

Mombasa and Kisite) demonstrate that chemical and isotopic

tracers within coral aragonite accurately record seasonal and

annual changes in environmental parameters (e.g., SST, river

input, and salinity/precipitation). Results from calibration

studies indicate that the d

18 0 of a Watamu Porites lutea reflects

primarily SST. Linear regression of coral d

18 0 versus SST

yields a slope of –0.22 per mil ( 0 /00) per 1 0 C. In comparison, a

Malindi coral d

18 0 yields a slope of –0.26. Variability between

the two calibration studies may reflect greater seasonality in

seawater d

18 0 at Malindi due to runoff from the Sabaki River.

The highest correlations between SST and coral d

18 0 (r 2 = 0.6

to 0.8) are achieved at quarterly timescales. We present the

first multisite analysis of oceanographic variability along the

East African coast deduced from isotopic and chemical (Sr,

Mg, Ba) measurements in corals..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A17: Proxy Records

91

SURFACE WATER RADIOCARBON HISTORY IN THE

SOLOMON SEA A RECORD OF WATER MASS

MIXING.

Guilderson T*, Schrag, Cane, Kashgarian, and Southon.

*Center for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry, LLNL L-397,

Livermore CA, 94551, USA. Email:

guilderson1@popeye.llnl.gov

The western tropical Pacific plays in important role in the

localization of deep atmospheric convective activity and is a

major exporter of latent and sensible heat to both hemispheres.

On interannual and longer timescales the transport of warm

surface water into and out of the western equatorial Pacific is

thought to play an important role not only in regulating the

development and termination of warm ENSO events, but also

in global climate through atmospheric teleconnections. The

relative paucity of observational data requires broadscale or

coarse synoptic averaging and does not allow for more detailed

questions regarding interannual to decadal scale variability,

and in general is relegated to the last 10-20yrs. Such a time-history

is insuffiencient to look at longer time-scale variability

or to address such questions as anthropogenic influences on

climate variability. Sub-annual radiocarbon measurements of

coral skeletal material which accurately records the d 14 C of

dCO 2 have added important information to water sampling

programs like GEOSECS and WOCE. d 14 C is a quasi-conservative,

passive advective tracer, and time-series such as

those derived from archives such as hermatypic corals can

augment historical, conventional observations especially in

times and regions where observations are sparse. Corals act

like strip-recorders continuously recording the radiocarbon

content of the waters in which they live and thus it is possible

to use records derived from these biogenic archives to study

ocean mixing.

SKELETAL ARCHITECTURE AND DENSITY BAND

ANALYSIS IN DIPLORIA STRIGOSA BY X-RAY

COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY.

Helmle, K.P., and Dodge, R.E. *National Coral Reef

Institute, Nova Southeastern University Oceanographic

Center, 8000 North Ocean Drive, Dania, Florida 33004

USA. Email: kevinh@ocean.nova.edu

Due to variability across coral taxa, the specific architectural

variations responsible for density banding are not fully

understood. Variations in the accretion of skeletal structures

within long-lived reef corals produce annual density bands.

The chemical composition of the skeletal material and the

chronological reliability of the density bands has previously

provided accurate and useful records for reconstruction of

long-term climatic and ecological conditions. The western

Atlantic/Caribbean reef coral, Diploria strigosa, is the first

meandroid (brain) coral analyzed for skeletal variations

relative to density band formation. Skeletal architecture was

analyzed by X-radiography, optical densitometry, X-ray

computed tomography (CT), and computer image analysis.

High resolution X-ray CT images were used to reconstruct the

density band pattern, to create three-dimensional models of the

skeletal structure, and to create movies essentially traveling

back in time through the coral skeleton. Further, computer

image analysis was used to quantify the observed skeletal

variations associated with density banding. Results indicated

that high-density bands were the product of thickened septa

and tightly organized and thickened columella.

A MULTI-CENTURY COMPARISON OF CORAL

FRESHWATER-PROXY RECORDS.

Hendy, Erica *, Malcolm McCulloch, Michael Gagan, and

Janice Lough. *Research School of Earth Sciences,

Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200,

Australia Email: Erica.Hendy@anu.edu.au

Four centuries of coral freshwater-proxy records are

presented for eight Porites cores collected from the central

Great Barrier Reef (GBR), Australia. Fluorescence, d

18 O and

dBa/Ca have been measured at low resolution, 5-year

increments, from 1565 to 1985. These records are used to

assess proxy reconstructions of freshwater flux in the GBR,

and to test the level of reproducibility between coral colonies.

Inshore and midshelf sites (within 17.5-18.5°S and 146-147°E)

allow the separation of coastal influences on proxy behaviour.

The d

18 O records are strikingly consistent between inshore and

midshelf sites on both the decadal and century time scale. A

dramatic 0.4 permil shift in inshore coral d

18 O records occurs

from the late 1850s to lighter modern values in the 1870s

marking the end of the Little Ice Age. Inshore Ba/Ca ratios

track inshore d

18 O records, including the offset in the 1870s,

which is coincidental with the start of European settlement and

dramatic land-use changes. Decadal oscillations are faithfully

replicated in all three proxies. The composite approach to

coral proxy records, presented in this study, tests the reliability

of reconstructions over multi-century time-scales and allows

spatially significant environmental signals to be identified.

SR/CA THERMOMETRY IN CORALS – THE EFFECT

OF EARLY DIAGENESIS.

Lazar Boaz * Rivka Enmar, Mira Bar-Matthews, Amitai

Katz, Eytan Sass And Mordechai Stein. Institute Of Earth

Sciences, The Hebrew Univ. Of Jerusalem, Jerusalem,

Israel 91904. Email: BOAZL@VMS.HUJI.AC.IL

The effect of early diagenesis on sr thermometry in coral

skeleton was studied in live coral heads (porites) from the

nature reserve reef, elat, northern red sea. Petrography of the

corals shows diagenetic features of dissolution,

recrystallization and secondary aragonite precipitation (pore

filling), which are most extensive in the oldest part of the

coral. The secondary (chemical) aragonite is characterized by a

significantly higher sr/ca ratio than the primary aragonite

reflecting significantly higher sr distribution coefficient in the

chemical precipitate. Total alkalinity and sr concentration in

pore and reef water is consistent with precipitation of

secondary aragonite and recrystallization of the primary

skeleton. The present filling rate was measured to be 1.5±0.3

kg aragonite per year. The corals show clear annual

fluctuations in sr/ca ratios that are interpreted as reflecting

changes in sst. Yet, parts of the coral, which contain both

pristine and secondary aragonite, may produce erroneous

(about 1.5 °c lower) sst estimates by the sr/ca thermometers

due to the high sr content of the chemical aragonite. The sr

distribution coefficient converges to unity in the biogenic

aragonite, which probably indicates that the polyps precipitate

aragonite in an approximately close system. We have

indications that similar behavior may be relevant to other

important paleotracers such as u, and mg..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A17: Proxy Records

92

A CORAL 18 O RECORD OF ENSO DRIVEN SEA

SURFACE SALINITY VARIABILITY IN FIJI (SOUTH-WESTERN

TROPICAL PACIFIC OCEAN).

Le Bec N * , Juillet-Leclerc, Corrège, Delcroix, Blamart, Le

Cornec. Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de

l’Environnement (LSCE), CNRS-CEA, Avenue de la

Terrasse, 91198 Gif sur Yvette, France. Email:

Nolwenn.Le-bec@lsce.cnrs-gif.fr

We studied a coral core from Fiji Islands (South-Eastern

edge of the Western Pacific warm and freshpool). This region

is believed to play a major role in the coupled ocean-atmosphere

system and especially in the onset of the ENSO (El

Niño-Southern Oscillation) phenomenom. We analysed

oxygen isotopes of the coral skeleton d

18 Ocoral) which depend

on both SST and seawater d

18 O, thus SSS (Sea Surface

Salinity). The comparison of the coral d

18 O record against the

instrumental SST and SSS data (1961-1998) shows that the

seasonal d

18 Ocoral is driven by seasonal SST changes whereas

the inter-annual d

18 Ocoral variability reflects the inter-annual

SSS variations. In Fiji, SSS variations reflect the migrations of

the South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ) and associated

freshpool during ENSO events. Because the ENSO-related

SST fluctuations are very small, the inter-annual d

18 Ocoral is a

"direct" tracer of paleo-salinity. We used this tool to

reconstruct SSS in the past century and show that variations of

the SSS — estimated from the d

18 Ocoral — are in good

agreement with the SOI (Southern Oscillation Index). This

paleosalinity record should contribute to a better understanding

of ENSO events since salinity have a significant impact on the

dynamics of the warm pool through density effect.

DECADAL TIME SCALE CHANGES AS REVEALED

BY THE Sr/Ca THERMOMETER IN PORITES LOBATA

ACROSS THE HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGO.

Liebeler J.K. *, R. W. Grigg, E. H. DeCarlo. University of

Hawaii, Department of Oceanography, 1000 Pope Rd.

Honolulu, HI, 96822, USA. Email:

Liebeler@soest.hawaii.edu

A long-term record of sea surface temperature is necessary to

differentiate current global climate change from natural

variability in the climate system. Analysis of the ratio of

Strontium to Calcium (Sr/Ca) in coral skeletons reveals the

water temperature at the time of skeletal deposition. In this

study, Porites lobata were collected over a range of 1900 km

in the Hawaiian Archipelago, from Oahu (22 0 N) to Midway

Atoll (28 0 N) and analyzed for Sr/Ca using an ICP-OES.

Temperature records retrieved from corals reveal decreasing

temperature with increasing latitude, with the exception of

corals from lagoonal environments (inside Midway Atoll).

Corals analyzed from French Frigate Shoals reveal temperature

records 1.2-3.1 0 C warmer from 1988-1997 than 1977-1987,

with the maximum shift seen in corals from areas most

exposed to open ocean water. This increase may be reflecting

a shift in the North Pacific Oscillation, which shifted in 1988

to a warmer background state, with a shallower mixed layer

depth. Corals analyzed from the inside of Midway atoll show a

significantly higher temperature (1.0-1.2 0 C) than corals

growing on the outside of the lagoon, this difference is greatest

during the summer months.

THE GEOCHEMICAL RECORD OF CHANGING

LAND/SEA INTERACTIONS FROM COASTAL CORAL

SKELETONS IN THE GREAT BARRIER REEF,

AUSTRALIA.

McCulloch Malcolm*, Stewart Fallon, Chantal Alibert,

Daniel Sinclair, and Janice Lough. Research School of

Earth Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra,

Australia 0200, Email: Malcolm.McCulloch@anu.edu.au

The worlds coral reef systems are in decline. The reasons

are complex and incompletely understood, but it is clear that

enhanced sediment and nutrients loads from terrestrial erosion,

acting together with climatic stresses is proving to be a lethal

combination. It is shown here how inshore corals from the

Great Barrier Reef of Australia provide a quantitative record of

river discharge volume, as well as suspended sediment load.

Porites corals from Pandora and Havannah Reefs, located

north of Townsville, experience episodic discharge of

freshwater flood plumes from Australia’s second largest river,

the Burdekin. The salinity change at these sites is generally

proportional to the maximum river flow (from zero to >25

million megalitres) and is preserved in the coral skeleton as a

combination of Sr/Ca, d 18 O and fluorescent flood-band proxy

records. In contrast, Ba/Ca ratios in corals provide a long-term

proxy of suspended sediment loads and it is shown, for

example, that following the drought of 1968/69, the suspended

sediment load increased dramatically due to enhanced erosion.

Barium acts as a monitor for suspended sediment as it is

desorbed from particles as flood plumes experience increasing

salinity, and thereafter Ba acts as an essentially conservative

dissolved tracer. Ba/Ca ratios in corals therefore provide a

means to determine long-term changes in suspended sediment

loads and thus nutrients (P) that are entering inshore coral reefs

since more intensive land-use following European settlement.

CORAL RECORDS OF MID-HOLOCENE CLIMATE

VARIABILITY IN THE WESTERN PACIFIC WARM

POOL.

Mcgregor H.V. *, M.K. Gagan, M.T. Mcculloch And J.

Chappell. *Research School Of Earth Sciences, Australian

National University, Canberra, Act 0200 Australia. Email:

Helen.McGregor@anu.edu.au

The Western Pacific Warm Pool (WPWP) plays an essential

role in modulating tropical climate and in the initiation of El

Niño - Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events. This study aims to

examine the nature of ENSO when SSTs appear to have been

slightly warmer than present, using mid-Holocene coral proxy

climate records, from within the path of the Sepik River flood

plume, Papua New Guinea, central WPWP. Reduced SST and

rainfall, experienced in this area during modern El Niño

events, are reflected in coral skeletal oxygen isotope (d 18 O)

and Sr/Ca ratios. d

18 O results for two modern corals agree to

within 0.06‰ (equivalent to 0.3°C) for the years 1981-1997.

Fossil coral d

18 O values from 7100 to 5000 yrs BP show drier

conditions compared to present. At the same time coral Sr/Ca

ratios indicate a warm SST peak ~1°C higher than present.

d

18 O values and Sr/Ca ratios suggest cooler and wetter

conditions between 5000 and 4700 yrs BP. By 1900 yrs BP,

present conditions prevail. A reduction in interannual range in

d

18 O values persists until 1900 yrs BP and suggests that the

ENSO cycles may have been weaker from 7100 to 1900 yrs

BP. The timing and nature of major, rapid climate shifts

identified in this study coincide with mid-Holocene changes in

the Asian monsoon, which may have implications for ENSO

dynamics during the mid-Holocene..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A17: Proxy Records

93

INTER/INTRA COLONY VARIATION AND BETWEEN

SPECIES VARIABILITY in the stable oxygen isotope of

Porites

Maier, C*; Paetzold, J; Bak, RPM. *NIOZ, P.O.Box. 59;

1797AB Den Burg, The Netherlands; Email:

maier@nioz.nl

The d

18 O stable isotope record of coral skeletons is used as

proxy to reconstruct temperature (and salinity) changes of

tropical marine environments on a high resolution temporal

scale. We investigated variations in skeletal d

18 O within one

coral genus, looking at inter/intra-colony variability and

variation between species. Coral skeletons of Porites lutea, P.

australiensis and P. murrayensis were subsampled along their

main growth trajectories, resulting in comparable profiles that

cover at least 5 years of coral growth. All specimens originate

from one Indonesian reef site (121°13'E; 6°32'S) and were

sampled at the same time (October 1984). Consequently, the

colonies have grown under the same environmental conditions

with respect to SST and salinity, and the profiles should be

expected to be alike in their seasonal d

18 O amplitudes.

However, comparing the minima and maxima of each seasonal

cycle, the d

18 O values show an average variation of 0.43 ‰ ±

0.13 SD between profiles. There is no consistent shift to either

higher or lower d

18 O signals between the isotope lines of the

various profiles. The variation between profiles within a single

coral colony is as high as between profiles of different colonies

or species. This indicates that other sources of variation are

more prominent than specific colony or species characteristics.

Changes in calcification rate and temporal precision of "bulk-sampling"

are taken into consideration to explain the observed

variation of 0.4 ‰ in the oxygen stable isotope signal.

EVIDENCE OF MID-HOLOCENE COOLING OF THE

TROPICAL WESTERN PACIFIC FROM SR/CA

RATIOS OF CORALS FROM THE CENTRAL GREAT

BARRIER REEF, AUSTRALIA.

Marshall J.F.*, D.P. Burrows, and M.T. McCulloch.

Research School of Earth Sciences, Australian National

University, Canberra, ACT, Australia. Email:

John.Marshall@anu.edu.au

Sr/Ca ratios have been measured by ID-TIMS on both

modern and fossil Porites sp. from Myrmidon and Stanley

Reefs in the central Great Barrier Reef. Four Porites sp. from

Myrmidon Reef give U/Th ages of 7.6-8.0 kyr, while two from

Stanley Reef give U/Th ages of 6.2-6.3 kyr. The Sr/Ca ratios

have been converted to sea surface temperature (SST) by

calibrating the modern corals with instrumental records. The

fossil corals from Myrmidon Reef show SSTs that are within

the same range as modern values, but there is a variation of

some 2ºC between all four corals, similar to the variability

observed in the modern coral. Both Ba/Ca and fluorescence

records suggest increased upwelling along the shelf edge

during this period. The 6.2-6.3 kyr corals from Stanley Reef

show summer SSTs that are 2ºC cooler than modern summer

SSTs, but, significantly, winter SSTs that are 4ºC cooler than

modern. Comparison with other coral proxy SST records from

the tropical SW Pacific confirms that by 8 kyr SSTs were as

warm as present day, but that between 7.5-6.0 kyr there was a

distinct cooling of some 3ºC , with temperatures returning to

present values by about 5 kyr. While there is a general

perception that the mid-Holocene was slightly warmer than

present, it is possible that SSTs in the region of the West

Pacific Warm Pool were depressed as a result of relaxation or

even reversal of the Trade winds at this time.

A GROWTH DEPRESSION MODEL FOR CORAL

DENSITY BANDING IN MONTASTRÆA ANNULARIS.

Mendes Judith M.* & Jeremy D. Woodley. Centre for

Marine Science, University of the West Indies, Mona,

Kingston 7, Jamaica. Email: jmendes@uwimona.edu.jm

The potential of coral skeletal density bands as recorders of

environmental conditions has not been realised because the

biological basis for their formation is poorly understood. This

study, in Jamaica, examined banding in Montastræa annularis

in relation to growth rate (measured as skeletal extension),

while monitoring reproductive state and environmental factors.

Growth rate was not constant throughout the year. Two

periods of reduced growth were found. One, between August

and October, corresponded to the time of annual dense band

formation. The other, in February, marked the formation of an

additional sub-annual dense band. Dense band formation was

negatively correlated with growth rate (r=-0.68, p<0.05). It is

proposed that dense banding in M. annularis is the result of

reduced growth rate; any factor that reduces growth will thus

promote dense band formation. Factors significantly

correlated with dense band formation, and reduced growth

rate, were gonad development (r=0.84, p<0.05) and deviations

in water temperature from the annual mean (r=-0.67, p<0.05).

The marked annual dense band in M. annularis is the result of

these growth disrupting factors (i.e., gonad development and

high water temperatures) coinciding. The sub-annual band is

the result of only one of these growth reducing factors

(temperature deviation) being present.

VARIATIONS IN Mg/Ca, Na/Ca, AND Sr/Ca RATIOS OF

CORAL SKELETONS WITH CHEMICAL

TREATMENTS.

Mitsuguchi Takehiro *, Uchida, Tetsuo and Matsumoto,

Eiji. *Institute for Hydrospheric-Atmospheric Sciences,

Nagoya University, Nagoya, 464-8601, JAPAN. Email:

mituguti@ihas.nagoya-u.ac.jp

Minor and trace elements in coral skeletons are useful for

retrieval of palaeoceanic environments. Especially, the Sr/Ca,

Mg/Ca, and U/Ca ratios are important proxies for sea surface

temperature. However, the method of sample pretreatment has

not been standardized yet among the researchers. If the

elemental concentrations are altered with any treatment, the

retrieved environments will also be altered. We evaluated the

effects of chemical treatments on Mg/Ca, Na/Ca, and Sr/Ca

ratios of Porites coral skeletons. Four modern and one fossil

samples were powdered, then 40 replicate subsamples were

taken from each sample. The 40 replicates were split into 4

groups each consisting of 10. One group was left untreated as

the control group, while the other three groups were treated

stepwise with (I) distilled water, (II) unbuffered 30 % H2O2,

and (III) weak HNO3. The control group and stepwise-treated

groups were dissolved in 0.5 M HNO3 and measured by ICP-AES

for Mg, Ca, and Sr and by Flame-AES for Na. In result,

the Mg/Ca and Na/Ca ratios varied significantly with all

treatment steps, while the Sr/Ca ratio showed little variation.

Moreover, the Mg/Ca variation was closely parallel with the

Na/Ca variation. We ascribe these results to the elemental

distribution in the skeletal micro-structure: Mg and Na are

concentrated both on the skeletal surface as adsorptive phase

and at the skeletal innermost as unknown phase, while Sr is

distributed almost homogeneously. Thus, the chemical

pretreatment of coral skeletons should be standardized,

especially if the Mg/Ca and Na/Ca ratios are used for

palaeoenvironmental analysis..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A17: Proxy Records

94

EARLY HOLOCENE SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE

IN THE RYUKYUS RETRIEVED FROM CORAL Mg/Ca

AND Sr/Ca RATIOS.

Mitsuguchi Takehiro *, Eiji Matsumoto, Tetsuo Uchida,

Peter J. Isdale, Toshio Kawana, and Hironobu Kan.

*Institute for Hydrospheric-Atmospheric Sciences, Nagoya

University, Nagoya, 464-8601, JAPAN. Email:

mituguti@ihas.nagoya-u.ac.jp

The Sr/Ca ratio and oxygen isotope ratio of hermatypic coral

skeletons are the most reliable proxies for sea surface

temperature (SST) in palaeoceanography. Although the

Mg/Ca, U/Ca, B/Ca, and F/Ca ratios are also proposed as

palaeo-SST proxies, some of these appear to be more affected

by other effects (e.g., vital effects). We determined Mg/Ca and

Sr/Ca ratios along the growth axes of modern and fossil coral

skeletons (Porites spp.) collected from the Great Barrier Reef

(GBR) and the Ryukyus. The fossil corals have calibrated 14 C

ages of 7200 ~ 7800 cal yr BP. The elemental analysis was

performed by ICP-AES. All of the specimens showed

synchronous seasonal variations in the Mg/Ca and Sr/Ca ratios,

which can be ascribed to SST variation. We calibrated the

Mg/Ca-SST and Sr/Ca-SST relationships for a modern

specimen from the GBR, and applied them to the Mg/Ca and

Sr/Ca results of the Ryukyu fossil specimens for SST retrieval.

In result, the Mg/Ca-derived SSTs are in excellent agreement

with the Sr/Ca-derived SSTs in both average and amplitude. In

the Ryukyus, the SSTs at 7.2 ka ~ 7.8 ka were probably the

same as seen today.

SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE AROUND 6000

YEARS AGO FROM CORAL RECORDS OF KIKAI

ISLAND IN THE SUBTROPICAL NORTHWESTERN

PACIFIC.

Morimoto M. *, H. Kayanne, O. Abe, E. Matsumoto and

C.-H. Chiu. Department of Earth and Planetary Science,

the University of Tokyo, Hongo, Tokyo 113-0033 Japan. E-mail

Address: morimoto@sys.eps.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Middle Holocene is thought to be a warmer period, based

mainly on terrestrial pollen and ice core data at middle to high

latitudes. On the other hand, little paleoclimatic data have been

obtained from the ocean at low latitudes. So the sea surface

temperature (SST) and the ocean circulation mode were not

well known. In this study, we reconstructed the SST and sea

water d 18 O near 6000 yr B.P. for Kikai Island, Ryukyu in the

subtropical Northwestern Pacific from skeletal Sr/Ca and d 18 O

in Porites corals. From those data, we examined the difference

and variability in SST and water circulation of the Asian

summer monsoon region between modern and 6000 years ago.

Several fossil corals were collected at Kikai Island, Ryukyu

with 14 C dates ranging from 4900 to 6300 yrB.P. Sr/Ca and

d 18 O in fossil corals indicate that the SST in this region was

lower than the present by as much as 2 degrees. Moreover, the

sea water then was enriched in 18 O by 0.4 per mil relative to

the modern isotope ratio. These results seem to suggest that

thermal contrast between land and sea might be enhanced

during that period. We speculate that this larger contrast could

induce a stronger summer monsoon hence an accelerated

hydrological cycle in the East Asia 6000 years ago.

HIGH RESOLUTION ANALYSIS OF TRACE

ELEMENTS IN CORALS BY LASER ABLATION ICP-MS

TO ASSESS THE IMPACT OF ANTHROPOGENIC

POLLUTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE IN

BARBADOS, W.I.

Runnalls, Lesley A.* *Postgraduate Research Institute for

Sedimentology, University of Reading, Whiteknights,

Reading RG6 6AB, UK. Email: L.A.Runnalls@reading.ac.uk

Coral reefs and their associated communities are affected by

environmental parameters such as water temperature, depth

and light intensity. The reef environment is also disturbed by

human influences such as anthropogenic pollutants which in

Barbados are released close to the reefs. Laser Ablation

Inductively-Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS)

has been used to assess the effects of pollution on the corals

and their associated communities. It offers the possibility of

evaluating the relative impact of both anthropogenic pollutants

and natural stresses. Sclerochronolgy is also being employed

primarily to document the framework and skeletal growth of a

suite of Montastrea annularis coral cores. X-radiography has

shown the annual growth band patterns of the corals which

extend back over several decades. Preliminary results using

LA-ICP-MS have shown a contrast in the concentration of the

trace elements (Mn, Zn, and Pb) within the corals at different

locations. Thus this method is shown to be a powerful tool for

extracting high resolution environmental records from corals

and, in combination with sclerochronolgy, of showing the

relationship between growth rate and environmental pollution.

U–TH DATING OF REEF CORALS - THE EFFECT OF

EARLY DIAGENESIS.

Stein, Mordechai*, Rivka Enmar, Mira Bar-Matthews,

Ludvik Halicz and Boaz Lazar. *Institute Of Earth

Sciences, The Hebrew Univ. Of Jerusalem, Jerusalem,

Israel 91904. Email: MOTIS@VMS.HUJI.AC.IL

U-series dating of scleractinian corals provides the most

precise ages of late Pleistocene and Holocene marine reef

terraces, yet the introduction of TIMS methods to the analysis

of U and Th isotopes reveals small changes in the calculated

initial U isotopic composition of many corals. We investigated

the effect of secondary aragonite precipitation within live coral

skeleton on the U-isotopic system. We analyzed the U

concentration and isotopic composition in the aragonitic

skeleton, porewater and open seawater from the Nature

Reserve Reef, Elat (northern Red Sea). The U isotopic

composition of primary (biogenic) and secondary (chemical)

aragonite is the same and indistinguishable from seawater or

porewater. The secondary aragonite shows significantly higher

U concentration than primary aragonite. The porewater is

lower in U compared to contemporaneous seawater, which

probably reflects selective removal of U by organic matter. A

uranium uptake model indicates that after several kyr of

submergence, secondary aragonite precipitation can cause a 5-

10% shift in the age calculation, but would induce only a

negligible effect on the initial U isotopic composition. Pristine

Holocene corals (~ 5,000 y) from Elat yielded, however, initial

d

234 U values of ~170. The elevated d

234 U values may reflect

local variation in the seawater composition due to enhanced

input of runoff water with elevated d

234 U values from the Pan-African

crystalline basement..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A17: Proxy Records

95

INTER-ANNUAL TO CENTURY-SCALE CLIMATE

RECORDS FROM THE ATLANTIC: CORAL BASED

RECONSTRUCTIONS

Swart, Peter K.*, Richard E. Dodge and David Enfield

Marine Geology and Geophysics, Rosenstiel School of

Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Miami,

4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami Fl 33149 Email:

Pswart@srmas.miami.edu

There is a demonstrated correlation between land-climate

variations and sea surface temperature (SST) distributions in

recent decades of good instrumental records. This has

generally been characterized as the result of large-scale

interactions between the ocean and atmosphere, the most

notable of, which is the El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO),

known to produce teleconnections, to land climate anomalies

around the globe. We have examined associations between

variations Atlantic Dipole and the oxygen isotopic record of

corals in two areas of the Atlantic (Gulf of Guinea and Cape

Verde) which have particularly strong association with

temperature variations in the north and south sub-tropical

Atlantic. At both these locations massive corals are present

which have density records in excess of 100 years. At the Gulf

of Guinea location, oxygen isotopic composition is positively

correlated to salinity as a result of the input of water from the

many rivers, which drain the western portion of Africa. Hence

during the period of extreme drought in the Sahel portion of

Africa, the oxygen isotopic values of the corals were

isotopically enriched compared to periods of high rainfall in

the region. In contrast in the Cape Verde region the oxygen

isotopic composition of the corals respond principally to

temperature variations as there is little annual variation in the

salinity in this region

LONG-TERM VARIABILITY IN ENSO: EVIDENCE

FROM LIVING AND FOSSIL CORALS IN PAPUA NEW

GUINEA.

Tudhope, Sandy*; Chilcott, Colin; McCulloch, Malcolm;

Shimmield, Graham; & Ellam, Rob. *Department of

Geology & Geophysics, Edinburgh University, West Mains

Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JW, Scotland, U.K.. Email:

sandy.tudhope@ed.ac.uk

Despite its global significance, there is still a poor

understanding of variability in the strength and frequency of

the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) climatic

phenomenon. For example, there is a vigorous debate as to

whether recent severe ENSO events are a result of global

warming, or merely a manifestation of natural variations in the

system. To help reveal the range and likely causes of

variability in ENSO, we have obtained proxy records of ENSO

from geochemical (stable O isotope, Sr/Ca and U-series

dating) analysis of the skeletons of living and sub-fossil

annually-banded massive Porites corals in Papua New Guinea.

Specifically, we investigated the range of natural variability in

ENSO during periods of similar global climatic boundary

conditions to those of today (e.g., over the past 3,000 years), as

well as investigating sensitivities of ENSO to changes in

climatic boundary conditions (e.g., during ‘ice ages’). Our

results indicate that ENSO is a remarkably persistent

component of the climate system, operating even during some

major changes in global and regional climate. However,

ENSO amplitude does appear to have varied through time,

with Modern ENSO being relatively strong. These changes in

amplitude are not simply related to changes in global or

regional temperature, but may possibly be related to subtle

changes in seasonality due to precessional orbital forcing (c.f.,

Clement et al., 1999).

INTERANNUAL AND DECADAL VARIABILITY IN

SST IN THE SUBTROPICAL SOUTH PACIFIC GYRE

BACK TO 1726 A.D.

Wellington, G.M.*, Linsley B.K., and Schrag D.P.

*Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of

Houston, Houston 77204 USA, Email: wellington@uh.edu.

The past variation in surface ocean properties in the Pacific

gyres remains poorly constrained over the last several

centuries, particularly in the western subtropical South Pacific

(WSSP) which, in addition to being the identified dominant

source region for water transport to the equatorial thermocline,

has also been identified as an important source region for

interannual sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies

propagating into higher latitudes of the southern Hemisphere.

Here we present a time-history with near-monthly resolution of

variations in skeletal Sr/Ca in a 275 year-long core from a

colony of Porites lutea at 18m depth off the island of

Rarotonga (21.5°S, 159.5°W) in the WSSP. Singular Spectrum

Analysis (SSA) indicates that after the annual cycle and a

long-term trend, decadal-scale variance is greater than

interannual variance in this time-series. The trend and decadal

modes are highly coherent with SST behavior in the central

North Pacific Gyre as summarized in the PDO index indicating

that the WSSP has responded generally in phase with the

North Pacific Gyre. The most striking feature of the record is

an observed step-function shift in SST of 2°C warming since

1760.

EARLY HOLOCENE 18 O-BASED SSTS MODULATED

BY “VITAL EFFECTS” OF HERMATYOIC CORALS

(PORITES).

Yamada, Tsutomu*, Kiyama, Osamu; Iryu, Yasufumi; and

Nakamori, Toru. *Institute of Geology and Paleontology,

Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, Sendai,

980-8578, Japan. Email: yamada@dges.tohoku. ac.jp

Examined are d

18 O records from two Holocene (7.0 and 9.2

kyrs BP) and two modern corals, both of which were collected

at Shitooke, Kikai-jima, Ryukyu Islands. d

18 O values in

modern corals show distinct annual cycles. Based on

temperature-dependency of d

18 O values, a d

18 O-based

thermometer is established for the modern corals. This

thermometer is modified so that it can be applied for Holocene

corals by taking account of 18 O-enrichment of seawater caused

by increased polar ice volumes and that by the degree of

isotopic disequilibrium resulting from the “kinetic isotope

effects”. No diagenetic alternations (marine cementation and

terrestrial diagenesis) are detected in the fossil samples by X-ray

diffraction analysis and thin-section observations. The

calculated SSTs at 7.0 and 9.2 kyrs BP by using the modified

thermometer indicate that annual mean SSTs were about 2.8

°C lower and 1.0 °C higher than the present, respectively. Our

estimates are inconsistent with those of other workers. It is

highly probable that these anomalous temperatures are

ascribed mainly to incomplete evaluation of the “kinetic

isotope effects” and biotic modifications of annual mean

isotopic ratios caused by coral growth processes..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A18: Reproduction

Session A18: Reproduction, Recruitment and Effects of Stress on Reproductive

Success of Corals and Other Reef Invertebrates

96

REPRODUCTIVE MODES AND GENE FLOW IN THE

SCLERACTINIAN CORAL POCILLOPORA

DAMICORNIS.

Adjeroud, Mehdi. Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, ESA

CNRS 8046, Universit_ de Perpignan, 66860 Perpignan.

Email: adjeroud@univ-perp.fr

The variation in the relative contribution of sexual and

asexual reproduction and in the level of gene flow between

populations of the scleractinian coral Pocillopora damicornis

was examined. Reproductive modes and gene flow were

estimated from the genetic structure of populations revealed by

allozyme electrophoresis. Populations were collected from 3

regions that represent 2 distinct coral reef systems: an insular

coral reef system (Ryukyu Archipelago), and a continental

system (Great Barrier Reef, and Southwestern Australia). Two

spatial scales were examined: the local scale (populations from

the same reef/island), and the regional scale (populations from

different reefs/islands separated by up to 1200 km). The

relative contribution of sexual and asexual reproduction varied

considerably between the 3 regions. The results support the

assumption that asexual reproduction has a higher importance

at the margin of the geographical range of the species. The

level of gene flow also varies considerably with the geographic

location. Populations were highly differentiated in

Southwestern Australia, whereas populations from the GBR

were connected by a considerable gene flow, both at the local

and regional scales. The situation in the Ryukyu Archipelago

was intermediate (moderate gene flow). This important

variation in life-history traits may explain why this species is

so common throughout Indo-Pacific reefs.

PROMOTING RECRUITMENT OF SCLERACTINIAN

CORALS USING ARTIFICIAL SUBSTRAT IN GILI

INDAH, LOMBOK BARAT.

Bachtiar, Imam*. *Universitas Mataram, NTB, Indonesia.

Email: ibachtiar@hotmail.com

The effectiveness of promoting abundance of coral

recruitment by providing small concrete blocks was

investigated in Lombok waters. The study was carried out 10

months in the marine tourism park Gili Indah consisting of

three small islands: Gili Air (GA), Gili Meno (GM) and Gili

Trawangan (GT), in the district of Lombok Barat. Result of

this study show that introducing small concrete blocks

(30x15x20 cm 3 , LWH) does not increase the abundance of

coral recruits. It is likely that the study period is too short that

many new recruits might be too small to be counted in situ by

a diver. It is also found that the abundance of recruits in GM is

lower than those in GA and GT, beside the fact that GM has

higher coral cover and lower rate of sedimentation. The

abundance of recruits is not different between exposed (north)

and sheltered (south) reefs. Interaction effect between

treatment and island is not significant, neither is interaction

between depth and island; while interaction effect between

location and island is significant. The results suggest that coral

reef of Gili Indah, which suffered mass coral mortality due to

El-Nino 1998, still receive larvae supply from source reefs

somewhere. The ineffectiveness of concrete block placement

on the reef is unlikely to be justified at this stage, as recruits

needs longer time (>10 months) to be visible to a scuba diver.

MASS SPAWNING OF ACROPORA IN THE CORAL

SEA.

Baird A.*, Marshall, Paul; Wolstenholme, Jackie. *School

Of Marine Biology & Aquaculture James Cook University,

Townsville Q. 4811, Australia. Email:

ANDREWBAIRD@OZEMAIL.COM.AU

The annual synchronous spawning of numerous species of

scleractinian corals is one of the most spectacular of natural

phenomena. Comparisons available suggest that mass

spawning is restricted to regions with large variations in

environmental cycles with a progressive breakdown in

seasonality and synchrony of reproduction towards the

equator. To test this hypothesis we compared the spawning

patterns of Acropora at 4 locations in the Coral Sea with

contrasting environmental cycles. In the Solomon Islands (8 O

06 S) mature eggs were found in 28 of the 41 Acropora species

sampled. Overall 36 % of colonies (n=403) had mature eggs, 6

% had immature eggs and no eggs were visible in the

remaining colonies. At Lizard Island (14 O 39 S) 15 of 26

species had mature eggs or 62 % of the colonies sampled,

while 10 % contained immature eggs. On Orpheus Island (18 O

40 S) 19 of 21 species had mature eggs or 72 % of the colonies

sampled, and less than 2 % of colonies had immature eggs. In

the few widespread species abundant at each of location the

proportion of the population fecund declined from Lady Elliot

(23 O 45) towards the equator, suggesting that degree of

synchrony may be less and the reproductive season longer.

However, the high proportion of colonies without eggs even in

locations where the reproductive season is restricted to the

mass spawning period suggests that not all colonies spawn

every year. Furthermore, the proportion of fecund colonies in

some morphologies is consistently low (e.g. arborescent = 35

%), suggesting that many Acropora have more a complicated

life history than implied by the paradigm of the mass spawn.

MOLECULAR CONTROL OF DEVELOPMENT IN

ACROPORA MILLEPORA. I. MORPHOLOGICAL

DEVELOPMENT AND HOX-RELATED GENES.

Ball E.E.*, Hayward, David C.; Catmull, Julian; Reece-Hoyes,

John S; Hislop, Nikki; Harrison, Peter J.; Miller,

David J. *Research School of Biological Sciences,

Australian National University, P.O. Box 475, Canberra,

ACT 2601, Australia. Email: ball@rsbs.anu.edu.au

We are studying the genes controlling coral development

with several questions in mind. First, what genes are present?

Corals have many fewer cell types than higher metazoans, but

we have found representatives of every major class of genes

that we have searched for: structural genes, housekeeping

genes, nuclear receptors, Hox-like genes, and Pax genes.

Second, since the Phylum Cnidaria is widely accepted to be an

ancient group of organisms, what can we learn about gene

evolution by comparing coral genes with those of higher

metazoans? Thus far, although most gene families are

represented in corals, all coral gene families seem to have

fewer members. Third, what roles do the genes that we have

discovered play in development and how does this compare to

their roles in higher organisms? To obtain a detailed

description of the various developmental stages of Acropora

we have used scanning electron microscopy, and have

developed a trichrome stain for plastic sections which helps us

to determine the time of appearance of specific cell types.

This morphological information, plus the distribution of

messenger RNA from specific genes, as determined by in situ

hybridization, often allows us to infer gene function. The Hox-like

genes are discussed as an example of this approach..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A18: Reproduction

97

TEMPORAL ENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES AND

REPRODUCTIVE PROCESSES OF THE SOFT CORAL

HETEROXENIA FUSCESCENS.

Ben-David-Zaslow, R. * and Benayahu, Y. *Department of

Zoology, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv

University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel, Email:

revitbd@post.tau.ac.il

In the Red Sea, during its year round planulation period the

zooxanthellate soft coral Heteroxenia fuscescens is subjected

to a seasonal environmental regime that alternates between

stratified warm summer waters and upwelling of low

temperature winter waters. It was therefore hypothesized that

variation in the abiotic conditions affects the coral

reproductive and biochemical processes. During summer and

fall the average percentage of planulating colonies was

significantly higher than in winter and spring. Since the coral

gains nutritional benefit from uptake of DOM as well as from

carbon fixation by zooxanthellae, it is suggested that this

seasonal pattern is related to changes in nutrient and light

levels. Seasonal and year to year fluctuations were also found

in the biochemical and energetic content of H. fuscescens

colonies. These patterns correspond to temporal changes in the

coral fecundity, suggesting that the increase in energy content

during the summer is due to the increasing number of

developing planulae in the colonies. The results show for the

first time that planulae of H. fuscescens can take up dissolved

free amino acids. Absorption of amino acids by the planulae

may contribute to their energy, and thus extend their longevity

and competence periods. This uptake may also have a

significant impact on their nitrogen budget. Based on these

results, we suggest a model that illustrates the relationship

between the environmental parameters and the processes

examined in the study.

INTRASPECIFIC VARIABILITY IN THE TIMING AND

OUTPUT OF CORAL GAMETES AFTER LONG-TERM

EXPOSURE TO ELEVATED TEMPERATURES.

Beretta, Giglia A.* *The University of Queensland, Centre

for Marine Studies, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia.

Email: gberetta@biousyd.edu.au

The effects of long-term exposure to elevated temperatures

on the timing of spawning and output of gametes was studied

in two species of corals (Acropora millepora and Montipora

digitata) over a two year period at Heron Island Reef and

Research Station on the southern GBR. A large-scale

manipulative experiment was run from Jul. 1998 to Feb. 1999

and again from Jul. 1999 to Feb. 2000, where 5 replicate

colonies of each species were maintained in each of six 2000L

aquaria for the duration of each study. Three of the aquaria

were kept at ambient reef flat temperatures while 3 were

heated to 2 0 C above ambient temperatures. Gamete

development was followed through polyp dissections.

Analysis of spawning dates and egg-sperm bundles collected

from spawned colonies shows that heated colonies for both

species spawned up to 1 lunar month earlier then field controls.

Spawning timing was variable within species and among years.

Egg number and size varied between the two species but

appear to not be affected by temperature treatment.

Concurrent studies by S. Ward have shown reduced

fertilization of gametes and settlement of larvae due to these

temperature elevations. These experiments show that

relatively small increases in ambient temperatures can alter the

timing and output of gametes and in some instances be

detrimental to coral fitness.

REPRODUCTIVE ECOLOGY OF DIASERIS DISTORTA

(MICHELIN) (FUNGIIDAE) IN THE GALÁPAGOS

ISLANDS.

Colley S.B.*, Feingold, Joshua S.; Peña, Juan; and Glynn,

Peter W. *Division of Marine Biology and Fisheries,

Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science,

University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway,

Miami, Florida 33149. Email:

stheodosiou@rsmas.miami.edu

The sexual reproduction of Diaseris distorta is described

from a population at Corona del Diablo (Devil’s Crown) off

Floreana Island in the Galápagos Islands, Ecuador.

Gametogenesis is classified in four developmental stages for

each gender. Individuals are gonochoric and most likely

broadcast spawners. Gametogenesis was favored during the

warm, wet season from at least March to June, peaking at the

end of April. Ripe female gametes occurred around full moon

with some incidence around new moon. Synapticular pouches

are repleat with eggs or spermaries in all stages of

development. Hence, it is likely that this coral develops

gametes continuously during the breeding season(s). Fecundity

of female individuals yielded preliminary estimates of 25,000-

31,000 mature eggs/cm 2 live surface tissue/cycle. However,

the sex ratio of the study population was highly skewed toward

the male gender (approximately 5:1). Individuals as small as

240 mm 2 surface tissue were found to be sexually active. The

relative ecological importance of asexual vs. sexual

reproduction is addressed.

THE EFFECT OF ELEVATED AMMONIA ON

REPRODUCTION IN TWO HAWAIIAN

SCLERACTIANS WITH DIFFERENT LIFE HISTORY

PATTERNS.

Cox E.F.* and Ward, Selina. *Hawaii Institute of Marine

Biology, P.O. Box 1346 Kaneohe HI 96744 USA. Email:

fcox@hawaii.edu

Colonies of a broadcast spawning coral, Montipora

verrucosa, and a planulating coral, Pocillopora damicornis,

were collected in March 1997 and randomly distributed among

6 microcosm tanks. Beginning in April 1997, ammonium

sulfate was dripped into 3 experimental tanks to elevate

ammonium concentrations to approximately 20 mM. Spawning

of M. verrucosa was monitored during June, July and August.

There were only small differences in reproductive parameters

measured (n=the number of colonies for which each parameter

was measured): # eggs bundle -1 (control 11.1 ± 2.13 SD,

n=13; experimental 11.1 ± 1.49, n=11), egg size (control 430

mm ± 16, n=11; experimental 408 mm ± 14, n=8), or fecundity

(control 1.21 mg ml -1

± 1.2, n=15; experimental 0.71mg ml -1

±

0.97, n=14). There were no differences in fertilization success

(control 61%, n=6 trials, experimental 71%, n=3 trials).

Experimental colonies of P. damicornis did not release

planulae in July. Planulae collected from control colonies

showed no differences in settlement rates (control 50% ± 13,

n=4; experimental 54% ± 6.5, n=4) or short term survivorship

(control 33% ± 5.8, n=2; experimental 52% ± 7.8, n=2) in both

ambient and ammonium enriched seawater. Although

ammonium enrichment in the microcosms ended mid

November 1997, experimental colonies did not release

planulae until the full moon of March 1998..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A18: Reproduction

98

THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON CORAL

REPRODUCTION ON BERMUDA’S REEFS.

de Putron, Samantha * and Smith, S.R.. *Bermuda

Biological Station for Research, St. Georges, Bermuda.

Email: sputron@bbsr.edu

The study of the reproductive biology of corals in Bermuda

is of particular interest because of the northerly location of this

pseudoatoll in the Atlantic (32N 65W). The low winter

seawater temperatures and geographical isolation make it an

extreme of distribution for many of the species there. This

study examined temporal and spatial variability of sexual

reproduction of the broadcasting gorgonian, Pseudoplexaura

porosa, and the brooding scleractinian, Porites astreoides.

The Bermuda platform is comprised of different reef zones that

experience diverse environmental conditions due to gradients

of temperature, turbidity and wave intensity from inshore to

offshore. Seawater temperature in the lagoon falls to 15.5 °C

during winter and rises to 30.5 °C in the summer. The outer

rim reefs are buffered by oceanic waters, moderating the

temperature range from between 19 ° to 29 °C. Inshore water

temperatures rise earlier in the year creating a temperature

gradient over the 18km of lagoon. Variation in the timing,

duration and intensity of reproduction of P. porosa and P.

astreoides has been observed in different zones across the

Bermuda platform. Populations from the deeper outer lagoon

spawn progressively later in the summer compared to inshore

reefs in conjunction with the slower rise in offshore seawater

temperature. Interannual variability in the reproductive

patterns of these species can also be related to changes in

seawater temperature. Finally, the reproductive cycles are

offset by one or two months later in Bermuda relative to the

Caribbean.

RECRUITMENT OF Agaricia AND Porites TO

ALUMINUM SUBSTATA, CONCH REEF, KEY LARGO,

FLORIDA

Feingold J.S.* and Reaka-Kudla., M. *Nova Southeastern

University Oceanographic Center, 8000 N. Ocean Dr.,

Dania, FL 33004 USA. Email: joshua@polaris.nova.edu

Six aluminum frames were deployed at 14m depth for 27

months at Conch Reef, Key Largo, Florida. Three of these

were dosed monthly with nutrients and 3 were controls. Two

species of scleractinian corals (Agaricia sp. and Porites sp.)

recruited to the upper and side surfaces of all 6 frames. While

only one colony of Porites recruited on natural substrata within

the frames, 115 colonies of Agaricia and 46 colonies of Porites

were present on the aluminum frames at the end of the

experiment. Colony size ranged from 6 to 628mm 2 ( Agaricia)

and 29 to 469mm 2 ( Porites) and mean colony size was 154 ±

129mm 2 and 121 ± 96mm 2 respectively. However, there was

no significant difference (t-test, n=3, p=0.35) in the numbers of

colonies observed on treatment (32.0 ± 36.9) vs. control (21.7

± 25.5) frames. Nor was there a significant difference (t-test,

n=96,65, p=0.33) between the mean surface area of the coral

recruits on treatment (142 ± 120mm 2 ) v.s control frames (149

± 124mm 2 ). These data suggest that Agaricia and Porites

effectively recruit to aluminum substrata and pulsed

nutrification does not affect their recruitment and subsequent

early growth.

CORAL SETTLEMENT AND RECRUITMENT IN

SHARM EL-SHEIKH.

Field, S. and Glassom, D.* *Dept Marine Sciences and

Coastal Management, University of Newcastle. Ridley

Building, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK. NE1 7RU. Email :

s.n.field@ncl.ac.uk.

Recruitment studies on coral reefs utilise a variety of

artificial substrates as settlement surfaces ranging from

ceramic tiles to dead coral rock. A count of the coral settlers

on these surfaces is used as a relative index of settlement rates

within and between reefs. Frequently, data from such studies

are converted to and cited as numbers of corals/m 2 often with

no mention of the area of the substrates used. However, if

recorded settlement rates are affected by the size of the plates

used this information is needed to standardise results between

studies. Preliminary observations have shown that corals are

significantly more likely to settle close to the edge of ceramic

tiles used as settlement substrates than near the centre. This

implies that use of smaller tiles with proportionately higher

edge-to-area ratios should result in higher settlement rates /m 2 .

This hypothesis was tested by deploying 20 tiles of each of

three different sizes at five meters on the reef slope at Sharm el

Sheikh, northern Red Sea. Tiles remained underwater for 3

months, checked for settlement and replaced with new tiles for

a further 3 months. Spat were counted and identified to family

where possible. Numbers of spat were compared to determine

the effect of tile size on recorded settlement rate. Results from

preliminary experiments have shown that 70% of settlers

counted were discovered on the sides of tiles and to within

10mm of the under surface edge. The dispersion of settlers on

artificial tiles is discussed in terms of standardization of results

from settlement studies.

REPRODUCTION OF ZOOXANTHELLATE, A

ZOOXANTHELLATE AND BLEACHED COLONIES OF

THE CORAL Oculina patagonica.

Fine, M.* and Loya, Yossi. *Department of Zoology Tel

Aviv University, Tel Aviv Israel 69978. Email:

mfine@post.tau.ac.il

The reproduction of the Mediterranean scleractinian coral

Oculina patagonica was studied along the Israeli coast at a

depth range of 0.5-10 m. Zooxanthellate, azooxanthellate

(inhabiting dark caves) and bleached colonies were sampled

monthly. Using standard histological techniques, O.

patagonica was found to be a gonochoric species. Colonies

exceeding 2 cm in diameter (10-25 polyps), estimated to be 1-2

years old were already found to be fertile during the

reproduction season. Female gonads first appear in May,

following a rise in the sea water temperature. Maturation of

gonads reach a peak in late August and early September, when

the oocytes mean size is ca.100µm. Male gonads first appear

in July at the bases of the polyp. Simultaneous spawning of

male and female colonies was observed in 1995-1998, during

the full moon of September, on two consecutive nights only.

Azooxanthellate colonies of O. patagonica were found to

develop gonads normally and simultaneously spawn with

nearby zooxanthellate colonies exposed to light. However, in

O. patagonica colonies undergoing bleaching no gonads were

found during the reproduction season. Fragments obtained

from tagged zooxanthellate colonies which were transplanted

to dark caves in January and lost their zooxanthellae by March

showed normal gametogenesis starting in May. However 60%

of the control (exposed to light) tagged zooxanthellate

colonies, which underwent bleaching, did not complete

gametogenesis..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A18: Reproduction

99

CORAL DISPERSAL AND SETTLEMENT AT EILAT,

NORTHERN RED SEA.

Glassom D. and N.E. Chadwick-Furman, N.E..

*Interuniversity Institute for Marine Science. P.O. Box

469, Eilat, Israel. Email: dglassom@popeye.cc.biu.ac.il

Information on recruitment of stony corals to reefs is

important to issues of reef ecology and management. In the

northern Red Sea, the proximity of reefs of several adjoining

countries means that dispersal of planulae between them is

probable. Nonetheless, there is a paucity of information on

patterns of coral dispersal and settlement in the area. In this

study, coral settlement was monitored at 18 stations along the

coast of Eilat, Israel over a period of 2 years. Settlement plates

were ceramic tiles mounted on metal racks anchored to the

substrate at 6m depth. Since coral species in Eilat spawn

asynchronously, tiles were changed at intervals of 3 months to

detect seasonal settlement patterns. Additional tiles on each

rack were left in place for a period of 15 months before being

removed. All coral spat were counted and their size, number

of polyps and state (dead or alive) noted. Spat were identified

as pocilloporid, acroporid or other corals. The former 2 groups

accounted for over 85% of all corals found on the plates.

Numbers of spat varied according to season, peaking in mid to

late summer, but were generally low compared to similar

studies in areas where mass spawning occurs. Geographically,

settlement varied according to distance from reefs and to coral

family. Patterns of settlement suggest that pocilloporids are

recruiting from local reefs but a substantial number of

acroporids are likely to be recruited from reefs outside Israeli

waters. This highlights the need for regional cooperation on

reef management.

REPRODUCTION OF SCLERACTINIAN CORAL IN

SINGAPORE.

Guest J.R*, Goh B.P.L., Chou L.M. *Reef Ecology

Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, National

University of Singapore, 10 Kent Ridge Crescent, 119260

Singapore. Email: scip9051@nus.edu.sg

To date, very few studies exist regarding coral reproductive

biology and ecology in South East Asia. Singapore’s coral

reefs are adjacent to one of the world’s busiest ports and land

reclamation has introduced large amounts of sediment in to the

coastal waters. Singapore’s coral reefs offer an opportunity to

study reproductive biology and ecology in an unusual and

adverse environment. For this study a number of common

coral species were sampled monthly between September 1999

and September 2000. The coral species sampled included

Goniopora djiboutsiensis, Fungia scutaria, Galaxea

fascicularis and Diploastrea heliopora. Samples were taken

from three different reef sites around Singapore’s southern

islands. All samples were examined in the laboratory to

establish the presence and state of gonads. This was done

either by direct dissection of coral polyps or by histological

sectioning. Preliminary observations suggest that coral

spawning may occur around September or October for some

species. Some observations of Singapore’s coral reproductive

cycles and the timing and synchrony of spawning will be

presented. In addition the implications of heavy sedimentation

on reproductive success on Singapore’s reefs will be discussed.

LARVAL BEHAVIOR IN RESPONSE TO A

DISSOLVED SETTLE-MENT CUE AIDS

RECRUITMENT ON CORAL REEFS.

Hadfield M.G. * , Koehl, M. A. R. and Unabia, C.. *Kewalo

Marine Laboratory, University of Hawaii, 41 Ahui, St.,

Honolulu, HI 96813; Email: hadfield@hawaii.edu.

Many marine-invertebrate larvae, including species on coral

reefs, settle in response to dissolved chemical cues produced

by conspecific individuals, prey, or associated plants, animals

or micro-organisms. We used larvae of a common Indo-Pacific

coral predator, the nudibranch Phestilla sibogae, to

examine responses to a settlement cue from their requisite prey

species. Analyses of video recordings of metamorphically

competent larvae swimming in seawater revealed that the

larvae take all possible trajectories, many of them nearly

horizontal or upward. When seawater conditioned by Porites

compressa is added to the chamber, all of the larvae

immediately sink in tight spiral paths. Microscopic

observation of competent larvae after the addition of “coral

water” revealed that the locomotory cilia on their velar lobes

immediately ceased beating, but that the paired velar lobes

and the larval foot remained extended, explaining the spiral

trajectories of settling larvae. Having the foot extended during

the cue-elicited descent allows the larva to attach by its sticky

surface the instant contact is made with the substratum. These

responses are not observed when larvae are exposed to water

rich in the metabolites of other coral species. We are analyzing

the speed and duration of responses of tethered larvae in a

small flume when exposed to filaments of coral cue likely to

be encountered when a larva is transported through mixing

water at different levels above the reef.

ADULT DISTRIBUTION AND LARVAL DISPERSAL

OF BLUE CORAL HELIOPORA COERULEA IN

SHIRAHO REEF, JAPAN

Harii, Saki * and Kayanne, Hajime. *Department of Earth

and Planetary Science, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo,

Tokyo 113-0033, Japan. Email: harii@sys.eps.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp

It has been reported that planulae of brooding corals have

relatively low potential for dispersal and they recruit within a

natal reef. However, few studies have been conducted on

relationship between adult distribution and recruitment. We

studied adult distribution pattern, larval behavior, settlement

and recruitment of brooding coral Heliopora coerulea in

Shiraho Reef, Ishigaki Island, southwest of Japan. Heliopora

coerulea is a gonochoric brooding species and planulae cleave

on the surface of female colonies before releasing.

Reproductive seasons in June and/or July 1998 and 1999.

Planulae came out from mucus and were released form the

colonies. Planulae 3.7 mm long did not swim actively. They

lacked zooxanthellae and their color was white. When planulae

grounded on a substratum, they crawled on it for settlement

behavior. In the settlement experiment, 74% (SD=14.7) of

planulae settled within 24 hours after releasing, however 3%

(SD=4.5) settled 20 days after releasing. In Shiraho Reef,

recruitment was observed between the branches of H. coerulea

(0.3 spat per 10 2 cm experimental tile). These results show that

planulae of this species can settle down immediately after

releasing and recruit in the reef, suggesting that H. coerulea

maintains its population within the reef by sexual reproduction.

Shiraho Reef was experienced severe bleaching in July and

August 1998, yet adult of H. coerulea was least susceptible to

that event and their planulae could recruit in the following

years..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A18: Reproduction

100

MORE SEX ON THE REEF: RECENT ADVANCES AND

NEW HORIZONS FOR RESEARCH ON SEXUAL

REPRODUCTION IN SCLERACTINIAN CORALS.

Harrison P.L.* *School of Resource Science and

Management, Southern Cross University, PO Box 157,

Lismore, NSW, 2480 Australia. Email:

pharriso@scu.edu.au

The recent renaissance in research on sexual reproduction in

scleractinian corals has continued to strengthen our

understanding of this fundamentally important aspect of coral

reef ecology. Significant new data on the reproductive biology

and ecology of scleractinian corals have become available in

the last decade. This paper reviews current knowledge of

sexual reproductive patterns in scleractinians, and highlights

the results of recent research. The majority of scleractinian

species studied to date are simultaneous hermaphroditic

broadcast spawners, while gonochoric broadcast spawners are

moderately common. Comparatively few coral species are

known brood planulae, and these species are either

hermaphroditic or gonochoric. A few coral species have mixed

sexual patterns or modes of development. Information on

patterns and timing of coral spawning and planulae release has

steadily increased during the past decade, and the geographic

and taxonomic range of reproductive studies throughout the

Indo-Pacific and Caribbean regions continues to expand. Other

recent themes in coral reproduction studies include

hybridization among mass spawning species, fertilization

biology and embryogenesis, larval competency and dispersal

potential, larval settlement cues and recruitment patterns,

effects of natural and pollution stressors on reproductive

success, molecular studies on reproductive biology and

population genetics, and reproduction in subtropical corals.

Despite these important recent advances, sexual reproductive

patterns have not been studied in the vast majority of

scleractinian species or in many important coral reef regions,

hence further detailed studies are needed in future.

POST- BLEACHING CHANGES IN CORAL

SETTLEMENT AT THE HIKKADUWA MARINE

RESERVE IN SRI LANKA.

Jinenendradasa, S. S. and Ekaratne, S.U.K..*

*Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo

3, Sri Lanka. Email: suki@eureka.lk

Increased temperatures were associated with coral bleaching

and mortality in April 1998. Settlement panels were deployed-recovered

at monthly intervals in triplicate at 3 locations of the

Hikkaduwa Marine Reserve over the 3-year study period

which coincided with a 1-year pre-bleaching period, followed

by 2 years of post- bleach. The study of corals settling on

recovered settlement panels revealed a marked reduction in

post-bleaching coral settlement at the reef lagoon site.

Settlement (as settled numbers m -2 month -1 ) was high (369±67)

in the pre-bleaching year and was followed by a zero

settlement period over the first 4 months of the post-bleaching

study period. In the first year after bleaching, settlement was

depressed by 82% (to 68±26) while the second year settlement

was reduced by 71% (to 106±98), though without a significant

difference (p<0.05) between these first and second years. Five

types of settling corals were recorded at this site before

bleaching. Only 1 of these types settled in the 2 years that

followed bleaching, with their settlement numbers not showing

a significant difference between pre and post-bleaching years.

In the first and second post-bleaching years, a hitherto

unrecorded coral form settled in low numbers (10±7 and 5±5,

respectively).

A NON-DESTRUCTIVE CORAL GAMETE TRAP.

Kline, David I. * . *Marine Biology Research Division-0202;

Scripps Institution of Oceanography; University of

California San Diego; La Jolla, CA 92037-0202, U.S.A.

Email: dkline@ucsd.edu

Collection of coral gametes is important for genetic studies,

reproductive studies, and coral systematics. Traditionally, coral

gametes are collected by removing coral colonies from the reef

and keeping the corals alive in buckets or a seawater system,

until spawning. A non-destructive coral gamete trap was

designed and tested in two mass-spawning events in Bocas del

Toro, Panama. These traps were designed to permit collection

of coral gametes from a large number of coral colonies, with a

limited amount of underwater assistance; as well as allowing

accurate in-situ determination of setting and spawning times.

Using the coral gamete traps it was possible to collect large

quantities (a mean of 15.62±3.97 mg/ trap) of pure, high

molecular weight coral DNA, suitable for molecular studies.

The traps can be used in reserves and other protected areas

where it was not previously possible to collect gametes,

expanding the scope of reproductive and systematic studies.

CAN LARVAE OF BENTHIC ANIMALS USE

DISSOLVED CHEMICAL CUES IN WAVE-DRIVEN

FLOW ON A CORAL REEF?

Koehl*, M.A.R., Hadfield, Michael; Cooper, Tim; and

Unabia, Catherine. *Department of Integrative Biology,

University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720-3140, USA.

Email: cnidaria@socrates.berkeley.edu

Can chemical cues in the water affect the settlement of larvae

on coral reefs subjected to wave-driven water flow? We

addressed this question using the sea slug, Phestilla sibogae,

whose larvae metamorphose in response to a species-specific

chemical cue from its prey, the coral Porites compressa. P.

compressa are abundant corals that form reefs in shallow,

wave-dominated habitats in Hawaii. We used dye releases and

acoustic doppler velocimetry to characterize the water flow

and mixing above and within P. compressa reefs in Kaneohe

Bay, HI. We collected water in the field from a variety of

positions within and above the reefs and used bioassays of

larval behavior and of metamorphosis to assess the strength of

P. compressa cue in these samples. Coupling our field flow

measurements with the bioassays of cue strength elucidated

patterns in the locations on a reef where water-borne chemical

cues are concentrated enough to induce P. sibogae larvae to

stop swimming and sink, and to undergo metamorphosis when

on a substratum. After quantifying the sinking rates of induced

P. sibogae larvae, we conducted a series of field experiments

monitoring the transport of larval mimics that showed that P.

sibogae larvae sink rapidly enough to be retained on the reef

when wave-driven flow moves across it..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A18: Reproduction

101

FUNGIA GRANULOSA: REGENERATION,

REPRODUCTION AND EVERYTHING IN-BETWEEN.

Kramarsky-Winter, E. and Loya, Y. *Dept of Zoology,

George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences Tel Aviv

University, Tel Aviv, Israel. Email wintere@post.tau.ac.il

. Understanding the relationship between regeneration and

reproduction may provide an insight into how these processes

influence a coral’s ability to survive in disturbed habitats. In

the Northern Red Sea the solitary coral, Fungia granulosa is

common in areas susceptible to stress and provides a good

model system for studying this relationship. Using

conventional histological techniques the coral’s normal

reproductive cycle was followed monthly for two years.

Gametogenesis began in early March and spawned in July-August.

Only in individuals over 5.0 cm in diameter were

reproductive. To study the relationship between damage and

reproduction, tissue lesions were inflicted using an air pick, in

mature and immature individuals, during gametogenic and post

reproductive months. Corals were monitored using

photography and computerized image analysis. Reproductive

effort was investigated two months following lesion infliction.

Morphological and cellular changes occurring during

regeneration, reproduction and bud formation were

investigated microscopically. During post reproductive

months, lesions were repaired in mature corals within 8 weeks.

Lesion repair in immature corals did not undergo repair

regardless of season. During the gametogenic months, none of

the corals underwent complete repair. In damaged corals

fecundity was reduced though gametogenesis continued

indicating a competition for stem cells. Fungiids that

underwent damage involving mouth tissue survived by

forming buds. A model illustrating the relationship between

regeneration, reproduction and environmental disturbance is

proposed.

EFFECTS OF ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION ON

LARVAL RECRUITMENT OF THE REEF CORAL

Pocillopora damicornis.

Kuffner Ilsa B. *. University of Guam Marine Laboratory,

UOG Station, Mangilao, GU 96923. Email:

ilsak@uog9.uog.edu

Sedimentation, predation and visible light are cited as causal

factors to explain the preferential recruitment of coral larvae to

shaded undersides of recruitment substrates. Here I examine

the effects of ultraviolet radiation (UVR, 280-400 nm) on

recruitment of Pocillopora damicornis larvae and the role of

UV-absorbing compounds, mycosporine-like amino acids

(MAAs). Larvae were obtained from adults of four origins:

shallow, deep, incubated under UV-transparent (UVT), and

under UV-opaque (UVO) filters. Larvae were then exposed to

UVT or UVO conditions in specially designed larval

recruitment chambers in the field. UVR had a negative effect

on total recruitment. UVR did not significantly increase

mortality. Larval origin did not have an effect on survival or

recruitment. Lack of an ‘origin’ effect suggests either MAAs

may not be important to the larval ecology of this species or

the deep and UVO larvae had the minimum amount of MAAs

required for UVR protection. The negative effect of UVR on

recruitment indicates that P. damicornis larvae exhibit an

avoidance response to UVR that could account for the

observation that coral larvae recruit to shaded microhabitats.

REPRODUCTIVE NEIGHBORHOODS IN CORALS?

MacKenzie, Jason. *Department of Marine Biology, James

Cook University, Townsville, Qld 4811 Australia. Email:

jason.mackenzie@jcu.edu.au.

The extent of coral mass spawning events is largely

determined by the number of species participating and the

level of synchrony within species. Pooling observations of

spawning by species across multiple sites within reefs, as has

been done traditionally, can overlook potentially significant

geographic subdivisions in spawning behaviour. Observations

of six dominant Acropora species (n=162 colonies) from two

sites separated by less than 2 km in Coral Bay, Western

Australia indicate that adjacent neighbourhoods, consisting of

similar species assemblages, sometimes breed en masse on

different nights. These findings are supported by data from the

Central GBR (Eastern Australia), which also indicate the

occurrence of fine-scale reproductive subdivisions, or

neighbourhoods, within reefs of similar species composition.

Despite the potential for localised breeding units, several

factors would prevent detection of such boundaries in

population genetic studies of broadcast spawning corals. Even

under assumptions of self-seeding scenarios (high retention of

locally generated coral larvae) sufficient levels of migration

between nearby populations can prevent substantial genetic

subdivision within reefs. Thus, the reported pattern of

reproductive isolation in broadcast spawning corals is unlikely

to be detected in population genetic surveys, and ultimately

reveals only part of a complex process of sexual reproduction

in corals.

NEW REPORTS ON THE TIMING AND MODE OF

REPRODUCTION OF HAWAIIAN CORALS.

Maté JL*. *University of Miami, RSMAS-MBF, 4600

Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149 and University

of Hawaii at Manoa, Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology,

P.O. Box 1346, Kaneohe, Hawaii 9674. Email:

matej@naos.si.edu

Seven Hawaiian reef coral species were monitored in the

laboratory for direct observations of spawning from June to

September, 1997. Four species were observed to spawn:

Pavona varians and Montipora studeri which represent new

reports for Hawaii, Porites lobata, observed to spawn for the

first time around the full moon of June and thus extending the

known reproductive season from June to September, and M.

verrucosa, a species with a well known reproductive cycle and

a predictable spawner. Neither P. evermanni nor Psammocora

stellata spawned during the monitoring. Pavona varians, a

gonochoristic spawner, spawned before sunset at 1905-2015

from the 16 th -18 th lunar days of June. Porites lobata, a

gonochoristic spawner, released eggs and sperm at 0120-0314

between the 16th-18th lunar days of June, July, and August.

Montipora studeri, a simultaneous hermaphroditic spawner,

released egg/sperm bundles between 2130-2300 on the 3 rd -6 th

lunar days of July, August, and September. Montipora studeri

began to spawn after M. verrucosa had stopped spawning

(2030). The timing of spawning between M. studeri and M.

verrucosa typically differed in 1 to 2h, providing evidence of

reproductive isolation. These findings may have taxonomic

implications since Montipora studeri has recently been

synonymized with M. verrucosa..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A18: Reproduction

102

SETTLEMENT ON EXPERIMENTAL SUBSTRATE OF

PORITES LARVAE IN MEXICAN PACIFIC DAMAGED

CORAL REEFS AFTER EL NIÑO 1997-98.

Medina-Rosas, Pedro*, Carriquiry, J and Cupul, AL.

*Universidad Autónoma de Baja California and

Universidad de Guadalajara. Carretera Tijuana-Ensenada,

km 103, CP 22800, Ensenada, Baja California, México.

Email: pmedina@faro.ens.uabc.mx

Coral reefs of Mexican Pacific suffered severe damages by

warming in sea surface water caused by El Niño 1997-98.

Coral mortality was high as 96% in some localities. The

objective was check the effects of sublethal temperature on

reproduction capability of survival corals and reefs recovery,

by observing coral recruits settled on artificial substrata at nine

reefs of Jalisco and Nayarit, in Mexican Pacific, since

December 1998 to July 1999. The results was nine Porites

recruits settled on terracotta tiles at two localities. This find

represent the first report of Porites recruits and the highest

sexual coral recruitment settled on artificial substrata in

Eastern Tropical Pacific. Also proves that the reefs of this

region has no complete need of larval supply from reefs at

other localities, like Central or Indo Pacific. Moreover,

survival colonies of Porites species has sexual reproduction

with successful larvae. The recovery of reefs after El Niño

disturbance at this area could be not slower than in other

regions, like Central America, where estimates of recovery

time range from one to two hundred years before reefs will

assume pre El Niño levels of development. More biological

and ecological studies are required for improve the chances for

reefs recovery and protection.

EVIDENCE OF MODULAR AND COLONY LEVEL

REPRODUCTIVE SENESCENCE IN THE BROODING

CORAL, ACROPORA PALIFERA.

Merritt, MA* & Willis, BL. *Dept Marine Biology, James

Cook University, Townsville, Australia. Email:

Melissa.Merritt@jcu.edu.au

Evolutionary theory suggests that modular organisms should

not senesce because germ and somatic cell lineages are not

distinct and senescence is an evolved characteristic of the

soma, however very little is known about senescence in reef

corals. We present evidence of reproductive senescence in the

brooding coral, Acropora palifera, at both the modular (polyp)

and colony level, where the latter refers to synchronous

deterioration of the whole colony. We assumed that polyps at

the tips of branches were younger than those at the bases and

that small colonies showing no evidence of fragmentation or

partial mortality were younger than large ones. We found that

mean (±SE) reproductive output was significantly lower in old

compared to young polyps, as measured by volume of either

eggs (1.85±0.58 x10 -3 mm 3

vs 12.49 ±1.11 x10 -3 mm 3 ) or testes

(0.15±0.03 mm 3

vs 0.40±0.03 mm 3 ). It is also noteworthy that

mean testes volume per polyp was 50X greater than mean egg

volume, suggesting that greater investment in testes may be

required to accomplish internal fertilisation in brooding corals.

At the colony level, polyps assumed to be the same age (i.e.

same distance from branch tips) had lower mean (±SE) testes

volumes in old compared to young colonies (0.40±0.03 mm 3

vs

0.65±0.05 mm 3 ). A greater understanding of patterns of

senescence in corals will allow more accurate predictions

about the lifetime reproductive contributions of coral colonies

and the natural lifespan of coral species.

MOLECULAR CONTROL OF DEVELOPMENT IN

ACROPORA MILLEPORA II. PAX GENES

Miller David J.* Hayward, David C. Reece-Hoyes, John

Scholten, Ingo Catmull, Julian Larsen, Jill E. and Ball,

Eldon E.. *Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, James

Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia.

Email: david.miller@jcu.edu.au

Pax genes are involved in many aspects of development and

pattern formation in higher animals. The functions of some

Pax genes have been established in Drosophila, and genes that

may correspond to these are known to be responsible for

developmental abnormalities in mammals. However, perhaps

predictably, the identification of common (conserved)

functions and ancestral roles of these fly and mammalian genes

has not been simple. As part of a multi-disciplinary study of

coral development, we are studying the Pax genes of

Acropora, and this is providing novel perspectives on many

aspects of the evolution of this complex gene family. So far,

we have identified four Pax genes in Acropora. Two of the

coral genes are particularly interesting to us: Pax-A may

represent a precursor of the entire Pax family, and Pax-C we

view as corresponding to an ancestor of the Pax-6 genes,

which in higher animals are thought to play ‘master control’

roles in eye specification. In situ hybridization has shown that

during Acropora development Pax-A is expressed in what are

likely to be interstitial cells, and Pax-C in a subset of neurons.

This latter pattern suggests that Pax-C may be involved in

differentiation of sensory neurons, playing a role analogous to

that of Pax-6 in the photoreceptors of higher animals.

A HYDRODYNAMIC EXPLANATION FOR THE

PRESENCE OF MULTIPLE EGGS IN CORAL

GAMETE BUNDLES.

Moore S.W. *, Best, B.A. Koehl, M.A.R. and Merz, R.A..

*CA State Univ. Monterey, Seaside, CA 39355-8001, USA.

Email: Steve_Moore@monterey.edu

Many coral species release their gametes in bundles during

mass spawning events. The bundles contain lipid-rich eggs,

and sometimes sperm, and float to the surface before breaking

apart. This surface concentration presumably augments

fertilization success. The buoyancy of the eggs clearly

contributes to the effectiveness of this gamete-concentrating

mechanism, but what, if any, is the role of bundling? A simple

hydrodynamic model for non-neutrally-buoyant particles

reveals that, for particles of a given mass density in a fluid

with a given turbulence intensity, particle size does not

significantly influence the vertical distribution of those

particles except when the size of those particles is within a

limited range of values. Within that limited range, small size

changes can have a dramatic effect on the tendency of those

particles to concentrate in a surface or bottom layer. We

measured bundle rising rates for two species of Acropora and

used dye-tracking to measure turbulence above the colonies

during a mass spawning event at Lizard Island, GBR,

Australia. We combined these data with literature values for

bundle size, egg size, and egg mass density to show that these

coral eggs are in the limited parameter space where size

strongly affects their surface concentrations. We propose that

bundling may have evolved in corals, at least in part, because it

creates the hydrodynamic equivalent of a bigger, more buoyant

egg (and therefore enhances gamete concentrations and

fertilization success) without incurring the costs (in reduced

egg number) of actually creating bigger eggs nor the costs (in

additional energy expenditure) of higher lipid-content per egg..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A18: Reproduction

103

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SUCCESSFUL

RECRUITMENT OF ACROPORA PALMATA ON

BONAIRE REEFS.

Morse, Aileen N. C.* Readdie, Mark D. Martin, Dan and

Raimondi, Peter T. *Marine Science Institute, University

of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93111.

Email: a_morse@lifesci.ucsb.edu.

Our studies of the major Caribbean shallow-water reef-building

coral, Acropora palmata, on the reefs of Bonaire

reveal that there are a number of factors that can influence the

outcome of successful recruitment of this species. The first of

these is reproductive success. Fecundity, as measured by the

number of colonies releasing egg bundles and the number of

bundles released/colony, appears to be directly correlated with

combined fertilization success and rate. Additionally, we

found that the number of sperm and their viability influenced

these same factors. Reduction in fertilization success, but not

rate, resulted in the die-off of large numbers of developing

larvae during the first 24-48h of culture, with additional

significant losses throughout the culture period. Surviving

larvae were found to have significantly retarded larval

development to competence, becoming fully competent for

metamorphosis 16 days post-fertilization compared to 7 days

for larvae in successful cultures. In both the field and the lab,

larvae exhibited a stringent requirement, for £ 60 days, for

detection of a specific chemical cue, previously demonstrated

by us to be a sulfated polysaccharide associated with the cell

wall of crustose red algae,. Larval behavior in the plankton

was found to influence recruitment site selection. Post-metamorphic

differential survivorship and growth were found

to be influenced by various factors associated with recruitment

sites.

EFFECT OF PLANULA SIZE AND ZOOXANTHELLAE

ON THE LIFETIME OF PLANULAE IN THREE

POCILLOPORID CORALS

Naoko, Isomura ,* and Nishihira, Moritaka. *Biological

Institute, Graduate Schools of Science, Tohoku

University,Sendai 980-8578, Japan Email:

iso@mail.cc.tohoku.ac.jp

Dispersal of propagules plays an important role in ecology,

distribution and genetic diversity, particularly for marine

benthic and sessile organisms including corals. Three

pocilloporid corals, Pocillopora damicornis, Seriatopora

hystrix and Stylophora pistillata, are brooders and release

planulae having symbiotic zooxanthellae. In these 3 corals,

planulae showed a great size variation especially at peaks of

planulation, and there were negative correlations between

zooxanthella density and planula size. Studies of the lifetime

of planulae cultured under both light (100?E?m-2s-1) and dark

conditions revealed that larger planulae had longer lifetime. In

addition, when the same-sized planulae were compared, they

had longer lifetime under light condition than under dark

condition. These findings suggest that planulae utilize energy

from photosynthetic products of zooxanthellae and that these

corals enjoy long-dispersal by producing larger planulae with

greater dispersal potential at the peak of planulation. It is

conceivable that variation in dispersal potential of planulae

seem adaptive in widening the chance to settle on the suitable

habitat.

SETTLEMENT PATTERNS AND POTENTIAL FOR

DISPERSAL OF LARVAE OF THE REEF CORAL

PLATYGYRA DAEDALEA FROM THE GREAT

BARRIER REEF.

Nozawa, Yoko * and Harrison, Peter L.. *School of

Resource Science and Management, Southern Cross

University, PO Box 157, Lismore, NSW, 2480 Australia.

Email: pharriso@scu.edu.au

The extent to which larvae from broadcast spawning reef

corals settle on their natal reefs or disperse between reefs, and

their potential for long distance dispersal are controversial

issues. Very little information is available on settlement rates

and competency periods of reef coral larvae. Accordingly, this

study examined the larval pre-competency and settlement

competency periods, and the effects of temperature on

settlement rates of larvae from the broadcast spawning brain

coral Platygyra daedalea from the Great Barrier Reef.

Approximately 20% of larvae in replicated experimental

settlement cages attached to substrata 3-4 days after spawning

(DAS), which would enhance the potential for some of these

larvae to remain near their natal reef and may result in some

degree of self-seeding. Larval settlement began 4-6 DAS, with

peak mean settlement of 23% recorded from 36-42 DAS. The

maximum settlement competency period recorded for P.

daedalea larvae was 93-105 DAS, and maximum larval

longevity was 124 DAS. The delayed peak settlement response

and extended settlement competency periods recorded in this

study indicate that there is considerable potential for long

distance larval dispersal and settlement on geographically

distant reefs for some P. daedalea larvae. Experiments on the

effects of altered temperature on larval settlement patterns

showed that slightly elevated temperatures of 29ºC enhanced

mean settlement rates of P. daedalea larvae, compared with

settlement at 25ºC and 27ºC.

IMPACT OF THE 1998 BLEACHING EVENT ON THE

POTENTIAL FOR REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS OF

Acropora millepora AND OTHER CORALS OF THE

PALM ISLANDS, CENTRAL GREAT BARRIER REEF.

Page, Cathie *, and Willis, Bette. *Australian Institute of

Marine Science. PMB 3, Townsville, 4810. Australia.

Email: c.page@aims.gov.au

Corals within the Palm Island group experienced severe

bleaching and high mortality levels following the 1998

bleaching event. The reproductive output of Acropora

millepora was examined to determine the sub-lethal impact of

this disturbance. In the first reproductive season following the

1998 bleaching event, the reproductive output of A.millepora

was found to have declined in two ways relative to the

previous reproductive season. Firstly, the size of the

population of A.millepora on these reefs was substantially

reduced through whole colony mortality. Secondly, the

reproductive output of the surviving population was reduced in

three ways. The proportion of colonies reproducing was

reduced by 50%, while second and thirdly, the number of eggs

per polyp and the average size of eggs produced were reduced,

each by approximately a third. Declines in reproductive output

are also likely to have occurred in other Acropora and non-Acropora

species in this area. The potential for reproductive

success was further hindered in some species of Acropora, by

different colonies spawning in one of up to a maximum of five

months..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A18: Reproduction

104

CHEMICAL STUDIES OF A NATURAL INDUCER OF

SETTLEMENT AND METAMORPHOSIS IN THE

CORAL-EATING NUDIBRANCH PHESTILLA

SIBOGAE.

Paul, Valerie J. *, Hadfield, Michael G. * University of

Guam Marine Laboratory, UOG Station, Mangilao, Guam,

Email: vpaul@uog9.uog.edu

The waterborne inducer for settlement and metamorphosis in

Phestilla sibogae, released from its preferred food Porites

compressa, has been studied extensively. This small molecule

(molecular weight 300-500) has defied attempts at isolation

and structural characterization for over two decades. It is a

very minor component of a complex mixture of metabolites

released by the coral into seawater; therefore, obtaining

enough material for structural elucidation has been difficult.

We have recently developed some different and rapid isolation

techniques and obtained NMR spectral data at each step of the

isolation process. The active inducer can be extracted into

ethyl acetate from seawater acidified to pH 3-4 by liquid-liquid

partitioning. However, at the pH of seawater, very little

activity extracts into ethyl acetate. This suggests that the

active molecule is acidic. After extraction, the extract can be

separated in one or two steps by reverse phase HPLC with a

reverse phase column designed for working with polar

compounds and acetonitrile:water (2:8) mixtures for a mobile

phase. We also found that Phestilla sibogae would respond to

soluble cues from some species and genera of corals besides

Porites compressa but not others, but always at lower

frequencies than for P. compressa. Extraction and HPLC

separations of extracts of these different corals suggest that the

compounds that induce metamorphosis have the same polarity

and may all be structurally similar.

CORAL REPRODUCTION AND RECRUITMENT AS

PREDICTIVE ECOLOGICAL INDICATORS OF

STRESS ON REEFS.

Richmond, R.H.. *Marine Laboratory, Univ. of Guam,

UOG Station, Mangilao, Guam 96923 USA. Email:

Richmond@uog9.uog.edu

Reproduction and recruitment are the dual processes

responsible for the persistence of reefs over time. Most reef-building

scleractinian corals sexually reproduce via the release

of gametes into the water column, with subsequent fertilization

and development to the planula larval stage. Five chemically-mediated

links have been identified which include

synchronization among conspecifics, egg-sperm interactions,

embryological development, metamorphic induction, and in

most cases, subsequent acquisition of zooxanthellae. Different

life history stages have differential sensitivities to

environmental parameters including water and substratum

quality, with reductions in either leading to reproduction

and/or recruitment failure, and hence, population decreases and

instability. Runoff and sedimentation associated with poor

land use practices in watersheds adjacent to reefs prevent

successful reproduction and recruitment in corals and other

reef organisms. Stress and decreases in adult populations can

also result in reduced reproductive output and success by

negatively affecting fecundity and opportunities for gamete

interactions when outcrossing is necessary (allee effect).

Measurements of reproductive and recruitment success provide

a critical set of data to determine sublethal effects of actions

and activities, and also serve to determine if management

initiatives are effective. Developing water and substratum

criteria that are biologically relevant to reproduction and

recruitment is a critical step towards addressing the decline of

coastal reefs.

OXYGEN CONSUMPTION RATE OF JUVENILE

STAGES OF THE SOFT CORAL HETEROXENIA

FUSCESCENS.

Riechert-Lavy, T.* Ar, A.; & Benayahu, Y. *Department

of Zoology, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel

Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel. Email:

Riechtal@post.tau.ac.il

Heteroxenia fuscescens is a common zooxanthellate soft

coral on the shallow reefs of the Gulf of Eilat (Red Sea). Its

azooxanthellate planulae were considered as lecitotrophic

larvae. We hypothesized that the oxygen consumption rate

(Vo2) changes with development from a planula through a

primary polyp stage and with ambient temperature during

development. The Vo2 averages of two-day old planula at 21,

26 and 28°C, were 1.152±0.045, 0.845±0.051 and 0.458±0.047

µl/h [STPD] respectively (±sd, 6 replications, 5 planulae each).

It decreased to 0.311±0.047, 0.259±0.018 and 0.188±0.05

respectively as the planula changed to a polynula (an

intermediate developmental stage) and remained low until the

primary polyp opened its mouth. Then, the Vo2 increased

rapidly to 0.611±0.067, 0.51±0.044 and 0.582±0.05

respectively, both in their ecological temperature range (21 and

26°C) and above it (28°C). Although the developmental rate of

the planulae was temperature dependent, there were no

significant differences between the lowest Vo2 values that were

recorded at time when their mouth was opened. This pattern

may suggest that energy shortage, rather than temperature,

triggers the mouth formation. The Vo2 of polyps at a given age

increased with temperature. However, the Vo2 of two-day old

planulae was highest in the low temperature and vise versa,

which means that the Q10 for Vo2 was negative. This is the first

evidence of such a phenomenon among corals.

EFFECTS OF HUMAN-INDUCED SEDIMENTATION

ON JUVENILE CORAL ASSEMBLAGES.

Schelten, Christiane K.*. *Environment Department,

University of York, York YO10 5DD, U.K. Email:

cks102@york.ac.uk

The persistence of coral reefs depends on the balance

between coral mortality and carbonate deposition (coral

growth and recruitment). Reef framework degradation arises

when carbonate erosion exceeds carbonate deposition.

Degradation may be compounded by the effects of

sedimentation, mainly caused from river run off. Several

studies show that sedimentation inhibits settlement of coral

larvae. In contrast, little is known about its impacts on juvenile

coral assemblages. In this paper I describe the density and

diversity of juvenile corals along four nearshore to offshore

gradients on the west coast of St. Lucia, West Indies, two

exposed to river discharge (sediment gradients) and two not

exposed (control gradients). The density of juvenile corals was

reduced nearshore, but did not differ between sediment and

control gradients. However, the number of juvenile coral

species was significantly lower on the sediment gradients

compared to the control. This was linked to an altered juvenile

coral composition, probably towards more sediment tolerant

species in areas of high sedimentation. Agaricia agaricites and

Porites astreoides were the most abundant juvenile coral

species along both sediment gradients. In general, recruitment

of massive corals (e.g. Colpophylia natans, Meandrina

meandrites and Diploria spp. ) was very low in all areas. The

percentage of damaged juvenile corals (e.g. from overgrowth

or disease) increased, while average size decreased with

increasing sedimentation. Thus sedimentation detrimentally

affects coral recruitment, intensifying reef degradation..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A18: Reproduction

105

SMALL INCREASES IN TEMPERATURE REDUCE

SETTLEMENT OF CORAL LARVAE.

Ward, Selina* Harrison, Peter and Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove

*Centre for Marine Studies, University of Queensland,

QLD 4072 Australia. Email: selinaward@bigpond.com

The effects of small increases in temperature on the

settlement of broadcast spawning and brooding coral larvae

were examined at Heron Island, Great Barrier Reef, Australia.

Six 2000L flow-through tanks were set up with a heat control

system that kept the temperature in three tanks 2°C above the

temperature of three control tanks. Temperatures in the

experimental system fluctuated in a normal daily and seasonal

pattern. Fewer larvae settled on tiles in the heated tanks when

previously untreated larvae from broadcast-spawning corals

were placed into settlement cages within the tanks. Settlement

rates of unheated larvae were also lower on tiles that were

conditioned in heated tanks, and settlement rates were lower

for larvae that were reared in the heated tanks. Settlement

experiments were also run in aquaria at a maximum of room

temperature and two degree increments to 34°C. In 1998,

settlement was reduced at 30°C for both the brooding and

broadcast-spawning species compared to room temperature

with almost no settlement at all at 32 and 34°C. In 1999, when

room temperature was two degrees lower, settlement rates

were reduced at 28°C and at 26°C for some species. The size

of both larvae and settled spat was also reduced at the higher

temperatures relative to room temperature. These data indicate

that small changes in temperature, even over every short

periods of time can have dramatic and negative effects on coral

reproduction.

ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A NOVEL

MECHANISM OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN

MASSIVE CORALS.

Weil, E*, A.L. Ortiz, H. Ruiz & M. Schärer. *Dep. of

Marine Sciences, U. of Puerto Rico. BOX 908, Lajas PR

00667, USA. Email: eweil@caribe.net

Corals can reproduce asexually by at least five described

strategies. Fragmentation and asexual larvae were the only two

reported/observed in the Caribbean. In this study we describe

some ecological characteristics of a novel strategy of asexual

reproduction in massive colonies of the genus Diploria in the

Caribbean. Pigmented tissue buds develop on the sides or top

of the ridges and deposit a well organized hard skeleton that is

not connected to the parent colony. We have termed these buds

gemma (pl. gemmae). Gemmae stay attached to parental

colonies until they get large and/or surge conditions are strong.

Detached gemmae form “rolling stones” or re-attach to the

substrate. Surveys indicate that; (a) gemmae were common

across the wider Caribbean, and were restricted to shallow

habitats (< 5 m); (b) in Puerto Rico, D.clivosa had a higher

abundance of colonies with gemmae (25.5 %) compared to

D.strigosa (11.7 %) and D.labyrinthiformis (8.7 %), and

D.strigosa and D.clivosa had significantly higher average

number of gemmae/colony (14.9 and 6.8) compared to

D.labyrinthiformis (1.2); (c) the number and size of gemmae

was not related to parent colony size; (d) the average size of

gemmae was similar between the three species in Puerto Rico.

Survivorship (tested with a two-way factorial design with three

replicates in two localities) was significantly higher in caged

experiments but low overall. Further research is needed in

many aspects of this strategy and its possible consequences on

the genetic compositions of shallow water populations of

massive species.

PLANULATION OF POCILLOPORA DAMICORNIS IN

SUBTROPICAL WINTER.

Yamazato, K.*, T. Ushioda, M. Sato and E. Suwardi.

*Meio University, Nago, Okinawa, Japan 905. Email: ris-yama@

ii-okinawa.ne.jp

Planulation of Pocillopora damicornis has been known to

take place monthly throughout a year in tropical areas, but it

was not known if this is the same at higher latitudes when we

initiated this study in 1982. The purpose of this study is to

elucidate the reproductive cycle of this species at hiher latitude

as in Okinawa. It was made clear that this species does not

planulate during winter and that this is due to low sea water

temperature. Histological studies showed that the species

stops gametogenesis, embyogenesis, and planulation during

four months in winter (Jan. to Apr.). When corals were kept at

a constant temperature of 26C in winter, they planulated but

they did not planulate in autumn when kept at the constant

temperatures of 22 and 20C, respectively..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A19: Local Scale Perturbations

Session A19: Ecology of Local-scale Environment Perturbations on Reefs

106

MORPHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS IN CORALS FROM

THE SUAPE INDUSTRIAL-HARBOR COMPLEX, NE

BRAZIL

Banja M.*, C. Oliveira, E. Mayal, V. Ferreira, A. Sial, A.

Coccentino, A. Silva, P. Santos, V. Manso, B. Pinheiro, E.

Lima.

*Univ. of Pernambuco, Brazil; mucio@ netpe.com.br.

Support: Suape Industrial-Harbor Complex. Email:

valderez@npd.ufpe.br

The Suape estuary-lagoon complex, in which an industrial-harbor

complex is located, NE Brazil, presents a beachrock

line parallel to the coast, most of it used as natural barrier for

the harbor. Corals have been collected in this barrier

(Siderastrea stellata and Favia gravida) along 5 sampling

points, starting from the harbor main entrance. Coralite

diameters and distance among them, number of septa,

columella width, and meander lengths measurements have

been made in the collected samples. Both specimens are

smaller in points 1 through 3 than those from point 5, which

are well developed, and taller coral walls in the F. gravida are

more common in the points 1, 2, and 3. As a whole, the

specimens show larger morphological variations in the points

closer to the harbor entrance, than far from it.

IS THE GROWTH RESPONSE OF ACROPORA

CORALS TO ELEVATED NUTRIENTS DIFFERENT

TO THAT OF OTHER CORAL TAXA?

Bucher, Daniel J.* and Harrison, Peter L.. *School of

Resource Science and Management, Southern Cross

University, P.O. Box 159, Lismore, NSW, Australia. Email:

dbucher@scu.edu.au

The rates of linear extension, buoyant weight and

displacement volume increments were measured in Acropora

longicyathus exposed to elevated concentrations of ammonium

and/or phosphate in the ENCORE experiment at One Tree

Island, southern Great Barrier Reef. Linear extension was

accelerated in phosphate treatments and depressed by elevated

ammonium. Ammonium also reduced the ability of corals to

repair lesions, a result which has implications for the recovery

of polluted reefs following physical damage. Buoyant weight

growth was accelerated by elevated ammonium on an annual

basis, but significant reductions occurred in some seasons.

Phosphate increased buoyant weight growth in some seasons

but had no significant effect on an annual basis. Caution is

therefore advised when extrapolating short-term growth data to

represent annual trends. Phosphate-treated corals with high

zooxanthellae densities showed no evidence of inorganic

carbon limitation of calcification. Consecutive buoyant weight

and displacement volume measurements demonstrated

seasonal changes in the balance between the processes of

skeletal extension and infilling and indicate that elevated

nutrients may have the potential to alter the timing of density

band formation in massive coral species. When the results

from this study are compared with other studies, it is evident

that growth of Acropora corals may be less sensitive to clean

elevated inorganic nutrient concentrations than growth of other

coral taxa used in nutrient enrichment studies to date.

EXPRESSION OF HSP60 BY THE SEA ANEMONE

ANEMONIA SULCATA: A POTENTIAL EARLY

WARNING SYSTEM FOR MONITORING

ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES.

Choresh O * , Ron, Eliora; Loya, Yossi. *Faculty of Life

Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Tel Aviv 69978,

ISREAL. Email: omerch@post.tau.ac.il

Recently, great concern has been expressed to the fate of

coral reefs, in view of their accelerated degradation due to

global warming. The development of early warning systems

concerning the condition of coral reefs, and as an indication of

global warming, is of great importance. Marine invertebrates

respond to stress, which causes damage to cellular proteins, by

inducing the synthesis of Heat Shock Proteins (HSPs), which

is correlated with the adaptation to environmental stressors.

This work examines the role of HSPs in adaptation to thermal

stress through a study of the influence of changes in seawater

temperature (SWT) on the expression of these proteins in the

sea anemone Anemonia sulcata. Results reveal for the first

time the HSP60 in sea anemones, and show by laboratory and

field experiments that its expression is varied with changes in

SWT. A. sulcata displayed high levels of HSP60 when extreme

temperature conditions prevailed in stressful habitats such as

tide pools. Specimens removed from different temperature

layers in the same tide pool differed in the level of HSP60.

Furthermore, specimens from subtidal zones exhibited a

seasonal pattern of expression of this protein, according to the

seasonal changes in SWT. This study may offer a useful tool

for detecting HSP60 in marine invertebrates, and contributes to

the understanding of HSPs role in the adaptation of organisms

to stressful environments.

THE ROLE OF INTRODUCED MACROALGAE IN

PHASE SHIFTS ON CORAL REEFS IN KANEOHE

BAY, HAWAII USA.

Conklin, Eric J.* *Department of Zoology, University of

Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822 USA. Email:

econklin@hawaii.edu

The overgrowth of reef-building corals by macroalgae is an

increasingly common phenomenon on many coral reefs,

contributing to widespread reef degradation. It is generally

held that these overgrowths (termed “phase shifts”) result from

a reduction in grazing pressure by herbivorous fishes on the

invasive macroalgae. In the case of the phase shift that has

occurred on reef crests and slopes in Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii,

this reduced grazing pressure may be partly due to the

introduction of several alien macroalgal species to the bay. I

have been testing components of the hypothesis that the

introduction and establishment of palatable macroalgae on reef

flats in Kaneohe Bay has reduced grazing pressure on reef

crest algal species by providing an abundant, preferred food

source, and thereby contributed to the phase shift. Preference

tests show that the two most abundant introduced species are

more preferred than the algal species competing with corals for

space. Field studies indicated that grazing intensity generally

decreased from the reef crest, the habitat of greatest shelter

availability and greatest herbivore biomass, onto the reef flat,

where shelter and herbivore biomass are less abundant.

However, preferred algal species were restricted by intense

grazing pressure to areas far from the shelter of the reef crest

while less preferred species were able to sustain positive

growth at the reef crest. This study concludes that herbivorous

fishes forage far from shelter onto reef flats to feed on the

preferred algal species that have been introduced to the bay,

ignoring less preferred species that are more easily obtainable

and potentially allowing these species to overgrow corals..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A19: Local Scale Perturbations

107

PARTICIPATORY MAPPING OF THE IMPACTS OF

INDUSTRIALIZATION ON THE CORAL REEF

ECOSYSTEM OF CALUMPAN PENINSULA IN

BATANGAS BAY, PHILIPPINES – LESSONS

LEARNED FOR THE MARINE BIODIVERSITY

CONSERVATION PROGRAM IN ADJACENT

BALAYAN BAY.

Dumaup J.N.B.*. *World Wildlife Fund-Philippines, 23-A

Maalindog St., U.P. Village, Diliman, Quezon City 1101,

Philippines. Email: ndumaup@wwf-phil.org.ph

World Wildlife Fund-Philippines currently implements a

marine biodiversity conservation program in the coastal

municipalities of Mabini and Tingloy, Batangas, Philippines.

Two bays – Batangas Bay on the east and Balayan Bay on the

west – are found in these municipalities. Batangas Bay is a

highly industrialized area supported by an alternate

international seaport. The industrial zone is limited to the

northern third portion of Calumpan Peninsula but there is a

plan to extend it to cover the entire eastern coast of the

peninsula. Balayan Bay, on the other hand, is devoted to

fisheries and tourism. Its coral reef ecosystem shows a low

abundance of reef associated fishes but the benthic community

remains rich with some areas showing 70% live coral cover.

Growing industrialization and weak law enforcement threaten

the coral reef ecosystem along the eastern coast of Calumpan

Peninsula, which are the source of food and livelihood of the

local populace. Participatory mapping and validation of the

condition of the coral reef ecosystem before and after

expansion of industrialization will provide valuable learning

that must be considered in future development of an integrated

coastal management plan for the municipalities of Mabini and

Tingloy and Balayan Bay in general.

STRESS IN CORALS FROM THE SUAPE

INDUSTRIAL-HARBOR COMPLEX, NE BRAZIL

Ferreira V., E. Maÿal, A. Sial, M. Banja, A. Coccentino, A.

Silva, P. Santos, B. Pinheiro, E. Lima, C. Oliveira *Federal

Univ. Pernambuco, Brazil.. ufpe.br. Support: Suape

Industrial Harbor Complex Email: valderez@npd

The Suape Industrial Harbor Complex, NE Brazil, is in a

region where a lagoon complex occurs, separated from the

open sea by beachrock line. In 1988, 5 Siderastrea stellata

specimens, and in 1999, 6 specimens, were collected.

Morphological studies indicate rather low zooxantella activity,

which resulted in smaller skeletal growth. d

13 C and d

18 O

compositions suggest that this low activity is correlated with

increasing temperature, implying that corals were under

thermal stress. This, associated with large amount of

suspended, very fine-grained material, contributed for the

rather low photosynthetic activity. Corals growth bands

suggest they were rather young (12 year-old), one of them was

only 3 year-old, indicating it was fixed and grew after the

harbor complex set up, in spite of the unfavorable conditions.

TEMPORAL ABUNDANCE AND EFFECTS OF NO3,

PO4 AND Fe ON CYANOBACTERIA AND ALGAE IN

GUAM.

Kuffner, Ilsa B. *, Thacker, Robert, Paul, Valerie.

*University of Guam Marine Laboratory, UOG Station,

Mangilao, GU 96923. Email: ilsak@uog9.uog.edu

The abundance of cyanobacteria and macroalgae on Guam’s

reefs varies greatly on a temporal scale. The causes of this

variance are not well understood. In this study, monitoring

data were collected for two years, estimating percent cover of

all major species of cyanobacteria and macroalgae on three

transects in Cocos Lagoon. Dictyota bartayresii, Halimeda

spp., and Padina tenuis accounted for the bulk of the

macroalgal community. Tolypothrix sp., Schizothrix sp. and

Lyngbya majuscula were major components of the

cyanobacterial assemblage. Six representative species were

tested for phosphate, nitrate and iron limitation in an outdoor

laboratory experiment. Results indicated that Dictyota

bartayresii and Halimeda incrassata may be nitrate-limited,

while Lyngbya majuscula may be limited by phosphate

availability. Tolypothrix sp. released a substantial number of

hormogonia during the experiment. Tolypothrix filaments

covered the bottoms of the containers and thalli of P. tenuis

while not attaching to the other organisms, suggesting

important interactions among these species in the Cocos

Lagoon community.

SIMULATION OF CORAL REEF COMMUNITY

DYNAMICS AND DISTURBANCE.

Langmead, O.* and Sheppard, CRC. *Department of

Biological Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4

7AL, UK. Email: fsla@dna.bio.warwick.ac.uk.

Disturbance is a key process in coral reef community

dynamics. Understanding the capacity of reefs to recover after

disturbance and the causal mechanisms is fundamental to the

prediction of the stability properties of reef systems. This is

particularly relevant now, following the global decline of reefs

during the last decade. A discrete, spatially explicit model

(cellular automaton), was developed to simulate a 9m 2 plot on

a Caribbean fore reef slope between 10 and 20m. The model

represents recruitment, growth and interspecific competition of

coral colonies at the modular level (coral colonies being

composed of many identical polyps). Parameters used were

based on real data. Results in terms of quantitative and

qualitative changes in coral community structure were assessed

under different disturbance regimes. Findings indicate that the

modelled community is stable (resilient and persistent) except

when proportions of the total area exceed particular thresholds,

whose values equate with several recent disturbances, or when

the spatial scale of disturbed patches is large. In such cases the

community structure adapts to an alternate state. This

constitutes a phase shift, and will be discussed in relation to

real reefs. The structure of the modelled community appears to

be resilient to temporal variability in larval supply over a wide

range. Rates of change and recovery following simulated

impacts to reflect what is increasingly occurring on coral reefs

will also be demonstrated. We conclude that the model does

reflect this complex natural system..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A19: Local Scale Perturbations

108

EFFECTS OF A PESTICIDE ON LARVAL

RECRUITMENT OF THE SCLERACTINIAN CORAL

GONIASTREA RETIFORMIS.

Leota S. T.*, S. Mckenna, And R. H. Richmond. *Marine

Laboratory, Univ. of Guam, UOG Station, Mangilao,

Guam USA 96923. stleota@guamcell.net

Successful recruitment of coral larvae enables them to

become permanent members of the benthic reef community.

Larvae of several corals use chemical cues in their selection of

substratum as a settlement site. The recruitment process may

be a sensitive indicator of the effects of pollutants on coral

reefs because larval settlement and metamorphosis is

susceptible to changes in ambient water or substratum quality.

We investigated the effects of the organophosphate pesticide,

chlorpyrifos, on larval recruitment of Goniastrea retiformis.

Static recruitment bioassays were conducted to determine

whether G. retiformis planulae would recruit onto natural,

crustose coralline algae-covered substrata conditioned with

three different concentrations of chlorpyrifos. Results of two

recruitment bioassays were inconsistent. In 1998, there was a

statistically significant difference between the control and two

treatments (5 and 50 ppb, ANOVA, p<0.05). There was no

significant difference in larval recruitment between the control

and the 0.5 ppb treatment. In 1999, however, there was no

significant difference between controls and all experimental

treatments (ANOVA, p>0.05). Several possible factors that

could have contributed to the disparity in results include: 1)

reduced fitness of larvae in 1999, 2) reduced chemical activity

of coralline algae on substrata in 1999, and 3) unrecognized

differences between bioassays. Results suggest that

recruitment bioassays may be a useful method to determine the

effects of certain pollutants on coral larvae. However,

additional tests will be necessary to validate this method.

POINT SOURCE AND NON-POINT SOURCE

POLLUTION ON CORAL REEFS OF GUAM.

McKenna S.A. * and R.H. Richmond. *University of Guam

Marine Lab, Mangilao, GU 96923 U.S.A. Email:

sheilamckenna@yahoo.com

Point source and non-point source pollution have impacted

the reefs of Guam. Finding a sensitive parameter to detect the

effect of various pollutants on the reef is a challenge. We

investigated the use of physiological and community level

parameters on reefs subject to varying types of pollution. The

sites included a reef subject to point source pollution (PS), a

reef subject to non-point source pollution (NPS), and two

reference reefs (REF1 and REF2). Laboratory cultivated

colonies of Pocillopora damicornis of five known parental

lines were transplanted to one of three sites (PS, REF1, and

REF2). After five months, the corals were collected and

survivorship and growth were determined. Survivorship and

growth of corals was significantly different among site x

parental line (two-way ANOVA p< 0.001). This suggests a

genetic component to the survivorship and growth of coral in

response to the environment. Dry biomass accumulation was

measured at all sites using settlement plates. NPS had

significantly less dry biomass than PS and REF1 sites

(p<0.01). At PS and NPS sites, percent cover of reef

substrata/biota were determined by 50m belt transects.

ANOSIM comparisons were used to detect differences

between shallow and deep surveys within and among PS and

NPS sites. The NPS site had lower coral coverage, more fleshy

algae and silt in comparison to the PS site (p<0.001).

Community level parameters may provide a better estimate of

reef viability than physiological indicators due to the genetic

variability among corals.

PHASE SHIFT AND RECRUITMENT STATEGIES OF

FISHES ON STRESSED CORAL REEF

Manthachitra, Vipoosit.* Sudara, Suraphol. *Dept. of

Aquatic Science, Burapha University, Chonburi 20131,

Thailand. Email: vipoosit@bucc.buu.ac.th

Fish assemblages on coral reefs at khangkao island, the inner

gulf of thailand, are subjected to low salinity but high sediment

environment and also limited connection to other reefs. Results

from the monitoring of reef fish assemblages at khangkao

island during october 1997 to november 1998 found 83 species

from 28 families. Pomacentridae solely dominated the area (20

species, 76.9% abundance) while labridae and apogonidae

were the next abundance families (8 species, 5.6% abundance

and 6 species 4.2% abundance respectively). According to

trophic categories, small water column feeders (15 species,

39.6% abundance) and small herbivores (4 species, 38.5%

abundance) dominated in the assemblages while predatory fish

had moderate number of species but very low abundance (16

species, 0.9% abundance). There was a considerable shift on

community structure when compare with previous study as the

stresses from human activities had increased during the last 15

years. Recruitment of fish were detected for 33 species which

the most dominant recruit species are the most abundance

species. The different on recruitment strategies among reef

fishes might explain how community structure had shifted

after extensively disturbed from any sources.

COMPARISON OF CORAL REEF FISH

ASSEMBLAGES ON PHYSICALLY DAMAGED AND

ADJACENT UNDAMAGED SITES: SIGNIFICANCE

FOR REEF COMMUNITY STRUCTURE.

Michael, CA*, S Clark, MA Le Tissier, S Field, A Edwards

and NVC Polunin. *Department of Marine Sciences and

Coastal Management, University of Newcastle, Newcastle

upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK. Email: c.a.michael@ncl.ac.uk

Coral reef fish assemblages at four ship grounding sites in

the Gulf of Aqaba, northern Red Sea were studied using a

stationary visual point count method during summer 1999 and

winter 2000. Ship groundings affect the structure and function

of reefs and provide discrete disturbances on a small spatial

scale. A comparison of fish assemblages on damaged and

adjacent undamaged sites was made to determine the effect of

localised physical disturbance on community structure. Mean

species richness and total fish abundance were higher on

adjacent undamaged than damaged areas of reef for all sites

studied. Herbivorous fish (Scarids and Acanthurids) however

were more dominant on damaged than adjacent undamaged

areas of reef. Correlations between fish density, species

richness and diversity on the one hand, and rugosity and

benthic cover on the other are discussed. The significance of

differences in fish assemblages are discussed in the context of

the role which functional groups play in structuring coral reef

communities and consequent recovery from local-scale

perturbations..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A19: Local Scale Perturbations

109

COMMUNITY METABOLISM ON THE REEF FLATS

AT REUNION (INDIAN OCEAN) : NATURAL VERSUS

ANTHROPOGENIC DISTURBANCE.

Mioche, D.* and P. Cuet. *Laboratoire d’Ecologie Marine,

Université de la Réunion, BP 7151, 97487 Saint-Denis

messag. Cedex 9, France. Email: domi@univ-reunion.fr

This paper documents community metabolism on (1) two

undisturbed reef flats, (2) a reef flat damaged by the combined

effects of nutrient loading and undergrazing (Planch’Alizés),

and (3) a reef flat destroyed in 1989 by a hurricane (Saint-Leu).

The undisturbed sites display similar excess productions

(E), slightly positive in summer (56 - 57 mmol O2.m -2 .d -1 ,

gross primary production to respiration ratio (Pg/R) = 1.11 -1.13),

and nil in winter. Whatever the season, E is higher than

0 at Saint-Leu (177 - 325 mmol O2.m -2 .d -1 ; Pg/R = 1.18 - 1.22),

and lower than 0 at Planch’Alizés (–125 to –71 mmol O2.m -2 .d -1

; Pg/R = 0.87 - 0.94) ; E is higher at Saint-Leu, and the Pg/R

ratio lower at Planch’Alizés, than at the other sites.

Planch’Alizés displays lower mean calcification rates (mmol

CaCO3.m -2 .h -1 ) than the other sites, during the day in winter

(respectively 1.7 and 10.7 - 14.3), and at night in summer

(respectively –15.1 and –1.6 to 5.4). Therefore, net

productivity and calcification allow the characterization of the

disturbed areas. At Saint-Leu, they reflect the shift in

community structure which occurred after the hurricane. The

dominance of massive corals may affect the carbonate budget

at Planch’Alizés. However, the E value and the CaCO3

dissolution observed at night in summer at this site presumably

result from an input of exogenous organic matter, and,

therefore, mainly reflect anthropogenic disturbance.

CHANGES IN THE COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF

THE ENSENADA DE CHICHIRIVICHE DE LA COSTA,

VENEZUELA, AS A CONSEQUENCE OF AN INTENSE

PERIOD OF RAIN.

Ortiz, J. C.*, M. del C. Gomez and S. M. Pauls * BIOSUB,

Coord. de Extension, Fac. De Ciencias, Universidad

Central de Venezuela, A.P. 20513 CCS 1020-A, Venezuela.

Email: coralin@telcel.net.ve

In December 1999 abnormal precipitations affected

Venezuela, caused rivers to flood and landslides on the Coastal

Range. Ensenada de Chichiriviche de la Costa, have a stony

coral community recently characterized in April 1999 that was

affected. We found in 1999 that this community was relatively

rich in coral species (22), but presents low values of coverage

(6.6%) and a patchy distribution. Along this shore three major

landslides occurred in December 1999. In 2000 we repeated

the sampling performed in 1999. From 22 species, we found

only 17. Total coverage of stony coral decreases 42.4%. Total

coverage of living coral per transect reached maximum

declines close to the landslides. The greatest loss (30%) in

number of species occurs in the intermediate stratum (4.1 to

10m). The total coverage of living coral showed the greatest

decreases (62.8%) in the upper stratum (0 to 4m). Despite that

42.4% of the total living coverage in 1999 was dead in 2000,

only 21.8% of the living coral remaining were partially

damaged. This and the increase in the rocky substrate suggest

that the principal cause of coral coverage decrease was

crushing during the landslides and little death occurred as a

consequence of low salinity and high sedimentation. Providing

us with a probable explanation for the presence of a relatively

high number of species, but low values of coverage, and also

the patchy distribution of these in the cove.

SURVIVAL AND TISSUE REDUCTION OVER

HURRICANE-GENERATED FRAGMENTS OF

ACROPORA PALMATA.

Ortiz-Prosper, Antonio L.* and Ruiz, Hector. *University

of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus, Department of Marine

Science, P.O. Box 908, Lajas, P.R. 00667-0908.

alortiz9@hotmail.com

Acropora palmata (Elkhorn coral), a Caribbean branching

coral which usually forms densely aggregate patches in

shallow, high energy zones of the reef are very prone to

dislodgment and fragmentation after a hurricane. Because

hurricane generated fragments usually survive this process,

they have been considered to play an important role in the

persistence of local populations. One of the suggested

attributes of this type of asexual propagation is increased genet

fitness by stimulating genet growth rates and indirectly

increasing genet fecundity. However, this depends in the

survivorship of the fragments and in the persistence of live

tissue cover. Hurricane George passed over Puerto Rico in

Sept. 22, 1998, severely affecting shallow reef areas of the

southern coast. Following the hurricane we established two

belt transects (2 m by 30 m) in the A. palmata zone at four

reefs on the La Parguera platform in southwestern Puerto Rico

to examine the fate of fragments. Within these transects, each

standing colony and detached fragment of A. palmata was

counted, identified, tagged, measured (max. length and width),

and its position was recorded. Additionally, the cover of live

tissue of each fragment was measured (max. length and width).

Significant differences (p< 0.001, N= 433 fragments) between

reefs were observed in terms of fragment length (40.5 ± 20.1

cm), max. length of live tissue of the fragments (20.8 ± 15.1

cm), and tissue reduction (area) of the fragment (79.7 ± 15.1).

No relationship has been observed between the reduction in

live tissue cover and the initial fragment length (R_=0.003,

N=433) or initial live tissue cover (R_=0.007). Results are

discussed in terms of fragmentation as a means of asexual

reproduction, and the role of genet survival and fitness.

USE OF HYPERSPECTRAL SENSING TO OBTAIN

MICRO-SCALE ECOLOGICAL DATA ON MESO- TO

MACRO- SCALES.

Potts, D.C. * , D. Siciliano, B.A. Martini, W.L. Pickles, E.A.

Silver. *Institute of Marine Sciences, University of

California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA. Email:

potts@biology.ucsc.edu

Most coral reefs exist at land-sea-air interfaces surrounding

tropical land masses, where they are vulnerable to changes in

all three habitat components. These land masses also support

many of the world's densest and most rapidly growing human

populations that are creating accelerating impacts on local (e.g.

overfishing, construction, sewage), regional (e.g. land-use,

runoff) and global (e.g. climate change, ocean alkalinity)

scales. Adding human impacts to "natural" processes of

environmental change ensures that coral reefs and associated

habitats (mangroves, seagrasses) are changing more rapidly

than any other global ecosystem, and more rapidly than

traditional ecological methods can document either "baseline"

states or the changes themselves. Aerial hyperspectral sensing

allows environmental data (biological, geological, physical,

chemical) can be gathered on ecological spatial scales (< 1-

3m) over entire regions (10 2 - 10 3 km 2 ) in a single flight.

Hyperspectral sensors record high-resolution spectra from

independent measurements of many (>100), narrow (<15nm),

contiguous spectral bands (UV-visible-IR). Spatial resolution

(pixel size) depends on aircraft altitude..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A19: Local Scale Perturbations

110

THE METABOLIC RESPONSE TO

EUTROPHICATION OF A CORAL COMMUNITY AND

MONTIPORA CIRCUMVALLATA NUBBINS.

Rard M.*, Mioche, D. ; Seychelles, L. ; and Cuet, P.

*Laboratoire d’Ecologie Marine, Université de la Réunion,

BP 7151, 97487 Saint-Denis messag. Cedex 9, France.:

Email: mrard@univ-reunion.fr

The reef flat at Planch’Alizés (Saint-Gilles/LaSaline fringing

reef, Reunion) is dominated by macroalgae as a result of

nutrient loading and undergrazing. In order to document the

impact of eutrophication on coral reef metabolism, we

compared, at Planch'Alizés and in control conditions: (1) the

O2 and CaCO3 budgets of two coral communities enclosed in

situ (each one comprised of a Montipora circumvallata colony

with its associated fauna and flora, and surrounded by sand),

and (2) the growth and the O2 budget of M. circumvallata

nubbins. In summer, the community enclosed at Planch'Alizés

had higher daily gross primary production (Pg) and respiration

(R) than the control one. Differences between sites disappeared

in winter, and may have resulted from intraspecific variations

or differences in community structure. However, in winter, the

nubbins left at Planch'Alizés also displayed higher Pg and R

than nubbins originating from the same parent colony, but

allowed to stay for a few weeks in control conditions before

measurements. The data at Planch'Alizés remind of the

observations made with artificially elevated levels of N, and

may therefore reflect the increase in N availability previously

reported at this site. However, the growth of the nubbins was

not affected. The community enclosed at Planch'Alizés had a

lower daily calcification than the control one. However, this

was due to some CaCO3 dissolution occurring at night, and

presumably reflected an input of organic matter at this site.

WHY MARINE RESERVES ARE NEEDED IN THE US

VIRGIN ISLANDS.

Rogers, Caroline S. *, Beets, James P.. *US Geological

Survey, P.O. Box 710, St. John, USVI 00830. Email:

caroline_rogers@usgs.gov

Marine resources in the US Virgin Islands, including those

within Buck Island Reef National Monument (St. Croix) and

Virgin Islands National Park (St. John), have been seriously

degraded from natural and human stresses. In the last two

decades, eight hurricanes have passed near or over St. John

and St. Croix, some causing extensive damage to reefs and

seagrass beds. Coral diseases (notably white band disease and

plague type II) have caused extensive mortality. In general,

reefs now have less live coral and more algae. Reef fish

assemblages have also changed significantly. The effects of

natural disturbances have been severe, and recovery of fishes

and benthic habitats is unlikely unless the concomitant stresses

imposed by humans are reduced or eliminated. The effects of

degradation of coral reefs, mangroves, and seagrass beds on

reef fishes are difficult to separate from the effects of

overfishing. However, some changes in fish assemblages

became apparent well before the dramatic habitat changes of

the last two decades. The loss of spawning aggregations and

decreases in average size and abundance of groupers and other

commercially important species also point to fishing as a major

contributing factor. The existing, limited regulations (e.g., on

fishing and anchoring) in these marine "protected" areas have

not prevented serious deterioration. Marine reserves, within

which trap fishing and other detrimental human activities

would be prohibited, should be established as soon as possible

to allow recovery of fish assemblages and benthic habitats.

EFFECTS OF CONTINENTAL INFLUENCE IN CORAL

COMMUNITIES OF THE SANTA MARTA AREA,

COLOMBIAN CARIBBEAN.

Rojas-Ruiz, Jaime A.*, Jaime Garzón-Ferreira, Alberto

Rodríguez-Ramírez, Diego L. Gil-Agudelo, Nazira Mejía-Niño

and Bienvenido Marín Zambrana. Instituto de

Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras, Santa Marta,

Colombia, A.A. 1016. Email: jrojas@invemar.org.co

The status of coral communities as well as sedimentation

rates (including calcium carbonate content), nutrients,

transparency, temperature, suspended solids, chlorophyll a in

surface waters and heavy metal content (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu,

Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn) of sediments, were assessed at two

nearby reef sites (Santa Marta and Chengue bays) of the

Colombian Caribbean between October 1998 and July 1999.

Santa Marta Bay, the site with a higher influence of continental

runoff and anthropogenic activities, showed in general higher

levels of nutrients, temperature, suspended solids and

chlorophyll a, sedimentation rates and heavy metals.

Nevertheless, those levels were not within ranges considered

harmful to the coral community. However, it was found much

lower coral cover in Santa Marta (13%) than in Chengue

(35%), and in contrast a higher algae abundance in Santa

Marta (32-53%) than in Chengue (24-35%). These differences

in community structure between both sites, together with some

observations of a strong coral decline during the last 30 years

in Santa Marta Bay, suggest that the evaluated parameters have

originated a negative impact. As the measured levels were no

lethal, their impact could have been produced in a chronic slow

way or by a synergic action between them.

UPTAKE OF ESTROGENS BY REEF-BUILDING

CORALS.

Tarrant, Ann M.*, M.J. Atkinson, and Shannon Atkinson.

*University of Hawaii, Department of Oceanography, 1000

Pope Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA, Email:

atarrant@soest.hawaii.edu

Estrogens and other steroids are present in coral tissues, but

it is unknown whether corals synthesize estrogens, or

concentrate them from food particles or from the overlying

seawater. Dissolved estrogens have been detected in rivers,

lakes and coastal seawater; sewage outfalls and runoff from

livestock enclosures may expose nearby corals to unusually

high doses of estrogens. If estrogens help to regulate

reproductive processes in corals, then water column sources of

estrogens or “estrogen mimics” will influence coral

reproduction. To determine whether corals can remove

estrogens from the water column, we measured the uptake of

dissolved estrone in a 24-m flume filled 2 m 2 of scleractinian

corals. In each experiment, the flume was spiked with estrone

(starting concentrations 1.0 - 2.5 ng l -1 ) and water samples

were collected intermittently for 1-7 days. The assemblage of

coral removed estrone from the water column at a rate

proportional to concentration. The rate constants (85 x 10 -6 m

s -1 ) are close to maximal uptake rates, based on mass transfer

theory applied to nutrient uptake by corals. Given

concentrations of dissolved estrone are 50 to 500 pg l -1 over

coral reefs, uptake rates of dissolved estrone into corals range

from 0.1 to 1 g estrone m -2 day -1 . This implies a turnover time

on the order of 10-100 days..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A19: Local Scale Perturbations

111

PHENOTYPIC PLASTICITY IN TWO

SCLERACTINIAN CORALS AROUND SINGAPORE.

Todd, P.A.*, Sanderson, P.G., Chou, L.M. *Department of

Geography, National University of Singapore, 1 Arts Link,

Kent Ridge, Singapore, 117576. Email:

artp8501@nus.edu.sg

Fragments of two scleractinian corals, Diploastrea heliopora

and Montastrea curta, were reciprocally transplanted across

three of Singapore’s southern reefs, located 4km, 11.5km and

15km off the mainland shore. These reefs represent a sediment

gradient – the nearest being the most heavily affected by

sedimentation. At each reef two stations were established, a

shallow site (3m) and a deep site (10m), i.e. high and low light

environments (due to high sediment levels there are no reefs

below 10m off Singapore). Four colonies of each of the two

species were sampled from the three reefs (a total of 12

colonies for each species). From each colony, six fragments

(clone-mates) were removed and spread over the six stations,

thus there were 12 fragments (one per colony) of each species

at each station. All fragments were photographed immediately

after transplantation. After four months the fragments were

photographed once more before being collected for treatment

and analysis. During this time a suite of physical

environmental measurements were regularly taken at each

station. Polyp and corallite morphometric traits were measured

from photographs and cleaned skeletons. Comparisons of traits

across colonies and stations were made using multivariate

statistical techniques.

THE MAINTENANCE OF CORAL ASSEMBLAGES

ALONG THE SOUTH SHORE OF ST. JOHN, U.S.

VIRGIN ISLANDS.

Treml, EA* and Colgan, MW. *Technology Planning and

Management Corporation, NOAA Coastal Services Center,

2234 South Hobson Avenue, Charleston, SC 29405-2413,

USA. Email: Eric.Treml@noaa.gov

Coral reef communities have been studied extensively

throughout the past five decades, although with little emphasis

on the importance of history and scale. Until recently, cross

scale, multivariate studies have not been completed on coral

reefs. Now, utilizing geographic information systems (GIS),

enables one to study coral reefs, while controlling the many

spatial and temporal scales. This study applies a broad-scale

approach, spanning multiple watersheds and bays containing

many patch reef communities along the undeveloped south

shore of St. John, USVI. The line transect method was used to

quantify reef communities and GIS was used to create maps of

individual reef patches, delineate and map watersheds, locate

stream beds, and find the location of stream outlets. The GIS

was also used to summarize the storm history of St. John,

visualize the ecological data results, and explore spatial

relationships between the reef patch communities. This study

reveals the widespread lack of recovery from Hurricane Hugo

(category IV, 1989), which is seen at all community levels. In

addition, the variability in coral community structure is

significant at the bay-to-bay level and may best be explained

by the degree to which patch reefs are exposed to waves.

TERRESTRIAL NITROGEN IMPACT TO CORAL

REEFS EVALUATED BY STABLE NITROGEN

ISOTOPE OF MACROALGAE.

Umezawa, Y.*, Miyajima, T. Yamamuro, M. Kayanne, H.

and Koike, I. *Marine Biogeochemistry Lab., Ocean

Research Institute, The University of Tokyo, 1-15-1

Minamidai Nakano-ku Tokyo 164-8639, Japan. Email:

umezawa@ori.u-tokyo.ac.jp

In fringing reefs, supply of terrestrial nitrogen through

groundwater or river is spatially and temporally variable, and

quantitative evaluation of terrestrial nitrogen impact on reef

vegetation is difficult from water column nutrient data.

Application of d

15 N-values in brown algae as an indicator of

integrated nutrient regime in their habits was tested in the reefs

surrounding Ishigaki Island, southwest of Japan. The d

15 N

values in two brown macroalgae, Padina spp. and Dictyota sp.,

distributed widely in the reefs, decreased logarithmically from

+8‰ to +2‰ with increasing distance from shoreline,

indicating clear difference of d

15 N between those affected by

terrestrial nitrogen source inflow through groundwater and

those by other sources. At the area >400m distant from

shoreline where corals are mainly distributed, the values fell

down to +3‰ or +2‰. These results suggested that impact of

anthropogenic nitrogen on corals was minor in the study area,

although the impact of nitrogen inflow was considerable for

macroalgae distributed near the shoreline. The availability of

terrestrial nitrogen for coral reef macroalgae is primarily

controlled by residence time of reef seawater and the fluxes of

terrestrial nitrogen. Using d

15 N-value of brown algae as an

indicator, we successfully evaluated fine spatial scale

distribution of terrestrial nitrogen impact on subtropical coral

reefs, which had been missed by conventional sampling of the

water column nutrients..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A20: Fish Ecology:Life History

Session A20: Fish Ecology I: Life History and Reproduction

112

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BODY SIZE AND

HOME RANGE SIZE FOR NASSAU GROUPER

(Epinephelus striatus).

Bolden, S.K.*. *NOAA/NMFS 75 Virginia Beach Drive,

Miami, Florida 33149 USA Email:

stephania.bolden@noaa.gov

Most life history traits of an animal species are strongly

correlated with their body size; ecological relationships tend to

be weaker. Individual size and a host of other variables have

been shown to correlate or interact with, or otherwise influence

home range size. Home range is simply the area in which an

animal normally lives, exclusive of migrations, emigrations,

dispersal movements, or unusual wanderings. Most home

range theory is derived from studies principally on terrestrial

mammals and birds; information from the marine environment

is scant. Recent advances in telemetry provides opportunity to

investigate larger numbers of marine fishes over longer periods

of time to reveal accurate information about home range.

Twenty two Nassau grouper (Epinephelus striatus) ranging

from 39.1 to 72.1 cm TL were tracked for 16 - 24 days (_ =

20.1) with positions recorded every two minutes. These data

were classified into four size classes and analyzed to

investigate the relationship between body size and home range

area.

RECRUIT CONDITION INFLUENCES THE LINK

BETWEEN SETTLEMENT AND ESTABLISHMENT OF

CORAL REEF FISHES

Booth, David J.* *Dept. of Environmental Sciences

University of Technology, Sydney Westbourne St. Gore

Hill 2065 AUSTRALIA. Email: David.Booth@uts.edu.au

Settlement of marine organisms varies greatly in space and

time, and it is currently recognised that settlement variation is

a major determinant of patterns of juvenile and adult

abundance of coral reef fishes. However, such relationships

can be dampened by variable mortality rates of recruits

between settlement and recruitment. Predation is likely to be

the predominant mechanism causing early mortality of

recruits, and predator patchiness has therefore been proposed

as a mechanism generating variable mortaility. In this study, I

demonstrate that the physiological state (condition) at

settlement can also affect subsequent mortality patters for two

species of damselfishes (Stegastes partitus [Bahamas],

Pomacentrus moluccensis [GBR]). This link is likely to be

due to higher predation risk for settlers in lower condition, but

may also be indirectly due to lower competitive ability. Based

on data for P. moluccensis at 3 locations on the Great Barrier

Reef, I show that the poor relationship between settlement and

establishment can be improved by including data on recruit

condition into the model. The results from this study suggest

that caution should be adopted in the use of settlement or larval

supply as predictors of subsequent population dynamics of reef

fishes, and in the use of recruitment surveys to hindcast

settlement patterns.

ABOUT REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES SELECTED

BY WILD SPECIES.

Chauvet, Claude.*, *Univ. of New Caledonia - BP 4477

Noumea, Email: chauvet@univ-nc.nc

I would like to focus interest on the first parts of marine

species development phases - i.e. : spawning s.l. (fry

behaviour, spawn s.s., eggs fertilisation) rarely well known,

pelagic phase, and settlement. The last two phases are

classically describe as a very critical on physiological point of

view and drastic mortality period. Our studies and observations

on 3 lagoon mollusc Pectinidae, 10 fish species

(Epinephelidae, Plectropomidae, Siganidae, Lethrinidae) and

2 species of spiny lobsters (Palinuridae) show that the number

of annual recruit has no quantitative link with spawning effort

(i.e. number of spawners, spawning duration). Moreover, in

stable adult stocks sexual activity, spawning behaviour and

spawning capability change from year to year (Fishes, Spiny

Lobsters) or not (Molluscs). Estimations on recruitment level

show considerable inter-annual fluctuations (Fishes, Spiny

Lobsters) or intra-annual fluctuations (Molluscs) without link

with the spawning effort. Sometime, it can be related to the

climate but sometime not. Most of reproduction models seem

to show that species haven’t selected to maximise eggs number

strategy. Some (Molluscs) present an opportunistic pelagic

phase and seem to be under regulation mechanisms only after

settlement, other (Fishes, Spiny Lobsters) are shaky and seem

to be totally under regulation mechanisms. Although, spawn

and recruitment are not totally disconnect on a quantitative

point of view, but, be that as it may, all of these models

converge to show that the best way to maximised the

recruitment is mostly to protect juveniles than spawners. In

concrete terms, it means protecting against predators as much

as possible and keep nurseries healthy and with sufficient food

supply.

TEMPORAL AND SPATIAL RECRUITMENT

PATTERNS OF THE ARC-EYE HAWKFISH, PARA-CIRRHITES

ARCATUS, IN HAWAII.

DeMartini E.D.*. *National Marine Fisheries Service

(NMFS, NOAA), 2570 Dole Street, Honolulu, Hawaii

96822, USA. Email: Edward.DeMartini@noaa.gov

As part of an ongoing study of the species= morph dynamics,

the relative abundances of young-of-year (yoy) and older arc-eye

hawk-fish (F. Cirrhitidae) were monitored during 1989-99

along a 30-km leeward stretch of Hawaii Island, in order to

describe local-scale recruitment patterns. Delimited areas

within seven sites on the fringing reef at 1- to 5-m depths,

differing in wave exposure, were surveyed by snorkeling at

quarterly intervals. Patterns were evaluated using factorial

ANOVAs evaluating site, season, and year effects. Overall,

yoy abundance varied among years; differences among sites in

relative recruitment (ratio of yoy to older fish) persisted for

multiple years or the entire decade, depending on site.

Temporal persistence of different relative recruitments may

reflect site differences in either replenishment by planktonic

settlers or post-settlement growth and mortality. Descriptive

studies such as this unique 10-yr time series identify the basic

patterns necessary for designing experimental evaluations of

processes producing pattern..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A20: Fish Ecology:Life History

113

SPATIAL PATTERNS IN FISH RECRUITMENT TO

MEXICAN CARIBBEAN REEFS.

González-Salas C*. and J.E. Arias-González. *Centro de

Investigación y de Estudios avanzados del I.P.N. Unidad-Mérida.

Ant. Carr. a Progreso Km 6. Cordemex A.P. 73.

C.P. 97210 Mérida, Yucatán, México. Email:

carlosgs@mda.cinvestav.mx

Spatial patterns of recruitment of juvenile reef fishes were

analysed during summer season of 1999, on the reef slope of

six reefs in the Mexican Caribbean. Three inside Sian Ka’an

Biosphere Reserve: Boca Paila (20° 08" N; 87° 28" W), Punta

Yuyum (19°58"N; 87°27" W), Punta Allen (19° 50"N; 87° 26"

W), and three unprotected areas outside the Reserve: Mahahual

(18° 43" N; 87° 41" W), Xahuayxol (18° 30" N; 87° 45" W)

and Xcalak (18° 13" N; 87° 49" W). The highest species

richness was recorded on Boca Paila reef with 39 species,

followed by Xahuayxol reef with 36 species of juveniles of

coral reef fishes. The lowest species richness was recorded at

Punta Allen and Mahahual reefs with 28 and 29 species

respectively. In terms of abundance, expressed in this work as

density of juveniles (fish/m 2 ). Atotal of 6327 recruits of 18

fish families were censused on the transects

CHEATING IN FISH CLEANING INTERACTIONS

Grutter, Alexandra*; Bshary, Redouan; Bansemer,

Carley; Poulin, Robert. *Department of Zoology and

Entomology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld.

4072, Australia, Email: a.grutter@mailbox.uq.edu.au

Cooperation theory largely focuses on how cooperation

between unrelated individuals is maintained despite the option

of profitable cheating. Recent studies show that fish cleaning

behaviour is mutualistic, yet cleaner fish diet analyses suggest

some cheating occurs. As the rewards of cheating are likely to

vary with client ectoparasite load, we compared the frequency

of cheating in the cleaner fish Labroides dimidiatus and all its

client species between two sites on the Great Barrier Reef that

differ in ectoparasite abundance. In the laboratory, we tested

the effect of parasites and hunger levels on cleaner cheating

behaviour. As most clients cannot cheat and eat a cleaner,

while the cleaner can still cheat, we examined how the grazer

Ctenochaetus striatus controls cheating cleaners. At Heron

Island, where clients harbour fewer parasites, fish were

inspected longer on average by cleaners than conspecifics at

Lizard Island, and they incurred more bites and swipes at their

sides per unit time from cleaners. These and other differences

between the two sites suggest that the local availability of

ectoparasites as a food source for cleaners can determine

whether cleaners will be honest and feed on parasites, or cheat

and feed on client tissues. In laboratory experiments, parasites

and hunger levels also affected cleaner cheating behaviour.

The main control mechanism used by C. striatus was

immediate 'punishment' of cheating cleaners by aggressive

chasing. This study shows that when honesty in fish cleaning

behaviour does not pay, cheating is favoured.

LIFE HISTORY CHARACTERISTICS OF FIVE

SPECIES OF TROPICAL MARINE GOBY

(TELEOSTEI: GOBIIDAE).

Hernaman VJ *, PL Munday and PK Probert.

*Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, PO

Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand. Email:

crava594@student.otago.ac.nz

Life history theories predict that small-sized organisms often

exhibit certain characteristics such as early maturation,

enhanced reproductive effort, fast growth and a short life span.

Whilst many small-bodied species of fish are short-lived, there

is increasing evidence that this is not always the case,

especially for coral reef fish. In this study, the extent to which

five species of tropical marine goby conform to these life

history theory predictions was investigated. Gobies (family

Gobiidae) are an abundant and diverse group of marine and

freshwater fishes found in a wide range of habitats in both

temperate and tropical regions. Gobies are present in high

numbers on coral reefs where they are found in association

with a variety of substrata including live branching corals,

dead coral rubble, sea whips and sand/rubble burrows. This

high abundance and diversity, combined with a small body

size, make gobies an ideal group of fish to test life history

theory predictions. The study species (Asterropteryx

semipunctatus, Amblygobius phalaena, Amblygobius

bynoensis, Istigobius goldmanni and Valenciennea muralis)

were collected from the leeward fringing reefs of Orpheus

Island, Australia (18 o 36’S, 146 o 30’E). Estimates of growth

rates and longevity were obtained from counts of otolith

growth increments (having first validated the periodicity of

increment formation). The size and age of fish at maturity was

determined and fecundity estimates obtained. The extent to

which these five goby species conform to life history theory

predictions are discussed.

PELAGIC LARVAL DURATION AND EARLY POST-SETTLEMENT

GROWTH OF SOME REEF SNAPPERS

(PISCES: LUTJANIDAE) FROM THE TROPICAL

EASTERN PACIFIC.

Herrón, P.* and F. A. Zapata. Department of Biology,

Universidad del Valle, Apartado Aéreo 25360, Cali,

Colombia. Email: piherron@biologia.univalle.edu.co

The early life history traits of marine organisms may have

profound ecological, biogeographic and evolutionary

implications. Analysis of otolith microstructure of juveniles

has proved very valuable in the study of the early life history

of coral reef fishes. By counting the number of pre-settlement

increments in otoliths and by examining the relationship

between size and otolith-estimated age, we estimated the

pelagic larval duration and quantitatively described the early

post-settlement growth of five species of reef snappers of the

Tropical Eastern Pacific: Lutjanus guttatus, L. argentiventris,

L viridis, L. novemfasciatus and Hoplopagrus guntheri. We

found the frequency of increment formation to be daily in the

otoliths of L. guttatus and H. guntheri. Assuming that the

formation of otolith microincrements begins at the time of

hatching, we estimated that the pelagic larval phase lasts from

21 to 38 days in these snappers. Pelagic larval duration also

showed low intraspecific and interspecific variability. L.

viridis, the most widely distributed lutjanid in the Tropical

Eastern Pacific, had the longest and most variable larval

duration. Early post-settlement growth was exponential with

absolute growth rates from 0.66 to 1.10 mm/day at the time of

settlement, which are higher than growth rates reported for

other reef fish families. It seems that diet and other ecological

characteristics are responsible for rapid post-settlement growth

rates in these species..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A20: Fish Ecology:Life History

114

DIET COMPOSITION AND FEEDING RHYTHM IN

SIX PLANKTIVOURUS FISHES FROM THE

JORDANIAN GULF OF AQABA.

Khalaf Maroof *, Mohammd Zibdeh, Sayeeda Mir and

Nemeh Kanan. *Marine Science Station, PO. Box 195,

Aqaba-Jordan. Email: maroof@ju.edu.jo

Qualitative and quantitative aspects of the diet as well as its

feeding rhythm were investigated in six planktivourus species

from the Gulf of Aqaba-Red Sea. The study was conducted

over one annual cycle (March 97-March 98) on the following

fishes; Priacanthus hamrur, Apogon aureus, Sargocentron

diadema, Dascyllus timaculatus, Chromis pelloura and

Teixeirichthys jordani. Food varied according to fish species

and to the composition of zooplanktonic fauna within fish

habitat. Based on the index of relative importance (RI),

Crustaceans were the major dietary components of all fish

examined. Values of RI showed that food item descents

observed in the digestive duct of P. hamrur are molluscs,

polychaets and fish larvae. In A. aureus, polychaets, fish eggs

and larvae. In S. diadem, molluscs, polychaets and fish egg.

In D. trimaculatus, and C. pelloura, fish eggs and larvae,

respectively. In T. jordani, fish larvae and molluscs.

Nematodes, chaetognaths in the diet of P. hamrur and

echinoderms in food of S. diadema occupied last ranks in

importance. Based on % occurrence and % biomass of the

ingested food, composition, consumption and occurrence of

food varied with season. Moreover, the rhythm of feeding was

strongly influenced by the state of maturity to the extent that

all fishes might even fast completely during the spawning

period..

TROPHIC FLUXES, EUTROPHICATION AND THE

HERBIVORE PATHWAY : CASE STUDY OF A FISH

AND A SEA URCHIN REEF RESIDENT AT LA

RÉUNION (INDIAN OCEAN).

Lison de Loma, T.*, Conand, C. and Harmelin-Vivien,

M.L.. *Laboratory of Marine Ecology, University of La

Réunion, Av. René Cassin, 97715 St Denis Messag. cedex 9,

La Réunion. Email: lison@univ-reunion.fr

Fish and sea urchins are among the most conspicuous

herbivores on coral reefs and have important and diverse roles

in coral reef ecology. Trophic fluxes have been investigated

for a while in corals or microbial communities, but few studies

have quantified the herbivore pathway. Fewer of them

compared the respective role of fish and sea urchin. Nutrient-enrichment

of reef waters can enhance, under certain

conditions, primary production and algal biomass. Is the yield

to grazers enhanced, and what consequences can

eutrophication imply for the following trophic levels? In order

to answer these questions, a damselfish, Stegastes nigricans,

and a sea urchin, Tripneustes gratilla, were studied in two sites

of a coral reef at La Réunion, in summer and winter. One site

is oligotrophic (site O), while the other is nutrient-enriched

(site E). Organic matter, organic carbon, nitrogen,

carbohydrates, lipids and proteins were measured in the food

and faeces of both organims. Consumption, defecation and

excretion rates of both organisms were estimated. Similar

between-site differences were observed for the fish and the

urchin. Both foods and faeces were richer, in terms of organic

nutrients, in site E than in site O. Trophic fluxes were more

intense in site E than in site O for both organisms. More algal

matter and nutrients were consumed, absorbed and reinjected

into the reef system in site E than in site O, suggesting a

positive feed-back of herbivores on nutrient-enrichment,

through subsequent microbial recycling.

REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOR OF A CORAL REEF

FISH UNDER THREAT OF PREDATION.

Lyman, Sean J.* and Figueira, William F.. *Duke

University Nicholas School of the Environment Marine

Laboratory. 135 Duke Marine Lab Road, Beaufort, NC

28516 USA Email: sean.lyman@duke.edu

The ideal free distribution is rarely perfectly met in nature,

but nevertheless serves as the basis for useful models

predicting animal behavior in environments in which behaviors

can incur costs due to risk of predation. Most of these models

focus on foraging behavior, using growth as a measure of

fitness, though relatively few studies have used more direct

measures of fitness such as reproductive success. In this study,

the risks and rewards of courting behavior in the male bicolor

damselfish (Stegastes partitus) are measured in situ by

quantifying reproductive effort, subsequent reproductive

success, and predation hazard in the Florida Keys, USA. Focal

males are presented with females in the presence and absence

of a model grouper predator, and the results utilized to

determine which of three behavioral models males follow:

minimizing predation, maximizing reproduction, or

minimizing the ratio of predation to reproduction. Males are

also presented with multiple sizes of females to determine

whether the threshold courting size changes when faced with

increased predation risk. Our hypotheses are that males will

act to minimize the ratio of predation to reproduction, and that

the size threshold for courting will increase when a predator is

present. This work has potential management implications as

marine protected areas tend to increase the size and number of

predators in the system, thereby altering behavior and

potentially population dynamics of small reef fishes.

REVIEW OF MULTI-SPECIES FISH FORAGING

ASSOCIATIONS, AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR A

TROPICAL BENTHIC CARNIVORE, PARUPENEUS

BARBERINUS (FAMILY MULLIDAE)-Lukoschek,

Vimoksalehi and McCormick, Mark I. *-*

Marine Biology Dept., James Cook University,

Townsville, 4811, Email:

vimoksalehi.lukoschek@jcu.edu.au

Multi-species fish foraging associations occur whenever a

nuclear species and one or more associate species forage

together. Although common, the theoretical background

regarding foraging benefits and predator avoidance for multi-species

fish foraging associations is sparse and poorly

developed. However they are thought to increase food

availability to associate fishes, compared with foraging alone,

and may reduce the risk of predation for nuclear and associate

fishes. In this study we investigated the foraging associations

formed with an important tropical benthic carnivorous fish,

Parupeneus barberinus, on Lizard Island, GBR, using scan

sampling and focal animal behavioural observations.

Altogether 31 associate species, comprising 14 genera and 7

families, were involved in foraging associations with P.

barberinus. The most important associate species were from

the families Labridae, Nemipteridae and Mullidae. Typically

foraging associations comprised between 2 to 6 individuals

(max 18), representing 2 to 4 species (max 6). Associate fishes

foraged with P. barberinus in 65 % of foraging observations.

Parupeneus barberinus foraged in single species groups in 6%

of cases and alone in 29 % of cases. On average foraging

associations lasted longer (21 ± 0.6SE secs) than solitary

foraging episodes (16 ± 0.4SE secs). Detailed behavioural

observations indicate that associate species gained access to

prey items liberated during vigorous foraging by P. barberinus

and due to enhanced prey detection..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A20: Fish Ecology:Life History

115

MONITORING FISH RECRUITMENT ON FOUR

REEFS IN ST. JOHN, U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS.

Miller Jeff*, Beets, Jim. *U.S. Geological Survey,

Biological Resources Division, P.O. Box 710, St. John, VI

00830. Email: j_miller@usgs.gov

Juvenile reef fishes were surveyed during July of 1997,

1998, 1999 at four reefs with similar coral and physical

structure located around the island of St. John, U.S. Virgin

Islands. Yawzi, Tektite, and Haulover reefs occur in Virgin

Islands National Park, while Newfound reef lies outside the

park. Belt transects were conducted in the forereef zones of

each site at a depth range of 8.5-15.2 meters. The objective of

this study is to evaluate temporal and spatial recruitment

patterns and to compare juvenile fish with adult fish

assemblage data. Mean number of recruits per transect varied

greatly among reefs, however the species composition was

relatively consistent with adult composition. The masked

goby, Coryphopterus personatus, was the dominant recruit at

each site. The second most abundant recruit on Yawzi and

Tektite, the bluehead wrasse (Thalassoma bifasciatum), was

both less numerous and had a lower abundance ranking on the

other two reefs. The striped parrotfish, Scarus croicensis, was

the most abundant parrotfish at all sites, with consistently high

abundance ranking. The planktivorous, blue damselfish,

Chromis cyanea, was the most abundant damselfish followed

by the bicolor damselfish (Stegastes partitus) and threespot

damselfish (Stegastes planifrons). Relatively large pulses of

tomtates (Haemulon aurolineatum) were observed at three of

the reefs, while none were observed at Haulover reef.

WHY IS FALSE-CLOWN ANEMONEFISH (Amphiprion

ocellaris) GROUP SIZE CORRELATED WITH HOST

ANEMONE (Stichodactyla gigantea) SIZE?

Mitchell, J. S.* *Behavioural Ecology Research Group,

Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser

University, Burnaby, Canada, V5A 1S6. Email:

jmitchel@sfu.ca

In false-clown anemonefish ( Amphiprion ocellaris ), the

number of members in a dominance-structured social group is

positively correlated with the size of a host sea anemone. This

correlation could arise in a number of ways: 1) Mortality rates

of all group members might lower be on larger anemones,

leading to, on average, larger groups on larger hosts. 2)

Anemone size might affect the maximum size of the dominant

group member. There would then be more ‘social space’ for

subordinate fish behind a larger dominant. 3) Would-be

settlers might more readily detect larger anemones. 4) Settlers

might prefer larger anemones. Such a preference would be

expected if reproductive success were affected by host size or

if lower mortality rates on large hosts increased the likelihood

that a settler survived to maturity. The fourth possibility treats

false-clown social hierarchies as queues and group size, or

queue length, as a reflection of terminal reward value

(reproduction) and the likelihood of realizing that reward

(mortality). I discuss implications of these alternatives and

distinguish between them using data from a nearshore false-clown

population at Bunaken Island, North Sulawesi,

Indonesia.

LONG DISTANCE DISPERSAL OF REEF FISHES

ASSOCIATED WITH FLOATING OBJECTS.

Mora C*, Francisco V, and Zapata, F. *Departamento de

Biologia, Universidad del Valle, Cali, Colombia. A.A.

25360. Email: moracamilo@hotmail.com

Regarding the ecology and biogeography of reef fishes, it is

widely accepted that dispersion occurs mainly during the larval

phase. In this paper we report the dispersal of juvenile and

adult reef fishes associated with floating objects, in a dispersal

event that exceeded the larval dispersion capacity. In

May1999, at Gorgona island (tropical eastern Pacific) we

observed a marine current carrying several floating objects.

Associated with the floating objects we found juvenile and

adult fishes of 12 species, 6 of which were reef species. The

surface current patterns in this area of the Pacific and the labels

of many man-made objects found in the current provided

strong support for the idea that the floating objects came from

Ecuador and Peru. We support the idea that these fishes settled

as larvae on the substrate provided by the larger floating

objects and remained associated with them until reaching

adulthood. If the reef fishes had been associated with the

floating objects at Ecuador or Peru localities, they would have

traveled 300 or 600 km to Gorgona. Such distances could

hardly have been covered during the larval phase of these

species. Furthermore, the age of many of the reef fishes

associated with the floating objects was 20 times greater than

their larval duration, which indicates that these fishes were

dispersing during a longer time that that possible during their

larval phase.

THE EXTENDED LONGEVITY OF A SMALL CORAL

REEF SERRANID; Cephalopholis cyanostigma (BLUE

SPOT ROCK COD) FROM THE CENTRAL GREAT

BARIER REEF.

Mosse, Jacobus W., * and Davies, Campbell R.

* Department of Marine Biology, James Cook University,

Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia. Email.:

Jacobus.mosse@jcu.edu.au

The blue spot rock cod, Cephalopholis cyanostigma , is a

small common coral reef rock cod, which forms a significant

proportion of the discarded by-catch in Queensland reef Line

Fishery. A total of 262 fish were sampled from Orpheus and

Pelorus Islands on central GBR using hook and line and spear

over a thirteen-month period. We used sagittal otoliths to

obtain age-based parameters of the populations for each island.

Analysis of marginal increments indicated that a single opaque

band was deposited annually in November-December.

Recaptures of three fish, five years after injection with

oxytetracycline, further corroborated our conclusion that band

formation is annual. The maximum age in our sample (31

years) suggests that the blue spotted rock cod is one of the

longest living serranid documented to date. The von

Bertalanffy growth function provide the best description of the

pattern of growth for both populations (R 2 = 0.86 and 0.82 for

Orpheus and Pelorus Islands, respectively). Growth was

relatively slow (K = 0.22 and 0.25), not reaching asymptotic

size until 7-10 yrs. L¥ was significantly larger at Orpheus

Island (L¥ = 258mm) relative to Pelorus Is (L¥ = 244mm).

Instantaneous total mortality was low (0.13 and 0.16) and did

not differ significantly between populations. Such population

parameter estimates demonstrate that C.cyanostigma is

considerably longer lived than expected for a coral reef

serranid of it’s diminutive size and further demonstrate the

utility of age-based methods in studies of the demography of

tropical reef fish..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A20: Fish Ecology:Life History

116

INTERSPECIFIC COMPETITION AMONG CORAL-DWELLING

FISH.

Munday, Philip L. *School of Marine Biology and

Aquaculture, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD,

4811, Australia. Email: Philip.Munday@jcu.edu.au

The role of competition in structuring communities of reef

fishes remains controversial. I investigated the effects of

interspecific competition on habitat use and abundance of six

species of obligate coral-dwelling fish (genus Gobiodon) that

inhabit a range of acroporid coral species at Lizard Island,

Great Barrier Reef. In laboratory experiments, species of

Gobiodon differed in their ability to compete for preferred

corals. Body size and prior residency of coral colonies also had

a significant effect on competitive ability. In the field, the

abundances of two species, G. axillaris and G. brochus,

increased significantly following the removal of one of the

competitively dominant species, G. histrio, from replicate

patches of reef. Moreover, there was a very close relationship

between the change in abundance of G. histrio and the change

in abundance of G. axillaris and G. brochus combined. This

demonstrates that competition for space limits the abundance

of these species on reefs at Lizard Island. Three other species

of Gobiodon did not compete for space with G. histrio, either

because they preferred different species of coral or were able

to co-habit coral colonies with G. histrio. Competition among

species of Gobiodon also influences demographic rates

because dominant species limit access of subordinate species

to high quality habitats. A transplant experiment revealed

significant differences in survival and/or growth for

individuals of both G. histrio and G. brochus inhabiting

different species of coral.

TESTING A NEW SIZE-ADVANTAGE MODEL FOR

SEX CHANGE WITH THE BUCKTOOTH

PARROTFISH, SPARISOMA RADIANS: NOVEL

PREDICTIONS FROM SPERM COMPETITION.

Muñoz, Roldan C.*, and Warner, Robert R.. *Department

of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology, University of

California, Santa Barbara, California 93106-9610 U.S.A.

Email: munoz@lifesci.lscf.ucsb.edu

Sequential hermaphroditism is common in marine fishes,

with protogyny (sex change from female to male)

predominating. The size-advantage model has been highly

successful in explaining the adaptive significance of sequential

hermaphroditism in fishes and predicts protogyny where large

males monopolize matings to the detriment of small ones. In

many protogynous fishes with haremic social systems, upon

removal of the dominant male it is always the largest

remaining female that changes sex and takes over the harem.

In several protogynous fishes, however, females may change

sex even in the presence of the dominant male, and it is not

always the largest females that change sex, suggesting that the

simplest form of the size-advantage hypothesis needs some

modification. By incorporating the effects of sperm

competition and exponential increases of female fecundity

with length, we have developed a more realistic model that

provides explanations for seemingly "early" sex change. Most

notably, the model predicts a variety of circumstances when

the largest female remaining in a harem should not change sex

in the absence of the dominant male. Removal experiments in

22 harems resulted in six females changing sex, and every

changer was smaller than the largest female remaining in the

harem. The local environmental effects of sperm competition

and female size/fecundity-skew may substantially lower the

benefit of changing sex for large females.

IDENTIFICATION OF TROPICAL CORAL REEF FISH

LARVAE: MTDNA MARKERS, MORPHOMETRICS

AND MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS.

Ochavillo, Domingo G.*; Bakus, Gerald J.; and Aliño,

Porfirio M. * Department of Biological Sciences University

of Southern California Los Angeles, CA 90089-0371, U.S.A.

Email: ochavill@scf.usc.edu

The planktonic stage among fishes associated with coral

reefs has been recognized as important in structuring their

communities (Cowen 1985, Victor 1986), their biogeography

and conservation (Roberts 1999) and as tracers of physical

transport processes (Leis 1982, Mountain et al. 1989, Hare and

Cowen 1991). Most of these early stages, however, are

morphologically distinct larval and juvenile forms (Leis 1991)

and the inability to distinguish these forms is a long standing

problem (Fahay 1983, Leis and Rennis 1984, Leis and Trnski

1989, Matarese et al. 1989). The problem is magnified in

tropical coral reef systems which are characterized by very

high species diversity and the occurrence of morphologically

similar species. In this paper, we used mitochondrial DNA

cytochrome b sequences and morphometrics to identify three

morphotypes of the late pelagic presettlement fish larvae of the

family Siganidae. The phylogenetic analysis indicated that the

larval morphotypes were from three different species (Siganus

fuscescens, Siganus argenteus and Siganus virgatus) and the

standard discriminant function analyses of morphometric

variables indicated high and significant discrimination.

EFFECTS OF REEF SIZE AND ISOLATION ON THE

DEMOGRAPHY OF BAHAMIAN REEF FISHES.

Overholtzer, Karen L.* *Department of Zoology, Oregon

State University, Corvallis OR, USA 97331-2914. Email:

overholk@bcc.orst.edu

The contribution of post-settlement movement to the local

population dynamics of coral-reef fishes is poorly understood.

I examined the effects of reef size (small vs. large) and reef

isolation (5 vs. 50 m apart) on the demography of the bluehead

wrasse Thalassoma bifasciatum and the territorial beaugregory

damselfish Stegastes leucostictus on 24 artificial reefs in the

Bahamas. Recruitment was patchy in time and space. Six

months after construction, total fish densities were greater on

small than large reefs. Tagging studies showed that

immigration and emigration were more frequent between reefs

separated by 5 m than those separated by 50 m, and were

greater for T. bifasciatum than S. leucostictus. The highest

emigration rates for both species were from small (higher-density)

reefs that were less isolated (5 m apart). Preliminary

results suggest that per capita mortality rates were density-dependent

for both species and tended to be higher on more

isolated reefs in which successful post-settlement movement

was negligible. Results of this study emphasize the

importance of differentiating between mortality and emigration

as sources of loss in field studies with respect to the degree of

reef isolation..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A20: Fish Ecology:Life History

117

RECRUITMENT PATTERNS OF JUVENILE REEF

FISHES ACROSS THE BERMUDA PLATFORM –

COMPARISONS WITH RECRUITMENT IN THE

CARIBBEAN REGION.

Pitt, Joanna M*. *Bermuda Biological Station for

Research, 17 Biological Station Lane, Ferry Reach, St.

George’s GE 01, Bermuda. Email: jopitt@bbsr.edu

Visual surveys of juvenile reef fishes were conducted in a

variety of reef habitats around the Bermuda platform during

the summer / autumn periods of 1999 and 2000. Three pairs of

sites formed a transect across the lagoon to the north of the

island. There was also a pair of sites off the south shore, and a

pair of inshore sites in the semi-enclosed Castle Harbour.

Distinct distribution patterns at both the family and species

level emerged. The Labridae and the Scaridae were the most

ubiquitous families, and were dominant on the north and south

rim reefs. There was a transition in the within-family species

dominance of labrids across the lagoon. The mid-lagoon,

north shore and inshore sites generally exhibited greater

species diversity than the rim reefs. Juvenile acanthuridae

were most abundant on the mid-lagoon reefs, followed by the

north shore reefs and the inshore reefs. Juvenile

pomacanthidae were most abundant at the north shore and

inshore sites. Juvenile haemulidae were common on mid-lagoon

and inshore reefs, and their tendency to aggregate in

large shoals greatly influenced the data from these sites. When

haemulids are removed from consideration, total relative

abundance at the rim reef sites was between 30 and 50

individuals per 60 m 2 , while the other sites had total relative

abundances ranging from 10 to 30 individuals per 60 m 2 . The

details of these observed distribution patterns are presented,

and compared with the literature on recruitment patterns in the

Caribbean.

REGULATION IN POPULATIONS OF CORAL REEF

FISH: AN EXPLORATION OF VARIANCE IN MODELS

AND DATA.

Sandin, Stuart A.* and Pacala, Stephen W. *Department

of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University,

Princeton, NJ 08544-1003 USA. Email:

sasandin@princeton.edu

Coral reef fish populations vary greatly through space and

time. Data collected through long-term censuses and from

biological responses to experimental manipulations reveal that

the variability of reef fish communities has definite pattern and

structure. Therefore, to elucidate ecological patterns

structuring reef fish populations, it is imperative for the

researcher to use variance as a source of information and not

simply as a source of error. We have developed a series of

models describing the propagation of recruitment variability

into adult fish populations. Variance propagation is estimated

by linearizing a set of coupled population equations and

decomposing the spectrum of the output variance. Patterns of

mortality, predation, and foraging each affect the

characteristics of the resultant demographic variability in

qualitatively different ways. We compared predictions derived

from the model with data from our field studies and from the

literature. This comparison suggests a prevalence of predator-mediated

regulation among reef fish populations. We find

predators to be most important in regulating population

numbers while density dependent growth and other

intraspecific interactions are dominant in regulating population

biomass. Such decoupling of variability in population

numbers and biomass highlights the importance of selecting

the appropriate response variable when searching for evidence

of specific ecological processes.

EFFECTS OF STEGASTES PLANIFRONS

TERRITORIES ON SOME CORAL SPECIES AT

TAYRONA NATURAL PARK (COLOMBIAN

CARIBBEAN)

Santodomingo-Aguilar, N. * , A. Rodríguez-Ramírez and J.

Garzón-Ferreira, Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y

Costeras INVEMAR, A.A. 1016, Santa Marta, Colombia;

Email: * nadiaks@invemar.org.co.

Throughout the development of SIMAC (the National

Monitoring System for the Coral Reefs of Colombia) the effect

of threespot damselfish Stegastes planifrons territoriality was

assessed on nine species of hard corals at four reef habitat

types. These habitats were: multispecific coral assemblages

dominated by (1) Colpophyllia natans or (2) Montastraea spp;

and monospecific coral stands of (3) Acropora palmata or (4)

A. cervicornis. Changes over time of the affected areas within

marked colonies were evaluated directly by estimating live

coral cover surface or indirectly by measuring the extension

rate of the algal turf surface, using video-image analysis. The

majority (92%) monitored colonies showed decrease of living

tissue or increase of algal turfs. In general, the highest rates of

tissue loss were found on monospecific habitats: A. palmata

(1.78 cm 2 d -1 ) and A. cervicornis (1.65 cm 2 d -1 ). Within C.

natans habitat the most affected specie was Diploria strigosa

(0.95 cm 2 d -1 ), while M. faveolata (0.43 cm 2 d -1 ) was the most

affected on Montastraea spp. habitat. There were significant

differences (one-way ANOVA, p<0.05) between tissue loss

rates of the different coral species that could be related with

differences in the morphology and size of the polyps. This

research gives new information about the role of S. planifrons

over the structure and composition of coral reef communities.

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL VARIABILITY IN THE

FLATFISH COMMUNITY AT A CARRIBIAN REEF

SYSTEM (CURAÇAO, NETHERLANDS ANTILLES).

van der Veer, H.W.*, J.IJ. Witte. *Netherlands Institute

for Sea Research, P.O. Box 59, 1790 AB Den Burg, The

Netherlands. Email: veer@nioz.nl

This study describes the spatial and temporal variability in

the flatfish community at the reefs at Curaçao, Netherlands

Antilles. Flatfish were collected year round at a number of

transects from shallow waters until about 30 m in depth along

the slope. A total of three species were found, al in low

densities and belonging to the family Bothidae (Bothus

ocellatus, B. maculiferus and B. lunatus ). The three Bothidae

showed clear differences in distribution pattern: B. ocellatus

was found primarily in the shallow zone on sandy beaches; B.

maculiferus was found also in deeper water and B. lunatus was

distributed at the edge of the reef and along the slope. Stomach

content analysis revealed that the main prey items of all

species consisted of epibenthic prey and this could explain the

observed large temporal variability in abundance over the year.

Juveniles and adults of the same species were distributed in the

same areas, suggesting that the complete demersal life cycle of

these species is restricted to these areas. In all three species

both males and females became mature in their second year of

life and reproduction occurred almost year round, except for

the winter period. The von Bertalanffy growth curves of the

various species showed that the maximum size and age

differed between species from about 15 cm at a maximum age

of 4 years in B. ocellatus ; 35 cm at an age of 5 years in B.

maculiferus to 45 cm at an age of 6 years in B. lunatus ..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A20: Fish Ecology:Life History

118

RECRUITMENT, POST-SETTLEMENT MORTALITY

AND GROWTH OF THE DAMSELFISH CHROMIS

FUMEA (TANAKA 1917) (PISCES: POMACENTRIDAE)

ON TWO ARTIFICIAL REEFS NEAR NOUMEA (NEW

CALEDONIA).

Wantiez, L.*, Lervem, Thollot P. *University of New

Caledonia, BP 4477, 98847 Noumea, New Caledonia.

Email: wantiez@univ-nc.nc

Density and size of Chromis fumea were regularly censused

during 13 months, on two artificial reefs: one ship wreck

(CT2) just after scuttling, and an assemblage of iron boxes

(Caissons) sunk more than 50 years ago. The recruitment of C.

fumea was first observed 20 August 1996 and lasted 20 days.

At the beginning the recruits were 1-cm class fish and at the

end 2-cm class. This major recruitment phase was again

observed one year later (September 1997). A second minor

recruitment phase occurred in summer (December 1996)

uniquely on the CT2. Significant immigrations of adults were

also observed between November 1996 (6-cm) and April 1997

(7-cm), indicating that this species is capable of medium range

migrations (> 50 m). Population size decreases by 87.8%

between the recruitment of juveniles and the first immigration

phase of adults. The final density of the 1996 cohort was

10.5% of the initial of input of juveniles on the CT2 and 19.3%

on the Caissons. Density was 3.4 times more important on the

CT2 than on the Caissons after the recruitment. Densities were

similar at the end of the survey, indicating that the magnitude

of post-recruitment mortality was greater on the CT2. C. fumea

von Bertalanffy growth models were similar on the CT2 and

the Caissons. This short-lived species is characterized by an

initial rapid growth (K > 3.36 year -1 ), with the fish reaching

68.5% of L¥ in 3 months, and a slow second growth phase (1-

cm in 10 months).

DIET SELECTION BY SMALL HERBIVOROUS REEF

FISHES, AN APPRAISAL OF TROPHIC STATUS.

Wilson Shaun*. *Dept. Marine Biology, James Cook

University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia. Email:

shaun.wilson@jcu.edu.au

Small “herbivorous” fish provide a major link between

primary production and secondary consumers on coral reefs.

However, analysis of gut contents from nine species of salariin

blennies and three species of territorial pomacentrids revealed

that the major item ingested by all of these fish is detritus.

Comparisons of gut contents with dietary items in the territory

of the three pomacentrid species and a representative blenny

species indicates that these fish select fine detrital particles

<125mm, avoiding the larger particles and filamentous algae.

Fine detrital particles are the major source of organic material

in the territories of these species, accounting for more than

50% of all organic matter available. C:N ratios of the fine

detritus are very similar to ratios for filamentous algae

collected from the same territory. The consistent patterns of

detrital selection, abundance and quality for these ubiquitous

and ecologically significant reef fish suggest that detritus plays

a much more important role in coral reef tropho-dynamics than

previously thought.

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY AND GROWTH OF SIX

PALNKTIVOURUS FISHES FROM THE GULF OF

AQABA-JORDAN.

Zibdeh, Mohammd*; Mir, Sayeeda; Kanan, Nemeh; and

Khalaf, Maroof. Marine Science Station, PO. Box 195,

Aqaba-Jordan. Email: zibdeh@ju.edu.jo

During a period of one annual cycle (March 97 until April

98) aspects of growth and reproduction were studied in six

planktivourus fishes from the Jordanian Gulf of Aqaba.

Investigations were conducted on the following species;

Priacanthus hamrur), Apogon aureus, Sargocentron diadema,

Dascyllus timaculatus, Chromis pelloura and Teixeirichthys

jordani The length-weight relationship (LWr) was found to be

of an allometric exponential form (W=aL b ), and the slope of

Length weight regression was less than 3 in all examined

species. The condition factor (K) was relatively high, while

corresponding prominent correlation between total length and

weight (r 2 ranged from 0.967 to 0.71) in both sexes of all

species except for Teixeirichthys jordani (r

2

=0.42). This may

indicate a well being of the examined fishes amongst other fish

populations in Aqaba Gulf. All fishes showed seasonal

periodicity of maturation and spawning. However, periods of

spawning commencement were different based on

gonadosomatic index (GSI) of each fish. It occurred for A.

aureus, S. diadema, T. jordani and D. trimaculatus during

Summer and that for C. pelloura and P. hamrur occurred

during Winter. When these species ceased sexual activity and

entered a resting period, active feeding conceived with

increased growth was distinctly obvious. The lengths at first

maturity were exhibited almost similar values in both sexes

within each species..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A21: Fish Ecology: Assemblages

Session A21: Fish Ecology II: Assemblages and Structure and Disturbances

119

COMPARATIVE EFFICIENCY OF CLOVE OIL VS

ROTENONE FOR SAMPLING REEF FISH

ASSEMBLAGES.

Ackerman, John L*& Bellwood, David R. *Department of

Marine Biology, James Cook University, QLD 4811,

Australia. Email: John.Ackerman@jcu.edu.au

The reef fish assemblage at Orpheus Island, Great Barrier

Reef, was examined using the ichthyocide rotenone and the

anaesthetic clove oil. Small 3.5 m 2 areas were enclosed using

a fine mesh net (1.5 mm mesh) and an impermeable cloak (to

minimise by-catch), then sampled using clove oil or rotenone.

On average, Neopomacentrus bankieri (f. Pomacentridae) and

Eviota queenslandica (f. Gobiidae) were the dominant

components of the samples collected using either technique.

Whilst the samples initially appear to be comparable, only 31

species (45 %) in 8 families were common to both techniques.

Furthermore, of these common species, total abundance

estimates from rotenone samples were on average 45 % higher

than those based on clove oil samples (i.e. 98.6

individuals/3.5m 2

± 32.9 SE vs. 68.0 ± 18.5 SE). When using

clove oil fish often recovered before collection and were not

driven out of the reef during anaesthesia. Clove oil samples

approximate the results obtained using rotenone, although

enclosed rotenone stations remain the only method for

providing complete quantitative samples.

CORAL REEF FISH ASSEMBLAGE STRUCTURE AND

TERRITORIAL DAMSELFISH (POMACENTRIDAE)

BEHAVIOR.

Basurto-Lozano D.* & Macias-Ordonez, Rogelio.

*Departamento de Ecologia y Comportamiento Animal

Instituto de Ecologia, A.C. Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico.

Email: dorinabl@hotmail.com

The back reef fish assemblage structure of Ixlache Reef, Isla

Contoy, Mexico, was assessed by means of visual transects.

Relative abundance of 71 species was obtained. Five species of

territorial damselfishes ranked among the top ten most

abundant ones, representing 39% of all individuals recorded.

Habitat (substrate) use for territorial behavior by all

individuals of these five species in a 20x25 m area was

mapped. A non-random use of available substrate suggested

species-specific habitat preference and interspecific

competition among damselfishes. Focal behavioral records of

territorial defense (chases) and feeding (substrate nips) on the

two most abundant species of damselfishes suggested

differences in potential costs of territorial defense and food

availability of the substrates preferred by these species: rubble

by S. leucostictus, and elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata) by S.

planifrons. The data obtained at the community (assemblage),

population (substrate use) and individual (behavior) levels on

the same area enable us to propose behavioral mechanisms

behind population and community dynamics.

CHAETODONTID-FISH ASSOCIATION WITH CORAL

LIFEFORM

AT LEMON ISLAND, MANOKWARI-IRIAN JAYA.

Bawole, Roni & Boli P.*. *Fishery & Marine Science

Department, Cenderawasih University, Manokwari-Irian

Jaya, Indonesia (98314). E-mail:

incune@manokwari.wasantara.net.id

A quantitative study of chaetodotid-fish association with

coral lifeforms was carried out along a 100 m-length transect,

at a depth of 3 m on the coral reefs in Lemon Island,

Manokwari-Irian Jaya from November 1998 to April 1999.

Twenty species of Chaetodontidae were observed, and they

represented three genera: Chaetodon (16 species), Forcipyger

(2 species) and Heniochus (2 species). Correspondence

Analysis (CA) was applied to determine chaetodotid-fish

association with coral lifeforms among the locations. The

results showed that the chaetodontid assemblages of Lemon

Island were distributed along the first and the second axes.

Sixteen of chaetodontid fishes (C. raflesi, C. ornatissimus, H.

varius, C. citrinellus, C. lunula , C. vagabundus, C auriga , C.

melanotus, C. punctatofasciatus, Forcipiger longirostris, F.

flavisimus, C. unimaculatus, C. lineolotus, C. reticulatus, C.

ulietensis, C. meyeri) were closely associated with massive

coral. However, C. baronessa, C. trifasciatus and C.

trifascialis were highly related to the branching acropora and

an-acropora coral. This study also indicated that the

abundance of two species of chaetodontid (C. trifasciatus and

C. trifascialis) in Lemon Island showed its healthy condition

of coral reefs.

DIET AND CONDITION OF BUTTERFLYFISH IN

HABITATS WITH VARYING CORAL COVER AND

COMPOSITION.

Berumen M.* and Pratchett, Morgan. *Honours Dept.,

Fulbright College of Arts and Sciences, University of

Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701. Email:

mberume@comp.uark.edu

Given the highly stochastic nature of larval supply, coral reef

fish may often settle in sub-optimal habitats with limited prey.

This study examines the dietary habits and physiological

condition of a coral feeding butterflyfish, Chaetodon

baronessa living in two contrasting habitats with markedly

different coral prey. In exposed front reef habitats, where coral

prey was highly abundant, C. baronessa was highly selective

in its choice of prey and aggressively maintained small

territories. In contrast, in back-reef habitats where coral prey

was scarcer, C. baronessa was far more generalist in its choice

of prey, and had larger territories that were only weakly

defended. The contrasting habits of C. baronessa in different

reef habitats are consistent with predictions of optimal

foraging theory, in that dietary specialisation and territoriality

are reduced to maximise food intake where prey is less

abundant. Despite differences in their feeding habits, the

physiological condition of C. baronessa in back-reef habitats

was far lower compared to C. baronessa from exposed

habitats..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A21: Fish Ecology: Assemblages

120

LIFE-CYCLE MIGRATIONS AND HABITAT

PREFERENCE OF EIGHT CORAL REEF FISH

SPECIES THAT USE SEAGRASS BEDS AND

MANGROVES AS NURSERY HABITATS IN A

CARIBBEAN BAY.

Cocheret de la Morinière E.*. *Department of Ecology,

Laboratory of Aquatic Ecology, University of Nijmegen,

Toernooiveld 1, 6525 ED Nijmegen, The Netherlands.

Email: elroycm@sci.kun.nl

Biotopes that harbour reef fish species, of which most

individuals are in their juvenile phase, are recognised as

nurseries. Especially mangroves and seagrass beds have

received considerable attention, but comparisons were often

made with different methodologies. Thus, relative importance

of different biotopes to specific size-classes of reef fish

remains unclear. In this study, 35 transects in 13 sites of

mangroves, seagrass beds and coral reef were surveyed daily,

in as well as in front of a non-estuarine bay on the island of

Curaçao. The density and size-frequency of eight reef fish

species (including herbivores, piscivores and zoobenthivores)

was determined during a five-month period using a single

methodology (underwater visual census). All selected species

depended on bay habitats, i.e. mangroves or seagrass beds, for

a large part of their life. Only the largest individuals of these

species were found on the reefs, at sizes that correspond to

their average size at sexual maturity. Some species were

dominant in mangroves, other species were observed in high

densities in seagrass meadows. Size-frequency distributions of

some species showed a spatial pattern, in which small

juveniles occurred in the mouth of the bay, the larger ones in

the bay habitats, and the largest individuals were found on the

reefs. From this we argue that juveniles of Scarus iserti,

Ocyurus chrysurus and Haemulon flavolineatum perform

Stepwise Life-Cycle Migrations. This type of migration,

combined with habitat preference, shows that reef fish using

in-bay habitats in post-settlement life stages may do so by

actual choice, and underline the necessity of these habitats to

Caribbean coral reef systems.

SPECIES DIVERSITY, ABUNDANCE AND BIOMASS

OF THE FISH ASSEMBLAGES INHABITING NON-REEFAL

CORAL COMMUNITIES IN SUB-TROPICAL

HONG KONG, CHINA.

Cornish A.S.*. *Department of Ecology and Biodiversity,

The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Rd., Hong Kong,

China. Email: ascornis@hkusua.hku.hk

The fish assemblages associated with 3 non-reefal coral

communities in sub-tropical Hong Kong, China are described

in terms of species diversity, abundance and biomass. Fish

assemblages were quantified over two years using an

Underwater Visual Census (UVC) methodology tested for

accuracy and precision. One hundred and ninety-five species

were noted in total from the 3 sites and 58 of these were

recorded by UVC. Nine species from 8 families dominated

both abundance and biomass of the non-cryptic fish fauna.

Biomass from UVC estimates averaged only 15.5 g.m -2 in the

shallows where the coral community was most developed.

Low biomass was believed to be at least partly due to the low

density of larger fish (> 20 cm). Comparisons of fish biomass

are made with other Indo-Pacific localities and potential

explanations for the low biomass are discussed.

THE DISJUNCT DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS ON THE

SOUTHWESTERN ATLANTIC REEF FISHES.

Floeter S.R.*, J-C. Joyeux, C. E. L. Ferreira & J. L.

Gasparini. Universidade Estadual Do Norte Fluminense -Lca.

Campos Dos Goytacazes, Rj, 28015-620, Brazil.

Email: floeter.vix@zaz.com.br

While the reef ichthyofauna of the western North Atlantic

has been subject to substantial study, the South Atlantic has

remained poorly known. In this work we documented disjunct

patterns of distribution and investigate ecological and

oceanographical factors, extinctions and dispersal abilities that

possibly determined the observed patterns. The study was

based on the recorded occurrences of conspicuous

characteristic reef-associated fishes in the SW Atlantic

continental shelf and oceanic islands. Some intriguing

distribution patterns were found, especially in oceanic islands.

We documented what seems to be a short-term extinction of a

fish species, various records of vagrant species “too far” from

original populations, as well as the absence of wide-ranging

species (that theoretically do not have larval dispersal

restrictions) from certain sites. Thus, we infer that: 1) long

distance dispersal processes and subsequent colonization are

more common than generally predicted, 2) local extinction

processes of apparently established populations are probably

more frequently than usually expected, and 3) ecological

factors such as food or habitat availability, competitive

exclusion, or requirements for proper larval development are

also important in determine the long-term success of colonists.

The disjunct patterns of distribution found in the sw atlantic

reef fishes are therefore the outcome of the interaction of long

distance dispersal and ecological processes that may led to

species extinction, more often than generally expected.

BRAZILIAN REEF FISHES: HIGHLY ENDEMIC.

Guimarães R.Z.P.*. *Laboratório de Biodiversidade de

Recursos Pesqueiros, NIGP/UFRJ, Depto Biologia

Marinha, Cidade Universitária, 21941-569, Rio de Janeiro,

Brazil. Email: ricardo@biologia.ufrj.br

Since the earlier biogeography text books by Sven Ekman

and John Briggs indicated the existence of an endemic

component of the Brazilian shore fauna, it has been shown that

such component is much more significant and several subsets

can be recognized. Many new species of reef-associated fishes

have been identified, some restricted to different segments of

the Brazilian coastline, some endemic to each of the three

insular complexes within Brazilian territorial waters: Martin-Vaz

- Trindade, Atol das Rocas - Fernando de Noronha and

São Pedro - São Paulo, and some distributed in a combination

of two or more of these areas. From large conspicuous dasiatid

rays to small secretive scaled-blennies, the list of Brazilian

shallow-reef endemics is rapidly growing, reaching a rate of

about 20 %. In the last decade of the century, one

chaetodontid, two syngnathids, two opistognathids, three

pomacentrids, four blenniids, six gobiids and eight labrisomids

have added to the list. Among described TECO events that

could be related to the existence of such a major area of

endemism and its subsets are the late Pleistocene sea-level

changes..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A21: Fish Ecology: Assemblages

121

ECOSTRUCTURE AND SPATIAL DISTRIBUTIONOF

CORAL REEF FISHES (FAMILY LABRIDAE) IN THE

WATERS OF AMBON BAY

Hukom, Frensly D* *Departemen of Marine Resources,

CRD-Oceanology, Indonesian Institute of Science,Jakarta,

Indonesia

The research was conducted at Ambon bay, in May 1997.

The objectives of this research is to study the community

structure and spatial distribution of Labridae. For this purpose,

six stations were chosen purposively. It was found around 50

species of Labridae in Ambon Bay. Diversity index value was

0.92 – 3.02, Evenes index value was 0.91 – 0.99 and

Dominance value was 0.01 – 0.866. The quantitative spatial

distribution of Labridae assosiated with coral growth lifeforms,

evaluated by matching correspondence analysis and

hierachical cluster analysis. The result showed that the species

of Labridae- Halichoeres melanurus were assosiated with

types of coral lifeform Macro algae, similarly, the Labridae

Pseudocheilinus hexataenia were corelated with Coraline

Algae coral life form, whereas Cirrhilabrus cyanopleura were

assosiated with branching corals.

DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF BLUECHIN

AND BICOLOR PARROTFISH IN TWO GORGONA

ISLAND CORAL REEFS (TROPICAL EASTERN

PACIFIC).

Jiménez, J. M.* and Zapata, F. A.. *Universidad del Valle,

A.A. 25360, Cali – Colombia, S.Am. Email:

jumajime@biologia.univalle.edu.co

To document patterns of spatial and temporal variation in the

distribution and abundance of Scarus ghobban and Scarus

rubroviolaceus population at La Azufrada and Playa Blanca

reef, Gorgona Island (Tropical Eastern Pacific), visual

censuses were done on quadrates and belt transects between

November 1992 and December 1993 and September and

October 1997, respectively. At Playa Blanca abundance for S.

ghobban (the only parrotfish species present at the reef)

considerably decreased from the Backreef trough the reef

Slope and small individuals were by far more abundant than

medium and large individuals. Those differences seem to be

related to the distribution of foraging substrates, shelter

abundance, intra and interspecific competition and ability to

escape from predators. In contrast, at La Azufrada, no

differences in the abundance of S. ghobban or S.

rubroviolaceus among zones or sampling months were

detected. Those results are intriguing due to similarity and

proximity of both reefs. Only differences in the abundance

were detected between the two species over the year of study.

S. ghobban reached it’s maximum in April – May and S.

rubroviolaceus in August. Overall densities and maximum

sizes of S. ghobban at Gorgona island, were greater than those

reported by other studies for many Caribbean and Indopacific

parrotfish species. These higher densities and maximum body

sizes may be supported by a greater food supply in the T.E.P.

due the greater nutrient concentration on the water.

BUTTERFLYFISH POPULATION DIVERSITY IN

YANBU CORAL

Joseph, P.S.*, & Sy, Jaime C. *Former Project Manager,

GSTE-4032, Royal Commission for Jubail & Yanbu,

Yanbu, Saudi Arabia. Email: dilu@eth.net

A species diversity and population evenness of reef fishes-namely,

butterflyfish (Family Chaetodontidae) at locations

subjected to sedimentation loading (Gap & SE End stations) on

Yanbu Port Barrier reef and at Control station were assessed

for the indirect effect of coral reef health on the butterfly fish

population. All the ten fish species studied were present at

Control station, with six at Gap station and seven at SE End

station, with five species present at all stations. The most

common and abundant species was Chaetodon auriga. C.

melanotus and C. paucifasciatus were recorded only at

Control. No significant difference in species diversity was

evident between Gap and SE End stations. A significant

difference was evident between the pooled data of two

locations and the Control. No significant difference in

population evenness among the stations was evident. The

number of individuals was significantly less in the Port barrier

reef, as was the number of species. The low coral cover and

high algal growth in the Port Barrier reef clearly indicated that

the removal of live coral was not the only negative effect of

man made stresses but also had reduced the number of

associated species proportionately. One of the first fish

populations affected by the environmental stress is the coral

reef feeder and for this reason butterflyfish stands as a

candidate for environmental quality indicator.

FISH COMMUNITIES ON JORDANIAN CORAL

REEFS AND ADJACENT HABITATS IN THE GULF OF

AQABA, RED SEA.

Khalaf M.* & Kochzius. Marine Science Station (MSS),

University of Jordan, P.O. Box 195, Aqaba, Jordan. Email:

maroof@ju.edu.jo

This study investigates for the first time the fish communities

of shallow water habitats along the Jordanian coast. For the

establishment of the joint Jordanian-Israeli “Red Sea Marine

Peace Park” it is important to collect baseline data for a proper

management of the marine reserve. At each site permanent

transects were marked, three at a depth of 5 m and three of a

depth of 10 m. The main focus is on Al Mamlah Bay, because

this bay is considered to be one of the most productive parts of

the Jordanian coast. It is characterized by the presence of well

developed coral reefs at the south and northern part of the bay,

and seagrass beds in the sandy bottom in the middle. 194

species belonging to 122 genera and 43 families were

identified. Most individuals belong to the families Serranidae,

subfamily Anthininae (38.8%), Pomacentridae (20.2%) and

Labridae (7.9%). Shannon-Wiener-index indicate a significant

lower diversity in shallow (1.49) than in deep transects (2.00)

(ANOVA, p = 0.001). Cluster analysis by species shows two

main cluster, one representing fishes of the coral habitat, the

other fishes of the seagrass beds. Cluster analysis by samples

indicates that the shallow water fish communities of Al-Mamlah

Bay share the lowest similarity to all other transects.

On the other hand deep transects of Al-Mamlah Bay were

grouped with all other sites outside the bay. This indicates that

Al-Mamlah Bay provides different habitats with distinct fish

communities in a relatively small area. Therefore it is a very

important part of the “Red Sea Marine Peace Park”..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A21: Fish Ecology: Assemblages

122

MONITORING OF CORAL REEF FISHES

POPULATION IN THE BAY OF BUYAT AND

RATATOTOK, NORTH SULAWESI.

Lalamentik L.Th.X. * ; Dj.W. Emor, A.B. Rondonuwu,

U.N.W.J. Rembet; D. Sompie, J. Kojansow * Koordinator

CRITC-4 Propinsi Sulawesi Utara; Staf Pengajar Pada

Laboratorium Bio-Ekologi Laut Tropis, Program Studi

Manajemen Sumberdaya Perairan Fakultas Perikanan dan

Ilmu Kelautan Universitas Sam Ratulangi, Manado.

Email: jkoj0638@corp.newmont.com

The aim of this research is to inform the reef fish population

in coral reef area at the Bay of Buyat and Ratatotok, North

Sulawesi. The method used is a ‘Visual Census’ on along 50 m

line transect in 3 m and 10 m depth. The finding result, based

on species total variable, individual abudant, and species

diversity, showed that species population and target-predator

population of reef fish, still categorized as good enough.

SPECIES RICHNESS AND ENDEMISM LEVELS OF

THE SOUTHWESTERN ATLANTIC REEF FISH

FAUNA,

Moura, Rodrigo L.*, and Sazima, Ivan *Museu de

Zoologia, CP 42694 Universidade de Sao Paulo, 04299-970

Sao Paulo SP Brazil, Email: rlmoura@usp.br

We present a qualitative synopsis of the Southwestern

Atlantic (Brazilian) reef-fish fauna, based on extensive recent

collections, literature records and survey of museum

specimens. Southwestern Atlantic reef-fish species richness is

higher than previously reported, but considerable lower than

that of the Caribbean region. The current idea that the tropical

West Atlantic has a relatively homogeneous reef-fish fauna is

questioned and we suggest that it is biased by the lack of

Brazilian specimens in taxonomic revisions of several groups.

Levels of endemism within reef fish families show a strong

negative correlation to dispersion capabilities, with a few

exceptions. The wide taxonomic spectrum of fishes bearing

Brazilian-endemic species, from elasmobranchs to

tetraodontiforms, indicates that major cladogenetic events

effectively isolated some groups in the Southwestern Atlantic.

Plio-Pleistocene sea-level fluctuations may account for

breaking gene-flow between the Caribbean and the

Southwestern Atlantic during regressive periods, allowing

allopatric speciation. A species/area relationship may explain

the low species richness of the Southwestern Atlantic, besides

other historical and ecological factors.

REEF FISH COMMUNITIES OF MEXICAN

CARIBBEAN: A MULTI-SPATIAL AND

MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS.

Núñez-Lara, E.* and Arias-González, Ernesto. *Centro de

Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados IPN, Carretera

Antigua a Progreso Km 6, AP 73, CP 97310, “Coordemex”

Mérida, Yucatán, México. Email:

enunez@mda.cinvestav.mx

An analysis based on a spatial hierarchical design was made

of reef-fish community structure on eight reefs in the Mexican

Caribbean. Comparisons at different spatial scales were

established to detect statistically significant differences in the

ecological descriptors of fish communities. The selected reefs

were distributed in three regions according to their latitudinal

position, with a distance of 20-30 km between each other. Four

reefs are included in a human protected area (Sian Ka’an

Biosphere Reserve) and the remaining four in an unprotected

area, subject mainly to fishing pressure. Two habitats (lagoon

and reef slope), and 18 transects by habitat (replicates) were

sampled. Fish and habitat data were obtained using, in the first

case, visual census technique, and in the second, detail

measures and substratum video. One hundred and twenty

eighth fish species belonging to 40 families were identified. A

one-way ANOVA did show statistically significant differences

(P>0.05) in the species richness and in the abundance values of

reef fishes among regions. At reef scale did was not significant

difference (P<0.05) in the fish species richness and in the

abundance, among reefs belonging to the same region, but did

was between reefs of different regions. The results suggest that

the difference observed among regions (hundreds of

kilometres) could be attributed to a combination of natural and

anthropogenic effects. Geomorphologic similarities among

reefs of the same region (tens of kilometres) to seem to have

greater influence than the effects of the human activities to

defined spatial patterns of fish communities.

PERSISTENCE IN A REEF FISH ASSEMBLAGE

MEASURED ON A LARGE SPATIAL SCALE.

Pattengill-Semmens, Christy V.*. *Reef Environmental

Education Foundation, P.O. Box 246, Key Largo, FL,

33037, USA, Email: Pattengill@mailexcite.com

Documenting the natural variability inherent in a system is

vital to understanding change. The variability in the presence

and abundance of reef fishes remains poorly understood.

Recruitment dynamics can influence the stability of a coral

reef fish assemblage due to the pelagic nature of most species,

and several studies have found that an assumption of stable

and organized systems may not apply to reef fish assemblages.

A three-year monitoring study was conducted in the Flower

Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary, three banks in the

northwest Gulf of Mexico. These banks have large,

continuous reefs and support coral reef fish assemblages.

Fishes were visually censused semi-annually using a point-census

method and the persistence in species presence and

abundance was measured. Results suggest levels of stability

higher than those reported from patch reefs. In addition,

greater stability was evident at the feeding guild level,

suggesting underlying organization. The size of the banks,

their predictable physical environment, and their reduced

species richness all likely affect the variability of these

assemblages. The data collected in this study provide

persistence information that can serve as a baseline for future

monitoring in the Sanctuary. By studying natural variability,

resource managers and scientists will be able to make

reasonable and accurate assessments of community health in

the face of natural and anthropogenic change..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A21: Fish Ecology: Assemblages

123

DISTURBANCE ALTERS HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS

AND FEEDING PREFERENCES OF SYMPATRIC

BUTTERFLYFISH.

Pratchett, Morgan.*, *School of Marine Biology and

Aquaculture, James Cook University, Townsville Q4811,

Australia. Email: morgan.pratchett@jcu.edu.au

Recent outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish,

Acanthaster planci (L.), have greatly modified the composition

and structure of benthic reef assemblages at Lizard Island, on

the northern Great Barrier Reef. Such disturbances are likely to

have major repercussions for fish communities, particularly

butterflyfish (Family Chaetodontidae) which are dependent on

benthic assemblages for both food and shelter. This study

examined the distribution, abundance, and feeding preferences

of 16 species of Chaetodon butterflyfish over five years from

1995 to 2000. Individual Chaetodon species responded very

differently to disturbances caused by A. planci. The most

notable responses were those of specialist corallivores,

Chaetodon trifascialis and C. baronessa. Chaetodon

trifascialis underwent rapid population declines and became

virtually extinct on reefs affected by A. planci. Whereas, the

apparent feeding specialist C. baronessa responded to the

disturbance by expanding both the range of prey it consumed

and also its depth distribution. Consequently there was only a

limited decline in the abundance of C. baronessa. Annual

monitoring is continuing to assess the changes in the

distribution, abundance, and feeding preferences Chaetodon

populations, as the reef recovers from A. planci outbreaks.

MULTI-LEVEL COMPARISON OF SCALES OF FISH-BENTHOS

CORRELATIONS

Rañola, Maria Catalina G.* and Porfirio M. Aliño. The

Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines,

Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines. Email:

catski@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

The correlation between the distribution of reef-associated

fish assemblage and benthic cover is usually evident at the

various scales considered in most reef studies. However, little

is known about such correlation when small-scale patch

distribution is considered. The study attempts to determine

emergent patterns of correlation between small-scale patch

patterns in reef fish distribution and benthic cover. Fish visual

census and benthic lifeform surveys were undertaken in two

offshore reef complexes, the Kalayaan Islands Group, South

China Sea and the Tubbataha atolls. Twenty 150 m x 10 m

belt transects representing as many sites were surveyed. Fish

species were recorded every 5 m segment. Coral cover was

determined using the line intercept technique in three 30 m

segments along the transect. Patch distribution was obtained

using a combination of divisive clustering, species-area curve,

occurrence and abundance analyses. Analyses of lifeform

benthos and fish correlations were made at various scales.

The complementary information derived from small-scale

insights in relation to overall transect information further

refines the understanding of the dynamics in reef complexes.

REEF FISH STRUCTURE AND THEIR FEEDING

ECOLOGY ON SEAGRASS MEADOWS IN HURUN

BAY, SUMATRA, INDONESIA.

Supratomo, Raden Tomi*. Wisma Asri, Jln. Gugahsari

no.6, Gg. Sd Insan Kamil, Marga Jaya, Darmaga, Bogor.

Email: toimboy@yahoo.com

Observation of community structure and feeding ecology of

fish on seagrass beds were conducted from September to

November 1999 in Hurun Bay, Sumatra. This research aims to

investigate community structure, feeding ecology and food

habit of reef fish on seagrass beds. This information is useful

in the study of the functional of seagrass ecosystem. Tha data

could make us better understand the seagrass role and

contribution to coastal habitat, especially coral reef, supporting

the formulation of coastal managament policy, and the

restoration and conservation of natural resources. Sampling

was undertaken at five station (station 1 - 5). Trammel net,

mesh size 25 mm (1 piece) and 60 mm (2 pieces), was used to

collect fish and operated on seagrass-reef border, day (2 hour)

and night (2 hour). Species diversity (H) and evennes (E)

indices based on numbers of each species were calculated

using the Shannon-Wiener function and the evennes equation:

E = H/Hmax. Environmental parameter analized with Principal

Component Analysis (PCA). Correspondence Factorial

Analysis (CA) were used to asses correlation between

seagrass-study site and fish-seagrass. The stomach contents

were indentified and counted under a binoculare microscope

and food habit measured with Index of Preponderance.

CORRELATION BETWEEN THE ABUNDANCE OF

BUTTERFLYFISHES AND CORAL COMMUNITIES OF

THE SOUTHERN RED SEA.

Zekeria Z. A.* and Videler, J. J. *University of Asmara

Marine Sciences Field Station P. O. Box 324 Massawa

ERITREA Email shark@eol.com.er

Relationships between percentage coral cover and the

abundance of butterflyfishes were investigated across 15 reefs

around Massawa in the Southern Red Sea. The surveyed reefs

had different proportions of live coral cover. Visual census of

butterflyfishes were conducted along 100 meters line transects

and the nature of the substrate was investigated using quadrat

method. Five Chaetodontid species and fourteen genera of

scleractinian corals were recorded from the study site. Among

the butterflyfishes, the abundance of Chaetodon larvatus, C.

semilarvatus and C. mesoleucos showed significant positive

correlation with the live coral cover (p=0.000, 0.012 and 0.040

respectively). On the other hand, the relationships between

coral cover and the abundance of the remaining two species

(C. fasciatus and Heniochus intermedius) were not significant.

The first two-butterflyfish species are corallivores while the

last three species feed mainly on turf algae and/or

invertebrates. This result suggests the existence of strong link

between corallivorous chaetodontids and the cover of live

scleractinian corals..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A22: Coral Algal Interactions

Session A22: Coral-algal Interactions, Marine Plant Dynamics and Roles and Phase

Shifts of Reefs

124

THE DISTRIBUTION AND SOME VEGETATIONAL

ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC SEAWEEDS (MACRO

ALGAE) ON THE CORAL REEF OF INDONESIA,

Atmadja, Wanda S. *Research and Development Centre

for Oceanology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Jl. Pasir

Putih I, Ancol Timur, Jakarta Utara. Email:

procoremap@attglobal.net

Seaweeds of Indonesia have long been of interest to people,

especially in their relationships within commercial uses for

domestic consumption and for export. Eucheuma spp.,

Gelidium spp., Gracilaria spp., Hypnea spp., and Caulerpa

spp., are recognized as economic seaweeds of Indonesia. These

seaweeds are commonly grow on any hard substrates under

suitable sites on the coral reefs which are extensively found in

the Indonesian waters. The distribution of these seaweeds on

the coral reefs are characterized by the extends of water

movements including water tides, topographical preferences

and also subject to the competition and predators. From these

viewpoints, there are some data and information to be

described in this paper based on the results of research

activities conducted in Indonesia.

FLORISTIC AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES OF

CRUSTOSE CORALLINE ALGAE ON BRAZIL'S

ABROLHOS REEFS.

Figueiredo, M.A de O..* and Steneck, Robert S... *Instituto

de Pesquisas Jardim Botanico do Rio de Janeiro, Rua

Pacheco Leao 915, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 22460-030 Brazil.

Email: mfigueir@openlink.com.br, steneck@Maine.EDU

Brazil's Abrolhos reef National Park biota is isolated from

the Caribbean by the Amazon River. Its reefs are unique;

dominated by an endemic genus of coral. We systematically

collected and identified the crustose coralline algae relative to

herbivory and overgrowth from filamentous algal turfs and

fleshy macroalgae. The coralline flora has relatively low

species diversity. Zonal dominance at the coralline subfamily

and functional group levels was similar to that observed

throughout the the tropics. That is, shallow zones were

dominated by thick, adherent Mastophoroidea crust and the

complexly branched Lithophylloidea crust. In contrast, deeper

zones or in shallow zones under macroalgae were often

dominated by relatively thin, leafy corallines such as some

Melobesioidea. There was a strong inverse relationship

between filamentous turf and coralline algal abundance.

Corallines thrived under conditions of little or abundant foliose

algae but were rare under conditions of intermediate foliose

algal biomass. This complex relationship reflects the

functional differences between subcryptic (melobesioid) algae

that thrive under macroalgal canopies and the massive and

complexly branched Lithophyllum corallines that dominates in

habitats with low macroalgal biomass. Rates of herbivory were

low at all sites and comprised primarily of acanthurid grazing

(with little scarid grazing). Coralline abundance varied

inversely with our measured fish bite-rates. With depth, fish

bite rates declined and coralline abundance increased.

VARIABLE EFFECTS OF MACROALGAE ON HARD

CORALS.

Jompa, Jamaluddin *, and McCook, Laurence J. . * Marine

Biology Dept. James Cook University, Australia & Marine

Science Dept. Hasanuddin University, Indonesia.

Email: Jamaluddin.Jompa@jcu.edu.au.

Interactions between macroalgae and scleractinian corals are

important to the structure of coral reefs, especially during reef

degradation. However, their competitive outcomes are not

uniform. We here report several studies demonstrating a range

of effects of macroalgae on corals, from negative, neutral, to

positive. The filamentous red alga Corallophila huysmansii,

for example, can invade and kill live tissue of Porites

cylindrica, apparently by allelochemical effects. Another

filamentous red alga, Anotrichium tenue, can encroach on

healthy coral Porites lobata, but coral death appears to result

from trapped sediments. Both these algae also act as pioneer

species allowing other ‘common’ turf algae to settle on dead

coral skeleton after the infection. The foliose brown alga

Lobophora variegata can overgrow and kill P. cylindrica,

especially under conditions of reduced herbivory. However,

we also found that this coral also inhibits the growth of

Lobophora, indicating an active and reciprocal competitive

interaction. Observations of Chlorodesmis fastigiata (“Turtle

Weed”) and Hypnea pannosa growing on live corals suggest

that those macroalgae had relatively neutral or minor effects on

the corals. Finally, in the 1998 bleaching event we recorded

that hard coral bleaching increased in plots from which the

normally abundant canopy of Sargassum had been removed,

suggesting that the algal canopy actually protected the corals.

In summary, we argue that the effect of macroalgae on corals

varies among algae and corals, and with circumstances, so that

generalisations about coral-algal interactions should be treated

with caution.

SPATIAL AND SEASONAL VARIATION IN PRIMARY

PRODUCTIVITY OF SEAGRASS COMMUNITIES IN

BON ACCORD LAGOON, TOBAGO.

Juman, Rahanna.* *Institute of Marine Affairs, Hilltop

Lane, Chaguaramas, Trinidad and Tobago. Email:

Rjuman@Trinidad.net

The seagrass community in Bon Accord Lagoon covers an

area of about 53.6 ha and is one of the largest communities

found in Trinidad and Tobago, and the best example of

contiguous coral reef, seagrass bed and mangrove swamp.

Turtle Grass (Thalassia testudinum) is the dominant species

and the focus of this study. Standing crop biomass, areal

productivity and percentage turnover rates for Thalassia

showed seasonal and spatial variations. These parameters

were higher in the dry season (January-May) than in the wet

season (June- December). Standing crop was 35.9 g dry wt m -2

in the dry season and 13.8 g dry wt m -2 in the wet season

while areal productivity was 4.9 and 3.9 g dry wt m -2 d -1

respectively and percentage turnover rate per green biomass of

plant per day was 5.6 and 4.7. Standing crop biomass, areal

productivity and percentage turnover rates were higher in the

back reef area than in the mangrove-fringed Lagoon and

lowest at sites subjected to nutrient enrichment. The major

factors influencing seagrass productivity in the Bon Accord

Lagoon were turbidity and nutrient effect, which varied

seasonally, while annual areal production was estimated at 249

metric tonnes of dry weight..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A22: Coral Algal Interactions

125

TOP-DOWN VS. BOTTOM-UP CONTROLS OF CORAL

REEF COMMUNITY STRUCTURE.

Littler, M.M. & Littler, D.S. *Smithsonian Institution,

Washington, D.C., USA. Email:

Littler.Diane@MNNH.SI.EDU

This study used bioassays and manipulative experiments of

herbivory (i.e., top-down control) and nutrients (i.e., bottom-up

control) to assess the interactive mechanisms controlling phase

shifts among the major space-occupying primary producers on

coral reefs. Low nutrients alone did not preclude fleshy algal

growth when herbivory was reduced. Coral cover decreased

concomitant with algal increases under elevated nutrients

relative to low nutrients; such consistent changes in abun-dances

led to profound long-term effects.

MARINE PLANT IDENTIFICATION FOR CORAL

REEF RESEARCH.

Littler, D.S. & Littler, M.M.. Smithsonian Institution,

Washington, D.C., USA. Email:

Littler.Diane@NMNH.SI.EDU

Because of the rapid deg radation of tropical reefs, it is

imperative that they be studied from all aspects in a timely,

efficient and scientifically verifiable manner. Marine plants, in

conjunction with coelenterate corals, are the major primary

producers and builders of many reef systems, impacting most

fields of sciences whether it be the study of fisheries resources,

invertebrates, marine chemistry, ecology, geology or any of the

associated biological disciplines. It is essential that marine

scientists, regardless of discipline, have a usable means of

accurately identifying the principal marine plants which form

the basis of the food web and play major roles in building and

maintaining living reef structures. Our goal is to make algal

identification possible for ecologists, physiologists, chemists,

geologists, coastal-zone managers or any other scientists,

including both amateur and professional biologists. We have

just completed a "user-friendly" identification guide to the reef

plants of the Caribbean region, relying where possible on

vegetative rather than on technical reproductive characteristics

for determinations.

ALGAE-CORAL INTERACTIONS: MEDIATION OF

CORAL SETTLEMENT, EARLY SURVIVAL AND

GROWTH BY MACROALGAE IN THE CENTRAL

PHILIPPINES.

Maypa, A. P. * Raymundo, L.J.H. Calumpong, H.P. and

de Leon, R.O.. Silliman University Marine Laboratory,

Dumaguete City 6200, Philippines. Email: ai@fil.net

Degraded Philippine reefs are often colonized by

macroalgae which can impact coral recovery. This study

examined morphological and chemical effects of four

macroalgal species on early life history of the coral

Pocillopora damicornis. Morphologies of Sargassum

polycystum and Laurencia papillosa significantly inhibited

larval settlement, juvenile survival and growth, while their

exudates enhanced settlement (S. polycystum: 67%±6; L.

papillosa: 71%±4; control: 20%±4). Neither morphology nor

exudates of Halimeda opuntia and Peyssonnelia rubra

significantly affected larval settlement, but juveniles survived

less in aquaria containing H. opuntia. Survival was facilitated

in aquaria with P. rubra. Colonies growing with L. papillosa

(5±0.8) and S. polycystum (4±0.1) were significantly smaller

at three months than those with H. opuntia (6±0.9) and P.

rubra (6±0.6). Our findings show that these common

macroalgae can impact coral settlement and early life history,

and these impacts vary between species.

EFFECTS OF ERECT ALGAL REDUCTION

MANIPULATIONS ON FISHES IN KENYAN AND

BELIZEAN CORAL REEFS

McClanahan, Tim R.* *The Wildlife Conservation

Society, Coral Reef Conservation Project, P.O. Box 99470,

Mombasa, Kenya Email: crcp@africaonline.co.ke

Reports of fleshy erect algae overgrowing corals and

changing coral reef ecology has increased during the past 20

years, but most studies have focused on coral-algal rather than

algal-fish interactions. Experimental methods to reduce

macroalgal abundance were explored in areas > 100 m 2 in a

coral reef park in Watamu, Kenya and Glovers Reef, Belize to

determine the effects of these manipulation on the fishes. One

experiment added ~2000 sea urchins from the Diademidae

family to four experimental plots in Watamu to achieve a

population density of 3 individuals per m 2 . This manipulation

attracted a large number of fishes and two species of sea

urchin, Diadema savignyi and D. setosum, which were quickly

eaten by two triggerfish predators, Balistapus undulatus and

Balistoides viridescens. After the sea urchins were reduced

other fish populations dropped. The second experiment

physically reduced erect fleshy and calcareous algae with

shears and wire brushes and was completed in both the

Watamu and Glovers Reef, Belize. In Watamu, increased

numbers of individuals and species were found for herbivorous

surgeonfish and excavating and scraping parrotfish, but also

for invertebrate-eating fishes including angelfish, butterflyfish,

snappers, triggerfish, and wrasses.

COMPETITION BETWEEN CORALS AND BENTHIC

ALGAE ON INSHORE CORAL REEFS OF THE GREAT

BARRIER REEF.

McCook Laurence J. * , J. Jompa, G. Diaz-Pulido, R.

Cumming, C. Mundy, I. Price. *Australian Institute of

Marine Science & CRC: Reef Research, PMB #3,

Townsville, Australia. Email: L.McCook@AIMS.Gov.Au

Competition between corals and benthic algae is critical to

reef ecology and degradation, yet there is surprisingly little

evidence rigorously demonstrating or examining this

interaction and its variability. On inshore fringing reef flats of

the Great Barrier Reef, it is argued that macroalgae are

abundant because high nutrient and sediment inputs allow

macroalgae to outcompete corals. We report here several

studies which test this hypothesis. Extensive areas of healthy

coral persist on these reef flats, even after recent severe

bleaching events, even under luxuriant algal canopies.

Previous work found that macroalgae are abundant because

herbivores are scarce. However, this abundance may not cause

exclusion of corals. Exclusion of herbivores from coral patches

for 1_ years did not cause large increases in macroalgae, nor

declines in corals. Removal of macroalgal canopy from large

plots indicated that the canopy actually protected established

corals from bleaching. However, coral recruitment was

reduced by the algal canopy. Small-scale competitive

interactions between algal turfs and massive Porites along a

water quality gradient suggested that corals were the superior

competitor, and were in fact most successful on the reef most

exposed to terrestrial runoff. Together these results suggest

that i. competition between corals and algae is neither uniform

nor simply predicted by nutrient supply; and ii. competition

between established corals and algae may be less critical to

reef degradation than the effects of algae on coral recruitment

and recovery from disturbance..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A22: Coral Algal Interactions

126

EFFECTS OF SEDIMENTATION AND HERBIVORY

ON MACROALGAL ABUNDANCE AND

COMPETITION WITH CORALS ON A CARIBBEAN

CORAL REEF.

Nugues, M.M.*, C.M. Roberts, J.P. Hawkins.

*Environment Department, University of York, York

YO10 5DD, UK. Email: mmn100@york.ac.uk

Many disturbances presently affect coral reefs. In numerous

areas, these combine to promote shifts from coral to

macroalgal dominance. However, their interaction and relative

importance are often unclear. We examined spatial and

temporal variation in macroalgae and parrotfish abundance

along four nearshore-to-offshore gradients in St. Lucia, two

exposed to river sediment discharge and two serving as low

sediment controls, to try to partition the role of sedimentation

and herbivory on macroalgal abundance. Macroalgal cover

was lower both in areas exposed to river sediments and in

areas having the highest parrotfish biomass. Where macroalgae

were abundant, their competition with corals, as measured by

the amount of live or bleached coral surface area covered by

macroalgae, was also high. Surprisingly, while parrotfish

biomass increased three fold throughout the study area,

macroalgal cover remained steady. We conclude that both

sedimentation and herbivory are important factors determining

the distribution and cover of macroalgae. However, the

potential to reverse large-scale phase shifts from coral to

macroalgal communities by restoring herbivore populations

may be limited by the existence of a size-response by grazers

to algae (large macroalgae are less palatable that small) and by

sedimentation.

CHEMICAL ECOLOGY OF BENTHIC MARINE

CYANOBACTERIA.

Paul, Valerie J. *, Thacker, Robert W. Manglona, Jesse B.

*University of Guam Marine Laboratory, UOG Station,

Mangilao, Guam. Email: vpaul@uog9.uog.edu

Cyanobacteria are abundant in coral reef habitats around

Guam. They sometimes form thick mats covering large areas

of the reef which we call cyanobacterial blooms. They

produce many different nitrogenous secondary metabolites.

We hypothesized that cyanobacteria are unpalatable to a

variety of reef herbivores because they are chemically

defended. In laboratory experiments, we tested the palatability

of 27 different collections of cyanobacteria to three herbivores

common to reef habitats on Guam: the parrotfish Scarus

schlegeli, the sea urchin Echinometra mathaei and the sea hare

Stylocheilus longicauda. We compared the consumption of

freeze-dried, powdered cyanobacteria to freeze-dried

powdered Enteromorpha clathrata, a palatable green alga. We

also compared the consumption of E. clathrata coated with

crude organic extracts of cyanobacteria to uncoated E.

clathrata. All strains, when freeze-dried and powdered, were

deterrent to all three herbivores; however, it is unclear whether

this deterrence is due to secondary metabolite content, low

nutritional value, or other factors. Most organic extracts tested

deterred feeding by the parrotfish and sea urchin but stimulated

feeding by the sea hare, a more specialized consumer of

cyanobacteria. We propose that the production of deterrent

secondary metabolites by many benthic cyanobacteria provides

protection from grazing by generalist herbivores and can

facilitate the formation of cyanobacterial blooms in coral reef

habitats.

SHIFTS IN MICROHABITAT UTILIZATION BY THE

THREESPOT DAMSELFISH STEGASTES

PLANIFRONS: IMPLICATIONS FOR ALGAL

DYNAMICS ON CARIBBEAN CORAL REEFS.

Precht, William F. * , Kaufman, Leslie S. and Aronson,

Richard B.. *PBS&J, 2001 NW 107 th Ave., Miami, FL

33172, Email: Bprecht@pbsj.com

The threespot damselfish, Stegastes planifrons (Cuvier), is

important in mediating coral-algal, herbivore-algal, and

herbivore-herbivore interactions on Caribbean coral reefs.

Throughout the region, the primary microhabitat of the

threespot damselfish was thickets of the branching staghorn

coral Acropora cervicornis. Within the past few decades, mass

mortality of A. cervicornis due to white-band disease and other

factors, has nearly eliminated this coral throughout its range.

The loss of the threespots’ primary microhabitat has caused a

shift in the distribution and recruitment of these damselfish

onto remaining high-structured corals, especially the

Montastrea annularis species complex. The consequence of

this microhabitat shift has been an increase in coral predation

caused by the biting of living tissue and the tending of algal

gardens on the Montastrea species complex resulting in

significant coral mortality and overgrowth by fleshy and

filamentous macroalgae. Evidence from Jamaica (heavily

fished), Florida (moderately fished) and Belize (lightly fished)

indicates that threespot distribution patterns are positively

correlated with live coral cover and topographic complexity.

These data suggest that species specific microhabitat

preference and/or availability of topographic complexity is

more important than abundance of predatory fish in controlling

their distribution and abundance.

THE EFFECT OF ALGAL TURFS ON POST-RECRUITMENT

PROCESSES IN JUVENILE CORALS

IN THE CARRIBEAN.

Prude, Traci M.* And Edmunds, Peter J.. *Department

Of Biology, California State University, 18111 Nordhoff

St., Northridge, California, Usa 91330-8303. Email:

traci.m.prude@csun.edu

Post-recruitment events affecting scleractinian corals cannot

be described fully without considering the interaction between

corals and other taxa. This study examined whether the

growth, morphology, and oxygen microenvironment of

juvenile and small adult corals were affected by interactions

with algal turfs on the forereef of Discovery Bay, Jamaica. In

situ growth rates of Siderastrea siderea and Agaricia

agaracites were significantly lower for colonies located inside

algal turfs than for colonies that occurred alone. Mensurative

experiments demonstrated that there was a significant

difference in the morphology (i.e., colony shape) ofS. siderea

and A. agaracites colonies located inside versus outside of

algal turf habitats. In the laboratory, under high versus low

flow and day versus nighttime conditions, O2 levels adjacent to

coral tissues differed significantly between turf and non-turf

treatments. For juvenile and small adult corals found within

algal turfs, the physical microenvironment may influence

survivorship by indirectly affecting the growth and

morphology of coral colonies..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A22: Coral Algal Interactions

127

CORAL REEF ASSOCIATED MACROPHYTES OF

THE KALAYAAN ISLANDS GROUP, SOUTH CHINA

SEA.

Roleda, Michael Y.* and Maria Gregoria Joanne P. Tiquio.

* The Marine Science Institute, University of the

Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines.

Email: maikee@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

Subtidal seaweeds associated with corals from 6 islands of

the Kalayaan Islands Group (KIG), South China Sea were

collected within the 150 m transect line concomitant for the

coral and fish survey. Intertidal seaweeds were collected

haphazardly within the tide flat. Seaweeds were identified in

situ and voucher specimen was processed for confirmation of

the field identification. A total of 32 seaweed species was

recorded in this study. Initial field identification of marine

macrophyte showed Lawak Island with the most diverse

subtidal species while Pagasa Island accounts for the most

diverse intertidal species composition. The most diverse group

of seaweed found in KIG belongs to the Genus Halimeda,

where 4 out of nine species remain to be fully identified.

These calcareous seaweeds are found to be abundant in the

subtidal region, which provides one of the rare floristic reports

for the area despite its recognized as predominant contributors

to the bulk and frame structures of the majority of reef

limestone deposits. This contributes to a total of 65 species

reported by the Marine Science Institute expedition and

biodiversity study in the area.

HERBIVORY AND NUTRIENT ENRICHMENT ON

TROPICAL REEFS: AN EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS

OF BENTHIC COMMUNTIY STRUCTURE IN

HAWAII.

Smith, Jennifer E. * , Dr. Celia Smith & Dr. Cynthia Hunter.

*Department of Botany, University of Hawaii, Manoa,

3190 Maile Way, Honolulu HI, 96822, USA. Email:

jesmith@hawaii.edu

Phase shifts from coral to algal dominance on tropical reefs

have become increasingly common over the last few decades,

driving a need to identify potential causes leading to these

shifts. Both "top down" (herbivory) and "bottom up"

(nutrients) factors have been independently implicated as the

primary mechanism affecting the abundance of algae on reefs.

Studies of these factors have tended to be exclusive and have

not considered the interactive relationships between the very

different processes involved. Littler and Littler (1984)

proposed the Relative Dominance Model (RDM) whereby, the

dominant benthic photosynthetic organism is predicted as a

function of long term exposure to both herbivory and nutrients.

A randomized factorial block design was used to

simultaneously test the effects of nutrient enrichment and

herbivory on benthic communities. Total algal biomass was

greatest on experimental surfaces that were exposed to both

nutrient enrichment and herbivore exclusion simultaneously.

Fleshy algal biomass was highest on surfaces removed from

herbivory while, calcified algal biomass dominated surfaces

exposed to elevated nutrients. Species diversity estimates,

successional patterns, microinvertebrate abundance and

sediment accumulation also exhibited significant treatment

effects. This research shows that nutrient enrichment and

herbivore exclusion can separately and synergistically support

shifts in benthic algal community structure on tropical reefs in

Hawaii.

STUDIES ON THE EFFECT OF NITROGEN SOURCES

ON THE GROWTH RATE, AGAR QUANTITY AND

QUALITY OF THE RHODOPHYTA GRACILARIA

MARAMAE .

Sulu, Reuben John*, *Institute of Marine Resources,

University of the South Pacific P.O.Box 460, Honiara,

Solomon Islands Email: rjsulu@welkam.solomon.com.sb

Studies on the effect of nutrients were conducted on the

growth rate, agar quantity and quality of the Rhodophyta

Gracilaria maramae. Nutrients investigated were the nitrogen

sources ammonium (NH4 + ) and nitrate (NO3 - ). Ammonium

produced better growth than nitrate as nitrogen source.

Increases in ammonium concentration resulted in an increase

in growth up to a concentration of 300 mm. Ammonium

concentration above 300 mm resulted in a decline in growth.

For the nitrate fast growth rates were obtained at a

concentration of 100 mm. Further increase up to 300 mm does

not result in an improvement in growth. Nitrate concentration

of 500 mm resulted in a decline in growth rate. Native agar

yield was higher in plants grown under nitrate as a nitrogen

source, agar yield ranged from 21.78-27.155 %. Native agar

yield from plants grown under ammonium sources as nitrogen

source ranged from 18.13-26.75. Agar yield for ammonium

was higher at the extreme high and lower concentrations and

was lowest at 200 mm, with a yield of 13.25 %. The yields are

not significantly different between sources and concentrations.

IS HERBIVORY THE PRIMARY STRUCTURING

FORCE OF CORAL REEF ALGAL COMMUNTIES?

Wilder, R.M.*. *Dept. of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine

Biology, University of CA, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106,

USA. Email: wilder@lifesci.ucsb.edu

Coral reefs are among the most productive ecosystems on

earth. However, their primary producers, algae, are often

overlooked due to their short vertical profile and low standing

stock. A major factor preventing macroalgal dominance on

such reefs is intense herbivory by fish and sea urchins.

However, it has been suggested that dissolved nutrient levels

and water flow rates are also important. Using comprehensive

surveys and experimental manipulations around the island of

Moorea, French Polynesia, I determined the relative

importance of these 3 factors (herbivory, nutrient

concentration, and flow rate) on the distribution and abundance

of algae. The biomass of algae protected from herbivores was

positively correlated with dissolved PO4 3- levels across 14

locations. No such relationship was observed when herbivores

were present. Sites with high flow rate had high algal biomass.

At all 14 sites, algal biomass was significantly higher on

substrates protected from herbivores. I also performed a 3-way

factorial experiment manipulating herbivore density, nutrient

concentration, and flow rate. The change in algal biomass over

28 d was 130% greater where herbivores were excluded, 69%

greater where nutrients were added, and 16% greater where

flow rate was increased. When herbivores were absent, the

effect of nutrient enrichment was 3X greater than when

herbivores were present, revealing that, although nutrient

levels are important to algal biomass, their effect is not

realized unless herbivores are absent. These data suggest that

all 3 factors structure the algal community -- herbivory being

most important, followed by nutrient concentrations, then flow

rate..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A22: Coral Algal Interactions

128

THE IMPACTS OF SEAWEED FARMING ON CORAL

REEFS.

Zemke-White, W. Lindsey* *School of Biological Sciences,

University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New

Zealand. Email: l.zemke-white@auckland.ac.nz

Worldwide, seaweed utilization generates in excess of US$6

billion per annum. Approximately half of this seaweed is

harvested from the wild while the other half is produced on

farms. In the tropics, seaweed farms are found primarily on

coral reefs or reef flats and cover many thousands of hectares.

The species farmed in this manner, Eucheuma spp. and

Kappaphycus spp., are used to produce carrageenan. The

supply of carrageenan is currently unable to meet the global

demand and consequently seaweed farming is likely to expand

throughout the tropics. Given a) this likely expansion and b)

that seaweed farming in the tropics is carried out in close

association with coral reefs, it is vital that we seek to

understand the impacts that this farming might have. This

paper reviews the literature on the environmental impacts of

seaweed farming on coral reefs, discusses farming techniques

which may ameliorate negative impacts and outlines areas

which are in need of further research. Impacts are placed into 3

categories: 1) the effects of introducing seaweed species to a

new location for the purposes of aquaculture, 2) the effects of

farming operations, and 3) the effects of related human

activities. Surprisingly few studies have investigated the

impacts of seaweed farming on coral reefs. Given the spread of

seaweed farming in the tropics and the possible impacts of this

activity on coral reefs, it is suggested that a comprehensive

study should be undertaken in a number of locations to

monitor and fully assess the impacts..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A23: Interactions

Session A23: Coral Reef Symbioses and Interactions

129

CORAL REEF BENTHIC CYANOBACTERIA AS FOOD

AND REFUGE: DIVERSITY, CHEMISTRY, AND

COMPLEX INTER-ACTIONS.

Cruz-Rivera, E.* and Paul, Valerie J.. *University of

Guam Marine Laboratory, UOG Station, Mangilao, Guam.

Email: ecruzriv@uog.edu

Large filamentous cyanobacteria are important primary

producers and conspicuous components of Pacific coral reef

communities. These cyanobacteria produce a variety of

secondary metabolites that serve as defenses against large

grazers such as fish and urchins, but do not deter smaller, more

specialized, consumers such as certain amphipods, sea hares,

cephalaspideans, crabs and shrimp. The biodiversity of coral

reef cyanobacteria and their associated fauna is largely

unexplored, and our studies suggest that intraspecific variation

among populations of both algae and consumers could be an

important component of this biotic complexity. For example,

different strains of the same cyanobacterial species may be

differentially palatable to specialist consumers, but this in turn,

is modified by the consumers’ experience with a particular

strain and population of origin. Our research demonstrates

interesting parallels between the ecology and evolution of

cyanobacterial-grazer interactions and those of better known

algal-herbivore interactions.

MAJOR COLOUR PATTERNS OF REEF-BUILDING

CORALS ARE DUE TO A FAMILY OF GFP-LIKE

PROTEINS.

Dove, Sophie G.* & Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove. *Centre for

Marine Studies, University of Queensland, QLD 4072

Australia Email: sophie@mailbox.uq.edu.au

Reef-building corals are renown for their brilliant colours yet

the biochemical basis for the pigmentation of corals is

unknown. Here we show that these colours are due to a family

of GFP-like proteins that fluoresce under ultraviolet (UV) or

visible light. Pigments from a broad spectrum of coral species

were similar to previously isolated Pocilloporin (Dove et al.

1995) being dimers or trimers with approximately 28 kD

subunits. Degenerative primers made to one of the common

N-terminal amino acid sequence yielded a complete sequence

from reef-building coral cDNA that had 19.6% amino acid

identity with Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP). Molecular

modeling revealed a ‘_-can’ structure like GFP with 11 _-strands

and a completely solvent-inaccessible fluorophore

composed of the modified residues Gln-61, Tyr-62 and Gly-63.

The molecular properties of these proteins indicate a range

of functions from the conversion of high intensity UV

radiation into photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) that

can be regulated by the dinoflagellate peridinin-chlorophyll-protein

(PCP) complex, to the shielding of the Soret and Qx

bands of chlorophyll a and c from scattered high intensity

light. By changing the balance of these pigments within tissue,

corals therefore have the ability to employ them either to

protect the photosynthetic machinery of the symbiotic

dinoflagellates of corals under high light conditions or enhance

the availability of photosynthetic light under shade conditions.

MASS MORTALITY OF TRAPEZIAN CRABS IN

CORAL REEFS OF GULF OF MANNAR (SOUTHEAST

COAST OF INDIA)

Jeyabaskaran R.* and Venkataraman, K. *Marine

Biological Station, Zoological Survey of India, 100 -Santhome

High Road, Chennai - 600 028, INDIA. Email:

jeybas@usa.net

Coral reef ecosystems are well known for their species

richness, and also complexity. It is quite remarkable that an

environment with so small area, has so much life and so many

species and thus diversity. Coral reefs around the world are

deteriorating rapidly. Some sources estimated that 10% of all

reefs has been degraded beyond recovery and another 20 to

30% may be lost by 2010. The Indian part of Gulf of Mannar

contains about 21 islands covering an area of 625 hectares

and coral reefs of fringing and pach types extending from

Rameswaram to Tuticorin (Lat. 8°50' - 9°10" N and Long.

78°10'-79°10" E covering a distance of 140 km). Brachyuran

crabs constitute one of the most diverse components of coral

reef communities and the brachyuran crabs associated with

scleractinian corals have generated much interest. In this

backdrop, extensive coral reef survey was done in the year

1997 and March to May 1998. The previous studies in the

year 1997 showed only three species of Corallicolous

symbionts namely Trapezia cymodoce, T. areolata and T.

ferruginea crabs were found in the colonies of coral

Pocillopora damicornis. The recent study results showed, all

the coral colonies of P. damicornis in the coral reefs of Gulf

of Mannar were died due to bleaching. These colonies were

invaded by the boring sponges and covered by the turf algae.

All the Trapezian crabs found in these colonies were died and

these crabs were not found. The reason for the mass mortality

of these corals and crabs are discussed in the paper in detail.

CHEMICAL ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF

ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF RED SEA CORALS

AND SPONGES.

Kelman, Dovi * , Kashman, Y., Rosenberg, E., Ilan, M.,

Kushmaro, A. and Loya, Y. *National Center for High

Throughput Screening (HTS) of Novel Bioactive

Compounds, Department of Zoology, George S. Wise

Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv,

Tel Aviv 69978, ISRAEL. Email: kelmand@post.tau.ac.il

Living corals and sponges are frequently colonised by

bacteria that may be pathogenic to them. One of the means by

which they are able to combat microbial attack is by chemical

defence. Organic extracts of several species of stony corals,

soft corals and reef sponges from the coral reef of the northern

Gulf of Eilat, Red Sea were tested for their antimicrobial

activity against a panel of marine bacterial isolates. These

bacteria were isolated from the natural environment of the

corals and sponges being tested. None of the stony corals

exhibited any significant activity against the test bacteria. On

the other hand, three of the six soft corals tested exhibited

appreciable activity against more than 50 % of the test

bacteria. The soft coral Xenia macrospiculata exhibited the

highest activity. The antimicrobial activity was due to the

presence of a range of compounds of different polarities. One

of these antibiotic compounds, 11,19-desoxyhavannahine, was

successfully isolated and crystallised. Among the 11 sponges

tested, Amphimedon viridis (Keller) exhibited the highest

activity. Bioassay-directed fractionation of this sponge’ extract

resulted in the isolation of halitoxin. The antimicrobial assays

suggest that the antibiotics of the studied reef corals and

sponges possess specific antimicrobial activities rather than

broad-spectrum activities..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A23: Interactions

130

FUNGI ASSOCIATED WITH GORGONIANS IN

SINGAPORE: A PRELIMINARY STUDY.

Koh, Li Ling*; Koon, Tan Teck; Goh, Nigel;, Chou, Loke

Ming. *Department of Biological Sciences, National

University of Singapore, 10 Kent Ridge Crescent,

Singapore 119260. Email: scip9543@nus.edu.sg

This preliminary study aims to establish the biodiversity of

fungi associated with gorgonians as well as to investigate the

differences in the type of fungi and the number of isolates

found on healthy and unhealthy gorgonians. Gorgonian species

chosen for this study were from 3 families: Ellisellidae,

Plexauridae and Subergorgiidae to facilitate inter-family and

inter-genera comparison of gorgonian-fungal association.

Results obtained so far shows that there is no significant trend

of unhealthy gorgonian possessing more fungal isolates that

healthy gorgonians. Fungi isolated from both healthy and

unhealthy gorgonians were also of similar genera. Fungi

isolated were all Deuteromycetes (imperfect fungi) except for

1 ascomycete. The very common genera of fungi isolated

include sterile fungi, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Trichoderma

and Cladosporium. The less common genera include

Tritirachium, Gliomastix, Scolecobasidium and Acremonium.

This study seems to suggest that fungi are not the causative

agent of gorgonian diseases on the reefs in Singapore. They

may simply be the natural flora associated with gorgonians or

saprophytes utilizing the dead tissues found on unhealthy

gorgonians. A continuation of this study may give new insights

into the implications of such fungal associations with

gorgonians and the role they play in gorgonian diseases.

TENTACLE EXPANSION BEHAVIOR OF STONY

CORALS SUGGESTS A LINK TO PHOTOSYNTHESIS

OF ITS SYMBIONTS WITH RELATION TO

ZOOXANTHELLAE DENSITIES.

Levy O.*, L. Mizrahi, D. Iluz, Z. Dubinsky, N. Chadwick-Furman

and Y. Achituv *Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan

University, Ramat Gan 52900, Israel Email -levysher@

netvision.net.il

Three species of corals with different patterns of tentacle

expansion and contraction were investigated. Favia favus and

Plerogyra sinuosa expand their tentacles nocturnally, while

Goniopora lobata remains expanded constantly also during

daytime. When colonies of Favia favus and Plerogyra sinuosa

were exposed to weak (10 and 30 dE m -2 s -1 ) monochromatic

light (400-700 nm, at 20 nm intervals), it was found that

wavelengths of 400-520 nm were the most effective in

eliciting full tentacle contraction within a few minutes.

Contraction also occurred at wavelengths of 660-680 nm, but

only at a higher irradiance level (30 dE m -2 s -1 ). Measurements

of zooxanthellae densities within the tentacles, by confocal

microscopy and flow cytometry (FCM), showed that

nocturnally-active corals have significantly lower densities of

zooxanthellae in their tentacles tissue compared to G. lobata

tentacles. The expansion contraction behavior of stony corals

may be at least partly mediated by the number of

zooxanthellae in the tentacle tissues.We suggest that daytime

expansion of corals with low densities of algae in their

tentacles can lead to a self-shadow on the rest of the coral

tissue which contain denser algae, leading to a decrease in

overall photosynthetic ability.

THE SYMBIOTIC INTERRELATIONS OF

CORALOBIONTS AND CORALS WITH AN EXAMPLE

DECAPODA.

Marin Ivan N.*. Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia.:

Email: ic771inm@ic.dcn-asu.ru.

Classic Crustacea is one of the more diverse components of

ecosystem of coral reef. Total number of crustacea’s species

on Indo Pacific reefs exceed 1200, including 800 Decapods.

Different representatives of Decapoda occupy in different

ecological niches. Being a one of main fodder resources for

filtering and predatoring fauna of fauna, Crustacea composite

20% of zooplankton, macro- and meiobenthos’s species. Some

Decapoda are predators, which occupy a top of food pyramid

of coral reef. Most interesting field of studying Decapoda is

symbiotic interrelations with corals and coral-dwelling

animals. Looked over the spatial localization of ecological

groups of Decapoda to different vital forms of corals, types of

nourishment and ways of getting food, intensity and intimacy

of connections coralobionts and host-coral. Almost all

Decapoda possess adaptations (structural (morphological) and

behavioral ) to the life on the coral reef, which allow them to

move inside coral colony, ability to escape from predators and

hunting. Considering more closely interrelations Decapoda and

other animals in ecosystem of reef allow to study ecosystem of

coral reef more completely.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE SPIROBRANCHUS

CORNICULATUS SPECIES COMPLEX IN PHILIPPINE

CORAL REEFS.

Montebon, A. Rex F.*; and Yap, Helen T.. *The Marine

Science Institute, University of the Philippines, Diliman,

1101 Quezon City, Philippines. Email:

arfmontebon@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

The distribution of the Spirobranchus corniculatus species

complex was studied in 7 reefs over 2 provinces (>300km).

Less than 10 species of corals, which comprised ~20% of the

total encountered, were colonized by the Christmas tree

worms. The massive ones were chiefly preferred over the other

growth forms. This growth form also harbored the most

number of large worms (~adults) in most sites. The degree of

preference, from highest to lowest, is Porites cf. lobata

(massive), Porites cylindrica (branching), Porites rus

(submassive) and Montipora spp. (all massive). Number of

worms seems to be higher in shallower depths but is clearly

associated with the abundance of massive Porites. Orifice

diameter of worm tubes and colony diameter of their coral

hosts was positively correlated (p<0.01). Presence on dead

corals was mostly limited to the larger worms. Apparently,

longevity of coral hosts improves survival of the worms into

adults (~fitness) and that smaller corals appear to be the

preferred recruitment sites. Data also suggest that the obligate

nature of the symbiosis, i.e., Christmas tree worms must

associate with living corals, is temporary and important mostly

in the initial stages of the association..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A23: Interactions

131

SYSTEMATICS AND ECOLOGY OF

PREDATOR/PREY INTERACTIONS BETWEEN

FACELINID NUDIBRANCH PHYLLODESMIUM AND

OCTOCORAL COELENTERATES ON INDO-PACIFIC

CORAL REEFS.

Ortiz, Delisse M.* *San Francisco State University.

Email: delmar22@juno.com

The genus Phyllodesmium is among a unique group of aeolid

nudibranchs that feed on a diverse array of octocorals

throughout Indo-Pacific coral reefs. Previous studies have

traced the evolution and the possible phylogenetic

relationships between the species through adaptations from

symbiosis with zooxanthellae (Rudman, 1981,1991). A

preliminary phylogeny of the genus Phyllodesmium showed a

close relationship among the species when taking into

consideration the structure and arrangement of the cerata,

branching of the digestive gland, position of anus and

denticles on jaw plates. Most of the morphological characters

show a high degree of variability among the species.

Characters like the branching of the digestive gland, size and

structure of the cerata display modifications for the storage of

zooxanthellae. Of the fifteen species described to date, the

majority are known to feed upon and store zooxanthellae in the

cerata. They generally have been found preying upon

alcyonacean octocorals. Among some of the corals they feed

upon are Xenia spp., Briareum spp., Sinularia spp.,

Stereonepthea spp., Acabaria spp., and Sarcophyton spp. The

predator/prey relationship between the Phyllodesmium species

and octocorals is of significant importance in terms of

understanding the ecological interactions and dynamics of

biotic and abiotic aspects of these organisms regarding

evolution. A diversity of nudibranchs store zooxanthellae for

nutrition, and others store zooxanthellae without nutritive

need, but rather to camouflage themselves with the octocoral

they are foraging on (Rudman, 1987).

FATE OF INGESTED NITROGEN IN ANTHOZOAN

SYMBIOSES.

Piniak, Gregory A.*; Lipschultz, Fredric; and Kirby-Smith,

William W. *Duke University Marine Laboratory

and Bermuda Biological Station for Research. 135 Duke

Marine Lab Road, Beaufort, NC 28516 USA. Email:

gap1@duke.edu

For nutrient recycling to occur in reef corals, zooxanthellae

should utilize nutrients from host feeding, synthesize them into

new products such as amino acids, and return these products to

the animal host. Researchers have begun to examine nitrogen

partitioning and amino acid synthesis in corals, but the use of

nitrogen from host feeding has not been addressed. This study

follows the metabolic fate of zooplankton nitrogen ingested by

the sea anemone Aiptasia pallida and the temperate coral

Oculina arbuscula under a variety of nutritional conditions

using the stable isotope tracer 15 N. In all experiments both the

host and zooxanthellae were highly labeled within 4 hours.

Fed anemones retained less label than those that had been

starved, and starved anemones with an inorganic nutrient

supplement did completely compensate for a lack of ingested

food. In O. arbuscula, these differences are seen in the

zooxanthellae but not the host or the homogenate. For both

species, there were no differences between treatments in the

relative distribution of label among biochemical pools. The

ethanol-soluble (low molecular weight) pool is the most highly

labeled after 4 hours, but all biochemical pools are at

approximate equilibrium by 24 hours. This study provides

direct experimental evidence that zooxanthellae can rapidly

acquire nitrogen obtained from host zooplanktivory.

CHARACTERIZATION AND EVOLUTION OF PCP

GENES IN SYMBIOTIC DINOFLAGELLATES.

Reichman, Jay*, Vize, Peter; and Wilcox, Tom. *School of

Biological Sciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin,

Texas, USA 78712. Email: j.reichman@mail.utexas.edu

Most symbiotic and free-living photosynthetic

dinoflagellates photo-acclimate through light-regulated

transcription of peridinin chlorophyll-a binding protein (PCP)

genes. PCPs increase the efficiency with which blue-green

solar energy is made available for photosynthesis. Laboratory

examples of distinctive photo-acclimation patterns of

Symbiodinium species and naturally occurring ecological

zonation of Symbiodinium suggest that various specialized

traits have evolved for different light regimes. PCP genes of

symbiotic dinoflagellates may be selected for as a function of

the light intensity and spectral properties of their habitats, or

PCP gene diversity may be a reflection of neutral substitutions

that occurred in each lineage. In this paper, characterization

PCP genes of Symbiodinium from Hippopus hippopus is

presented, and derived amino acid sequence is compared to

Symbiodinium from Acropora formosa, Amphidinium carterae

and Gonyaulax polyedra. Amino acid substitutions found in

Symbiodinium from H. hippopus PCP are mapped into the

computer rendering of the A. carterae PCP. Comparisons will

be extended to other Symbiodinium cultures with unique PCP

spectroscopic and fluorescence properties and to field samples

collected from the same coral host species through a range of

depths. Evolution of PCP genes in Symbiodinium will be

discussed in relation to symbiont ecology and phylogeny.

DNA EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT MORE THAN ONE

SPECIES OF SIPUNCULAN WORMS IS ASSOCIATED

WITH TWO FREE-LIVING CORALS.

Rotmann, S.* and C. Dudgeon. *Australian Institute of

Marine Science, Townsville, Q-4810, Australia; Email:

s.rotmann@aims.gov.au

Two genera of free-living corals, Heteropsammia and

Heterocyathus, have evolved a symbiotic relationship with a

sipunculan worm, allegedly Aspidosiphon muelleri, which

provides them with transport in exchange for shelter. This

association is well documented but poorly understood, with

many controversies relating to the identity of the partners

involved. The most recent review lumped all previously

described sipunculan species into one (A. muelleri). Because of

differences in the behavioural ecology of the animals a

preliminary DNA analysis of the partial CO1 sequences of the

sipunculan commensalists was conducted. The results show

large differences in DNA sequences from different

sipunculans. However, the differences do not seem to be coral

species-specific. That is, sipunculans from Heterocyathus are

not necessarily different to sipunculans from Heteropsammia.

It is assumed that more than one species, and probably two

genera (Aspidosiphon and Phascolion) of sipunculans are

involved in the symbiotic relationship with free-living corals.

It is also suggested that the two species of corals may not be

specific as to which sipunculan species they settle on as

planulae during the initiation of the partnership..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A23: Interactions

132

FACTORS INFLUENCING DISTRIBUTION AND

ABUNDANCE PATTERNS OF MUTUALISTIC GOBIES

AND SHRIMPS.

Thompson, Andrew R.*. *Department of Ecology,

Evolution and Marine Biology, University of California,

Santa Barbara, CA 93106. Email: andrew2112@yahoo.com

I utilized a geospatial approach to examine relationships

between habitat parameters and distribution patterns of the

fierce prawn goby (Ctenogobiops feroculus) and its obligate

symbiotic shrimp partner (Alpheus sp.) at two spatial scales

within sandy lagoons in Moorea, French Polynesia. At the

large scale, I recorded habitat variables and goby abundance

within a 3x3 m grid at 200 m intervals throughout the north

shore of Moorea. At the small scale, I quantified the same

factors at 10 m intervals within four 100x100 m plots

separated by >0.5 km. Krige-generated image maps of habitat

variables and goby abundance at the large scale indicated that

gobies and shrimps were found in locations comprised

primarily of sand. Image plots at the small scale provided

increased resolution and showed that gobies and shrimps

avoided areas comprised entirely of sand but were found in

microhabitats with a mixture of sand and hard substrate (e.g.,

coral rubble or coral). To elucidate experimentally whether

shrimps/gobies were actively choosing a particular

microhabitat, I introduced one shrimp and one goby to an

aquarium in which the substrate on one half was pure sand and

the other was sand mixed with coral rubble. In 16 out of 16

trials, shrimps established burrows within the coral rubble/sand

substrate. Taken together, results from the field and laboratory

indicate that along the north shore of Moorea fierce prawn

goby distribution and abundance patterns are governed by the

ability of their shrimp partners to excavate burrows.

HABITAT SPECIALISATION IN TRAPEZIID CRABS:

CONSEQUENCES FOR RARITY AT LOCAL SCALES.

Sin, Tsai M. *; and Lee, Ai-Chin. *School of Marine

Biology and Aquaculture, James Cook University, QLD

4811, Australia. Email: tsai_sin@hotmail.com

The distribution and abundance of organisms may be limited

by habitat requirements at a variety of spatial scales. The local

distribution and abundance of the strongly habitat-associated

organisms will be positively related to the amount of habitat

available. This relationship is highly dependent of the extent of

specialisation to particular habitats. We examined the

consequences of habitat specialisation in crabs of the genus

Trapezia at Kimbe Bay, New Guinea. In particular, we

examined predictions that species with wider niche breadths

would a) be more abundant, and b) have a wider local

distribution. The results indicate that habitat specialisation is

consequential in determining patterns of local abundance.

Trapezia species that used a wider range of pocilloporid

(Pocilloporidae) species occurred in greatest abundances. This

pattern was disrupted when crab species specialised on highly

abundant corals. Similarly, generalised crabs were more

common, being found at more reefs than crabs which only

used one or two coral species. These results suggest that highly

habitat specialised organisms may naturally occur in low

numbers in reef communities. This greatly increases their

susceptibility to disturbances that result in habitat destruction.

Furthermore, the loss of these organisms may not be detected

by sampling methods conducted using coarse taxonomic

groupings. The relationship between habitat specialisation and

rarity should therefore be an important consideration in reef

monitoring studies..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A24: Coral Growth

Session A24: Coral Growth

133

STRETCHING: A CORAL GROWTH RESPONSE TO

ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS.

Carricart-Ganivet, J.P. *; Merino, M.. *Depto. de Ecología

Acuática, ECOSUR. Apdo. Postal 424, Chetumal, Q. Roo.

77000. MEXICO. E-mail address: jpcarri@ecosur-qroo.mx

In order to identify common coral skeletal growth patterns,

we analyzed published data on coral growth from four species

of reef-building corals growing at different environmental

conditions: Montastraea annularis sensu stricto (from the

Mexican Caribbean, Southern Gulf of Mexico and St. Croix,

U.S., Virgin Islands), Porites lobata (Great Barrier Reef,

Australia), P. lutea (Thailand), and Siderastrea siderea (Costa

Rica). Data suggest that corals can modulate the way they use

available calcium carbonate to extend their skeletons in

response to environmental conditions. This process can be

quantitatively described as the efficiency in which the

calcification process produces coral skeleton (i.e. skeletal

extension rate / calcification rate). We suggest that as corals

experience a harsher environment they respond by extending

their skeletons to a greater extent, using the same or less

amount of calcium carbonate, with a concomitant reduction in

skeletal density. We have named this “stretching”. In all cases,

the stretching response by corals increased with increases in

environmental disturbance as measured in terms of decreasing

calcification rate and coral diversity, and increases in

continental influence and wave intensity. More extensive field

and experimental research is needed to corroborate this

hypothesis, however, stretching is in agreement with current

knowledge concerning factors and mechanisms that are

involved in coral growth.

GROWTH DIFFERENCES IN PORITES CYLINDRICA

NUBBINS TRANSPLANTED TO MONOSPECIFIC AND

MULTISPECIFIC PLOTS.

Dizon, Romeo M.*; and Yap, Helen T.. *The Marine

Science Institute, University of the Philippines, Diliman,

1101 Quezon City, Philippines. Email:

dizonr@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

The effects of lower versus higher diversity on coral survival

and growth are being investigated in a northwestern Philippine

reef. Nubbins of the branching coral P. cylindrica were

transplanted to twelve 1 m 2 wire mesh grids that were set up

within a marine sanctuary. Six grids contained 30 P. cylindrica

nubbins while the other 6 contained 10 transplants each of P.

cylindrica, P. rus and Pavona decussata. Weight

measurements taken every 2 months indicate significantly

higher growth rates in the P. cylindrica nubbins that were

transplanted to the multispecific grids than those in the

monospecific grids (p<0.05). Results indicate that P.

cylindrica either responds favorably when in proximity to

other coral species by means of rapid growth or is growth-limited

by intraspecific competition when occurring in single

species patches.

GROWTH OF ACROPORA FORMOSA (DANA) AT

SELECTED REEF LOCATIONS IN SRI LANKA.

Jinendradasa, S.S. and Ekaratne, S.U.K.*. *Department of

Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo 3, Sri Lanka.

Email:suki@eureka.lk

The lack of any growth studies on Sri Lankan corals and the

ecological importance of A. formosa prompted the study of this

dominant coral in the shallow reefs (0.5 to 1.5m) at

Hikkaduwa Marine Reserve (HMR) and Roomassala. Growth

was monitored at each location over 1-year using the linear

extension method. Growth increments of 12 individually

tagged coral colonies were measured repeatedly each month, in

situ, yielding growth values of the same colonies. Rough

monsoon seas prevented access to Roomassala colonies over

some monsoon months. Growth of A. formosa at HMR was

0.306!0.0131 (mean!s.e.m, in mm day -1 ) in 1997/1998 and was

not significantly different (t-test, p<0.05) between monsoonal

(0.292!0.0162) and non-monsoonal (0.521!0.1151) months.

Growth at Roomassala (0.330!0.0272) was not significantly

different from that at HMR. At Roomassala also, monsoonal

(0.357!0.0635) and non-monsoonal (0.323!0.0663) growth

were not significantly different. Absence of a significant

difference in growth between HMR and Roomassala (t-test,

p<0.05) and among their monthly growth (Kruskal-Wallis

Test, p<0.05) indicate that A. formosa grew uniformly over the

year at both sites. A. formosa colonies experienced zero and

3.7% mortality at HMR and Roomassala, respectively, and

similar cropping pressure. These growth data are now unique

in that bleaching in April 1998 has killed all A. formosa

colonies in these and other surrounding locations. MacArthur

Foundation and Biodiversity Support Program assistance is

acknowledged.

MODELLING AND ANALYSIS OF GROWTH AND

FORM OF STONY CORALS AND THE INFLUENCE OF

THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

Kaandorp Jaap*, *Section Computational Science, Faculty

of Mathematics, Computer Science, Physics & Astronomy,

University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Email

jaapk@wins.uva.nl

In many stony corals a combination of light and filter-feeding

by trapping suspended material from the environment

is being used as an energy source. In the case filter-feeding

represents a significant part of the energy input, the growth

process is influenced by the local concentration of (organic)

suspended material. The distribution of suspended material is

determined by a combina-tion of flow and diffusion. A

method, the lattice Boltzmann method, for modelling nutrient

distributions in complex three dimensional geometries, caused

by a combination of diffusion and flow, will be discussed.

From the nutrient distributions it is possible to model different

types of growth processes, which are driven by the local

amount of available nutrients. The influence of light can be

represented in a growth model by a three dimensional model of

underwater light intensities. In stony corals growth proceeds in

an accretive growth process, where new layers of material are

being deposited on top of the previous growth layers. A model

for growth by accretion will be discussed. In the accretive

growth models examples will be shown of growth processes

driven by the local available amount of (simulated) food

particles and of growth processes driven by the local light

intensities..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A24: Coral Growth

134

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND STRUCTURAL

DESIGN OF SCLERACTINIAN CORALS.

Madin, J. S.* and Hughes, T. P. *James Cook University,

Townsville Queensland, 4811, Australia. Email:

joshua.madin@jcu.edu.au

A biomechanical approach to sessile organisms in

hydrodynamic environments is imperative for a fuller

understanding of behavioural, ecological and evolutionary

patterns. This study explores the mechanical properties of reef

corals by comparing the strength (compressive and tensile) and

density of skeletal core samples from one branching and three

massive coral species. The staghorn acropora intermedia had

an average compressive strength (dmean=91.78 mnm -2 ) almost 9

times greater than the three massive species (goniastrea

favulus, favia favus and porites lobata). Tensile strength was

significantly less than compressive strength in all four taxa,

with a. Intermedia again being significantly stronger than the

massive species. Significant correlation was found between

skeletal density and strength. Axial and radial density

gradients were detected in the branches of a. Intermedia but

did not occur within hemispherical colonies of the massive

species. Gradients in density are clearly adaptive, allowing for

the efficient use of skeletal resources by strengthening basal

regions of the colony where stress concentrations are highest.

However, in the case of peripheral strengthening (optimising

bending strength), the necessity of polyp interaction with

ambient surroundings reduces the peripheral density, and

therefore colony strength. A better knowledge of coral

biomechanics will be valuable for explaining ecological

patterns in different hydrodynamic habitats and for predicting

colony response to destructive events such as cyclones.

REGULATION OF CA 2+ BY cAMP DURING

SKELETOGENESIS IN HERMATYPIC CORALS.

Mueller, Erich; Allemand, Denis; and Jaubert, Jean.

*Mote Marine Laboratory, Center for Tropical Research,

24244 Overseas Highway, Summerland Key, FL 33042

USA. Email: emueller@mote.org

Several mechanisms are involved in the movement of Ca 2+

from seawater to the skeletogenesis site in reef-building corals.

We have found that channels lie along this pathway, possibly

facilitating entry of Ca 2+ into calicoblastic epithelial cells.

Active transport also occurs along the Ca 2+ pathway, possibly

moving Ca 2+ from these cells into the sub-calicoblastic space

to create CaCO3 supersaturation conditions for skeletogenesis.

Dibutyryl cAMP, forskolin (increases tissue cAMP by

stimulating adenylate cyclase) or D600 (a Ca 2+ channel

inhibitor) reduced intracellular Ca + levels and inhibited

calcification in micro-colonies of Stylophora pistillata. The

evidence suggests that elevated intracellular cAMP acts to

deactivate Ca 2+ channels involved in coral skeletogenesis,

presumably via protein kinase phosphorylation.

GROWTH RATES OF SECONDARY BASAL DISC

(SBD) OF TWO CORAL SPECIES, Acropora grandis

AND A. valenciennesi IN HORIZONTAL AND

VERTICAL POSITION ON ARTIFICIAL SUBSTRATE.

Panares, K.*; Pacifico K.; Heeger, T.; Sotto, F.; and Gatus,

J. *University of San Carlos -Marine Biology Section-Cebu

City 6000, Cebu, Philippines. Email:

fili@mangga.usc.edu.ph

The Secondary Basal Disc (SBD) growth rates of two

acroporid species: A. grandis and A.valenciennesi, in

horizontal and vertical mount positions on artificial substrate

were determined. For each species 20 set-ups were made, ten

in horizontal and ten in vertical mount position in the 2-hectare

coral farm at Barangay Caw-oy (10 o 16’24”N; 124 o 4’10”E),

Olango Island, Cebu, Philippines over a period of ten weeks.

Results showed that Secondary Basal Disc (SBD) growth

followed a trend of minimal growth for the first two weeks,

increased exponentially in the third up to the fifth week and

fluctuated on the last three to four weeks. The species, the

mount position of the fragments and the type of growth as

single or multiple SBD attachments had no effect whatsoever,

on the SBD growth. However, the survival rate was affected

by these three variables. A. valenciennesi , in horizontal mount

and multiple attachments showed higher mortality rate ( )

than A. grandis ( ). In propagating both species, care is

needed for A. grandis during the last weeks while for A.

valenciennesi, for the first two weeks when mortality was

high.

PRELIMINARY RESULTS ON THE EFFECT OF

INDUCED MINERAL ACCRETION ON GROWTH AND

SURVIVAL OF PORITES CYLINDRICA.

Sabater, Marlowe G.* and Yap, Helen T.. *The Marine

Science Institute, University of the Philippines, Diliman,

1101 Quezon City, Philippines. Email:

maloy@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

The mineral accretion technique introduced by hilbertz

(1992) is being tested experimentally for the first time in the

philippines. After four months, results show no significant

differences in growth among control colonies, corals with

induced mineral accretion, and corals without. However, there

is a significant difference in survival. There is higher mortality

in the grids with mineral accretion due to the abundance of

fleshy algae that recruited on the grids during periods of

electrical interruption. This is not the case so far with the

untreated grids. Thus grids with induced mineral accretion

apparently provide a favourable substrate for algal settlement..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A25: Impacts

Session A25: Response to Disturbances and Impacts

135

IMPACT OF TROPICAL CYCLONE 'TESSI' ON

FRINGING REEFS OF MAGNETIC ISLAND,

AUSTRALIA.

Ayling, Tony * and Neale, Stephen. *Sea Research. PO Box

810, Mossman, Australia, 4873. Email:

ayling@internetnorth.com.au

On April 3 2000 Cyclone 'Tessi' passed within 50 km of

Magnetic Island, Australia. Sustained wind speeds of 103kph

and gusts up to a maximum of 143kph were recorded at an

Australian Institute of Marine Science weather station located

adjacent to Magnetic Island. Reef flats and slopes of fringing

reefs in four bays of Magnetic Island were intensively

surveyed using fixed position line transects in the week prior

to the cyclone. These sites were resurveyed two weeks after

the passage of 'Tessi'. Grand mean coral cover over all reef

slopes was reduced by 38% by the cyclone. Other benthic

groups also suffered significantly. There was a 49% reduction

in total algal cover, a 50% reduction in sponge cover and a

40% reduction in soft coral cover. All four bays have a similar

aspect and similar depth ranges. The extent of damage to

benthic communities and reef structure at each bay varied.

Florence Bay was worst effected with a 60% reduction in hard

coral cover while Geoffrey Bay had only an 18% reduction.

Arthur Bay and Nelly Bay sustained intermediate damage with

coral cover reductions of 31% and 45% respectively. Less

damage was recorded at reef flat sites due to the passage of the

cyclone occurring at low tide. All sites were surveyed in

February 1998 immediately prior to a major bleaching event.

Coral cover measured in March 2000 revealed bleaching

related mortality was highest in Florence Bay and Geoffrey

Bay, with Arthur Bay and Nelly Bay having little or no

reduction in coral cover. Reduction in coral cover due to

bleaching was considerably less than that caused by cyclone

'Tessi'. Re-surveys of all sites will occur in June/July 2000.

RESPONSES OF CORAL AND FISH ASSEMBLAGES

TO A SEVERE BUT SHORT-LIVED TROPICAL

CYCLONE.

Cheal, A.*; Coleman, Greg; Miller, Ian; Neale, Stephen;

Osborne, Kate and Sweatman, Hugh. *Australian Institute

of Marine Science. PMB 3, Townsville, 4810. Australia.

a.cheal@aims.gov.au

Manta tows of reef perimeters and intensive surveys of

specific sites were used to assess changes in assemblages of

corals and fishes on a number of reefs following the passage of

a tropical cyclone in northern Australia. Only one reef

experienced an obvious and immediate decline in coral cover

due to the cyclone. Here, mean reef-wide coral cover fell from

24 to 7% while abundance and species richness of adult

damselfish assemblages on intensive survey sites were not

affected despite the removal of 50% of hard coral habitat.

Adult fish assemblages showed a similar lack of response at

three other reefs where no significant habitat changes had

occurred. Ten months later, total abundance of damselfishes

had decreased substantially at 8 out of the 10 reefs while

abundance of larger mobile fishes remained stable. We infer

that the observed effects on coral assemblages were strongly

influenced by the short duration and orientation of the cyclone,

the history of exposure to wave energy (influencing life-form

structure and therefore degree of fragility) and the relative

consolidation of the reef matrix. The lack of short-term

responses of adult fishes to a considerable reduction of hard

coral (on one reef) implies that this resource was not limiting

at the recorded fish densities, and these fishes can endure

periods of intense underwater turbulence. The reasons for

general decreases in damselfish numbers 10 months after the

cyclone remain enigmatic.

A NEW THREAT TO THE CORAL REEFS OF THE

HIKKADUWA NATURE RESERVE, SRI LANKA

De Silva,.R.M.W.N.*; and Rajasuriya, Arjan. *Borneo

Marine Research Unit, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota

Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia Email: arjan@nara.ac.lk.

The Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary recently upgraded to a

Nature Reserve could be taken as an after thought as critical

irreversible changes had already taken place to the area and the

coral reefs before it was declared a sanctuary. Anchoring of

mechanised fishing boats, spillage and discharge of diesel,

kerosene and petrol from boats, irresponsible operations of and

unsustainable number of glass bottom boats, increasing tourist

pressure, pollution, removal of marine organisms including

corals were among the primary causes of reef degradation in

the area. The paper describes a new threat posed to the living

corals of the Nature Reserve by an overgrowth of the

calcareous alga Halimeda. The initial steps taken to contain the

alga in areas of good live coral cover through physical removal

with the assistance of the local community and possible short

and long term strategies to meet this new threat are discussed.

DO WE NEED NEW PARAMETERS TO ASSESS THE

STATUS OF CORAL REEF COMMUNITIES UNDER

CHRONIC AND HEAVY SEDIMENT STRESS?

Dikou A*., Koh M., Chou L.M. *Department of Biological

Sciences, National University of Singapore, 10 Kent Ridge

Crescent, Singapore 119260. Email: scip7318@nus.edu.sg

Coral reefs in singapore have been subjected to chronic

sediment stress mainly due to land reclamation and dredging

for the last thirty years. Community parameters of hard corals

such as species diversity, percent live coral cover, mean colony

density, partial colony mortality, and mean density of recruits

have been assessed in a number of sites with differential

exposure to sediment impact. We evaluated the relative merits

and limitations of each one of the aforementioned community

parameters in assessing the status or health of coral

communities under heavy sediment stress. In an effort to

improve our assessment of one of the most widespread impacts

on coral reef communities worldwide, i.e. Increase in sediment

load, the description of the partition of space by all main

components of the community is essential. Which component

of coral reef communities replaces which under heavy

sediment stress is of paramount importance. For example, the

percent cover by sediments and its change in sites with

differential impact by sediments may be particularly

informative and relevant because it relates both to utilization of

space (pattern) and recruitment (process) in coral communities

in both spatial and temporal assessments. It may also prove to

have meaningful predictive value of the status of coral reef

communities..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A25: Impacts

136

VARIATIONS OF ECOLOGICAL PARAMETERS AT

EASTERN REEF, TOBAGO.

Guppy, Reia *. Institute of Marine Affairs, P.O. Box 3160,

Carenage Post Office, Trinidad and Tobago. Email:

rguppy@ima.gov.tt

Eastern Reef is part of the fringing Buccoo Reef, Tobago

that has been monitored by the Institute of Marine Affairs for

five years through the regional CARICOMP program. The reef

was monitored once a year, and parameters included coral,

algal and sponge growth, fish and sea urchin abundance,

nutrients and temperature. During the first three years of

monitoring, coral, algal and sponge growth showed an upward

trend in the mean % cover, whereas in 2000, there was a

marked decrease except in the mean algal cover. Fish and sea

urchin abundance also appeared to follow similar trends in

2000 as their numbers were noticeably reduced from in 1998.

Although the cause has not yet been determined, additional

data suggests that the cause may be associated with the

1997/1998 El Niño event combined with chronic nutrient-enrichment

stress. Temperature recordings were higher than

normal during 1998, and visual observations in September

1998 on Eastern Reef indicated a severe bleaching event, from

which the corals may not have recovered. Further, nutrient

analysis indicated persistent levels of nutrients that exceed

accepted standards.

ASSESSING CORAL STRESS RESPONSES AT THE

LEVEL OF GENE EXPRESSION.

Morgan, Michael B.*, Snell, Terry W. *Georgia Institute of

Technology, School of Biology, 310 Ferst Drive, Atlanta,

GA, 30332, USA. Email: gt3099b@prism.gatech,edu

Using established molecular techniques, researchers now

have the ability to evaluate coral stress gene response at the

level of transcription providing an opportunity for earlier

diagnosis of a stressed condition. Differential display PCR

was used to identify gene fragments that could serve as

inducible biomarkers of stress from exposure to copper or the

insecticides permethrin and dibrom. Ten-centimeter branches

of Staghorn coral Acropora cervicornis were exposed for 4

hours to Cu 2+ 25ug/L, 1ug permethrin/L, or 0.5ug dibrom/L.

Several differentially expressed mRNAs produced in response

to copper, permethrin and dibrom exposure have been

isolated. The differentially expressed genes were reversed

transcribed to produce cDNAs fragments that were

subsequently isolated, amplified, and developed into probes.

Chemiluminescent detection was used to identify when a probe

annealed to its corresponding target mRNA. Verification of

probe specificity and the elimination of “false positives” were

performed by Northern dot blot analysis. Probe specificity

was further demonstrated by its hybridization to a target

transcript within a matrix of 15 different total RNA samples.

Selected probes were sequenced and 5’ RACE performed to

generate additional sequence information. These sequences

were compared to genes of known function by performing

blast searches in several databases. Differential display PCR

can be used to identify toxicant-induced genes that can serve

as molecular biomarkers for rapid toxicity assessment in

scleractinian corals.

RESISTANCE TO DAMAGE OF REEF CORALS

EXPOSED TO PHYSICAL DISTURBANCE.

Marshall, Paul A*. *CRC Reef Research Centre &

Department of Tropical Environment Studies, James Cook

University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia.

Email: p.marshall@gbrmpa.gov.au

Physical disturbance is one of the most important influences

on the structure of coral populations and communities, yet our

understanding of the factors that determine the response of

individual colonies to physical stress remain relatively poor. In

this study, I examine the factors that determine the ability of

corals to resist physical damage. I tested the resistance of

twelve species of corals by experimental exposure to

mechanical stress, and then related resistance to biomechanical

properties of colonies. Resistance ranged from very high for

species such as Leptoria phrygia, Porites cylindrica and

Porites spp. (0% damage) to low in species such as

Pocillopora damicornis, Seriatopora hystrix and Montipora

sp. (>60% damage). Regression tree analysis indicated a strong

relationship between resistance and colony morphology, based

on only four morphological variables: colony height, branch

thickness, branch spacing and colony area. Contrary to

expectations, skeletal density was relatively unimportant in

determining susceptibility to breakage. This has important

implications for interpretations of the ecological significance

of reduced calcification rates in corals under global warming

scenarios.

METAL TOXICITY IN CNIDARIAN-ALGAL

SYMBIOSES.

Mitchelmore, C. L. * and V. M. Weis. *Oregon State

University, Department of Zoology, 3029 Cordley Hall,

Corvallis, OR 97331. Email: mitchec@bcc.orst.edu

Coral reef ecosystems are being stressed, compromised or

even changed as a consequence of various anthropogenic

inputs, such as heavy metals. Heavy metal toxicity is a

complex process and the interplay between zooxanthellae and

their animal hosts makes assessment of toxicity even more

challenging. Our research is focused on the cellular and

molecular events that prevail before the onset of bleaching,

ultimately to identify specific bioindicators to predict

symbiosis breakdown. The anemone Anthopleura

elegantissima is used as a model for our investigations to

address 1) metal accumulation, partitioning and toxicity to

both the animal and their zooxanthellae and 2) changes in the

gene expression of known “symbiosis” genes present in the

host. A high level of metal accumulation was seen in both

symbiotic and aposymbiotic (symbiont free) animals with

metals seen in both algae and host coupled with partitioning

into “metal rich granules”. Several other measures of metal

toxicity and stress were investigated, including bleaching,

mucus production, levels of the antioxidant glutathione, and

activity of carbonic anhydrase (CA) coupled with changes in

the gene expression (quantitative RT-PCR) of heat shock

protein (70) and known symbiosis-specific genes e.g. CA and

sym32..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A25: Impacts

137

BENTHIC COMMUNITY STRUCTURE VERSUS

NITRATE INPUT AT REUNION (SW INDIAN OCEAN).

Naim, O*. and Cuet, P. *Laboratoire d’Ecologie Marine,

Université de la Réunion, 97487 Saint-Denis messag. Cedex

9, France. Email: naim@univ-reunion.fr

This study documents the impact of submarine groundwater

discharge (SGD), which is considered to be the main source of

anthropogenic nutrients to the reef, on the Saint-Gilles/La

Saline coral reef. A "Principal Component Analysis" (PCA)

made on substrate categories and echinoderm densities

analysed in 17 areas of the reef opposed 2 types of benthic

communities: (1) a first one (ACR) dominated by a living and

diverse Acropora community (mainly A. formosa), with a very

low fleshy algae coverage and high densities of sea-urchins on

the reef flat (Echinometra mathaei and Diadematidae), and (2)

a second one (MAS) consisting of a massive coral community

(mainly Montipora circumvallata and Porites (Synaraea) rus)

in competition with abundant fleshy algae and Cyanophytes,

with few sea-urchins on the reef flat and high densities of

Holothuroids (Holothuria atra) in the back reef. The

corresponding areas clearly separated on a nitrate-silicate

curve plotted from samples taken at low tide in the back reef at

the end of the rainy season. ACR disappeared when NO3 - was

higher than 1.3 µM, and MAS appeared when NO 3

- was higher

than 3.5 µM. Regular back reef water sampling showed that

nitrate was lower (p < 0.0001) at one of the sites dominated by

ACR (0.73 ± 0.62 µM) than at one of the sites dominated by

MAS (3.23 ± 1.93 µM). Therefore, at Reunion, ACR appears

to turn gradually into MAS when NO3 - concentration increases

from 1 to 3 µM in the back reef.

REGENERATION OF A REEF FLAT TEN YEARS

AFTER THE IMPACT OF THE CYCLONE FIRINGA

(REUNION, SW INDIAN OCEAN)

Naim, Odile; Chabanet, Pascale; Done, Terence;

Tourrand, Catherine; Letourneur, Yves. *Lab. d’Ecologie

marine, Univ. Réunion, 97715 Saint Denis messag Cedex 9,

France. Email: naim@univ-reunion.fr

In 1989, high coral reef mortality (more than 99% of coral

coverage) due to hypersedimentation was generated by the

cyclone Firinga on the fringing reef flat of Saint-Leu.

Regeneration of coral, urchin and fish communities was

censused in 1993, 1997 and 2000 (through coral coverage CV,

urchin and fish densities, diversity), on two sites : one under

terrigeneous influence (SLT), and one under oceanical

influence (SLO). Corals were censused along linear transects,

urchins in quadrats and fish along 100 m2 belt-transects.

Following results concern the bioconstructed part of the reef

flat. On SLT, CV increased from 2% in 93, to 11% in 97 and

to 23% in 00, while on SLO, CV increased from 24% in 97 to

53% in 00. Likely, the relative abundance of Acropora

formosa (the dominant species of Reunion reef flats) increased,

on SLT, from 0% in 93, to 23% in 97, and to 61% in 00 while,

on SLO, from 68% in 97, to 78% in 00. Data are still in

process for estimating the evolution of the coral diversity,

urchin densities and diversity during time. The fish density vs

time decreased in SLT (360 in 93, 300 in 97, 260 in 00) and

increased in SLO (910 in 97, 756 in 00). From 97 to 00, fish

diversity increased in SLT (2,77 to 4,35) and decreased in SLO

(3,21 to 2,34). Fish patterns are essentially due to the variable

distribution of the territorial damselfish Stegastes nigricans.

The first results appear to confirm that diversity is higher on

SLT than on SLO, suggesting that this site corresponds to an

“intermediate level of disturbance” sensu Connell.

SIMULTANEOUS AND SEQUENTIAL STRESS FROM

HEAT AND COPPER EXPOSURE ON THE

METABOLISM OF PORITES CYLINDRICA

Nyström, M. * and Nordemar, I. *Department of Systems

Ecology, Stockholm University, Sweden. Email:

magnusn@system.ecology.su.se

This study investigates the physiological response of the

scleractinian coral Porites cylindrica to copper and increased

temperature, when these stressors occur separately and

simultaneously. Relative changes in production

(Pg/chlorophyll a) and respiration (R/cm 2 ) rates, measured as

dissolved oxygen, were used as indicators of stress. The

respiration rate was significantly affected by all treatments,

whereas production was unaffected when corals were exposed

to copper alone. In order to investigate the effects from

stressors arriving sequentially, corals were pre exposed to

increased temperature for 24 hours. After heat exposure, the

corals were allowed to recover for three days before exposed

to copper. In contrast to corals exposed to copper only, both

production and respiration were significantly influenced (a

decrease and an increase respectively) by copper in the pre

heated corals. The results from this study show that several

stressors, arriving simultaneously or sequentially, may have a

greater negative impact on coral's physiology than the same

stressors occurring separately.

STUDIES ON A MARGINAL REEF IN A WOOD-PULP

EFFLUENT PLUME.

Schleyer, Michael H. * , Risk, Michael J. and Heikoop,

Jeffrey M.. *Oceanographic Research Institute, P.O. Box

10712, Marine Parade, Durban 4056, South Africa.

seaworld@dbn.lia.net

Aliwal Shoal, a large reef south of Durban in South Africa,

consists of dune rock partially colonised by corals. It is

heavily used by fishermen and recreational divers, and lies

within a plume of effluent discharged from the marine outfall

of a large wood-pulp factory. User-conflict and environmental

degradation on Aliwal Shoal are presently receiving attention.

Bathymetric and biological surveys were thus undertaken to

provide decision support in developing a management plan for

the reef. During the biological survey, it emerged that

encrusting sponges were most abundant close to the outfall.

Stable isotope analyses were thus undertaken on POM, an

encrusting sponge (Suberites kelleri) and hard coral

(Stylophora pistillata). Stable isotope ratios in the POM were

variable, reflecting their transience and instability. The d

13 C of

the POM (~ -25 o /oo) was slightly higher than that of the

effluent (-27 o /oo, cf. bulk wood) and quite different to that of

typical reef POM (-18 to -20 o /oo). The d

13 C in the sponge and

coral samples was closer to that of reef POM, reflecting the

sponge’s dependence on this food source and mixed

autotrophy and heterotrophy by the coral. There was a

gradient in d

15 N in both the coral and sponge, manifesting a

reduction in terrigenous eutrophication along the reef for

which effluent dilution provided the only reasonable

explanation. The results are discussed relative to the location

of Aliwal Shoal, the effects of the effluent and the suitability

of the technique for further monitoring of biotic responses to

changes in its discharge..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A25: Impacts

138

PHOTOADAPTATION AND PHOTOACLIMATION OF

THE MUSHROOM CORAL FUNGIA SP. IN A TURBID

ENVIRONMENT.

Tun, Karenne P. P.*, Cheshire, A. C. and Chou, L. M..

*Tropical Marine Science Institute, 14 Kent Ridge Road,

Singapore 119223. Email: karenne@nus.edu.sg

The photoadaptive and photoaclimative capabilities of the

mushroom coral Fungia sp. in turbid water conditions were

investigated in situ using an underwater fluorometer (Walz

Diving PAM). Corals along the reef crest and 6m below the

reef crest were studied, and complimentary transplantation of

corals from both depths were conducted. Fluorometric

measurements were made at 3 hr intervals over a 24 hr period

on day 1, 3, 5 and 10 of the experiment. Dark adaptation

experiments were conducted during 2 of the sampling times on

each sampling day. In addition, turbidity measurements using

2 LICOR light meters were made to characterise the water

quality (in terms of light attenuation) at the time of the

experiment. The photoadaptive and photoaclimative responses

of the corals were determined from their fluorometric

parameters (F, Fo, Fm, Fm' and Yield), and correlated to water

quality.

IMPACTS OF INTENSIVE RECREATIONAL SCUBA

DIVING ON REEF CORALS AT EILAT, NORTHERN

RED SEA.

Zakai, D.* and Chadwick-Furman, N. E. *Israel Nature &

National Parks Protection Authority, P.O. Box 667, Eilat,

Israel. Email: dudu.zakai@nature-parks.org.il

Frequencies of recreational scuba diving on coral reefs at

Eilat, northern Red Sea, are among the highest in the world,

with >200,000 scuba dives per year within 3.5 km of protected

coral reef zone. Reefs at Eilat have become degraded in recent

years due in part to the impacts of intensive tourism, but little

data exists on the extent of the damage and connection to

scuba diving. We collected information on rates of scuba

diving at 13 coral reef sites in Eilat during 1996, which show

that some sites receive up to 25,000 dives per year, mostly by

inexperienced divers in training courses or on one-time

introductory dives. Levels of damage to both massive and

branching stony corals are highest at sites with many dives and

lowest at a restricted site where dives are limited. Observations

of diver behavior underwater revealed that they contact corals

approximately 15x per 40-min dive, mostly by stirring up

sediment and fin contact, resulting in several hundred thousand

corals broken by divers each year at Eilat. Some corals, when

fragmented experimentally, significantly reduced their sexual

reproductive output. We conclude that frequencies of

recreational scuba diving are above carrying capacity for reef

sites at Eilat, leading to substantial physical and reproductive

damage to resident reef corals. Management recommendations

to reduce coral impacts to sustainable levels include the

diversion of trained divers to artificial reefs, removal of scuba

training courses from delicate reef areas, and improvement of

environmental awareness levels among recreational divers at

Eilat..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A26: Reef Metabolism

Session A26: Reef Metabolism and Nutrient Cycling

139

COMMUNITY METABOLISM OF CORAL REEFS IN

THE RED-SEA.

Erez Jonathan*, Silverman Jacob, and Lazar Boaz.

*Institute of Earth Sciences, Hebrew University Jerusalem,

Israel 91904. Email: Erez@vms.huji.ac.il

Community metabolism studies were conducted on 4 Red-Sea

reefs using diurnal changes in oxygen and pH, inorganic

carbon and total alkalinity for 2-3 day periods. Metabolic rates

measured at Bullisar Is. (Dahlak), Ras Abu-Galum (Sinai), and

Eilat (1 and 2) were as follows: (all in mmoles C*m -2 *day -1 ).

Pn: -666, -302, -15, 110; Pg: 900, 453, 739, 403; R: 1566, 756,

750, 293; and G: 180, 262, 121, and 41, respectively. Where,

Pn-Net Production R-Respiration, Pg-Gross Productivity, and

G-calcification. These reefs operated in a heterotrophic mode,

i.e. Pg:R<1 (except Eilat2). Plankton depletions from the open

sea towards the reef indicated that excess R over Pg is

maintained by consumption of open-sea plankton. In Bullisar

Island a massive Trichodesmium bloom in the open-waters was

completely consumed by the reef community. High respiration

is accompanied by high calcification rates indicating the well

being of framework builders (mainly corals). In contrast Eilat2

displays a Pg:R>1 and reduced calcification. This was caused

by an increase in nutrient supply due to vertical winter mixing

at the Gulf of Eilat. Fringing reefs of the Red-Sea and probably

other nutrient-poor waters are often heterotrophic, deriving

their nutrients from digestion of open sea plankton. When

nutrient enrichment occurs (naturally or man-made) these reefs

become autotrophic (Pg:R>1) displaying massive algal growth

and reduced calcification. By continuous monitoring of

community metabolism in such reefs, it should be possible to

assess their well being before actual coral mortality occurs.

Preventive management measures may thus be taken to reduce

nutrient inputs and encourage coral calcification.

PRODUCTION AND RESPIRATION IN THE

BIOSPHERE 2 REEF MESOCOSM.

Falter, J.L. * ; Atkinson, Marlin J.; Langdon, Chris. *Dept.

of Oceanography, Univ. of Hawaii, 1000 Pope Rd.,

Honolulu, Hawaii, 96822 USA. Email:

jfalter@soest.hawaii.edu

Nearly continuous measurements of dissolved oxygen in the

Biosphere 2 ocean (Southern Arizona, USA) have allowed us

to monitor changes in the organic metabolism of this reef

mesocosm for the past four years. Rates of Gross Community

Production (GCP) and Community Respiration (CR) vary

between 100-400 mmolC m -2 day -1 and are similar to values

found for other high-latitude reef environments. Mean values

of GCP and CR during the fall and winter are ~30% lower than

spring and summer values. There is a good correlation between

CR and GCP over the length of the time-series (r 2 = 0.6) after

correcting for statistical artifacts. Net Community Production

(NCP) is typically 10-20% of Gross Community Metabolism

(GCM = GCP/2 + CR/2) for all years and all seasons,

however, daily values can be in excess of 100% of GCM.

Furthermore, daily changes in GCP are only weakly correlated

with daily changes in CR (r 2 = 0.3) indicating that production

and respiration are only weakly coupled on a day-to-day basis.

In addition, daily changes in GCP are typically much greater

than daily changes in CR suggesting that Community

Respiration responds slowly to changes in Gross Community

Production. None the less, CR and GCP appear to be well

balanced on seasonal and yearly time scales.

SYMBIOSIS CORAL-ZOOXANTHELLAE AND

PRIMARY PRODUCTION IN THE ROCAS ATOLL,

BRAZIL*

Maÿal, E.*; Feitosa, F.; Ferreira, V.; Sial, A.; Pinheiro, B.;

and Lima, E. *Federal Univ. of Pernambuco, Brazil.

Email: emm@npd.ufpe.br

The Rocas Atoll, NE Brazil, is located in the 3º45’ e 3º56’ S

and 33º37’ e 33º56’ W. Studied species from this atoll are

Siderastrea stellata, Montastrea cavernosa, and Porites

astreoides, from which zooxantella have been quantified. d

13 C

and d

18 O analyses from coral skeletons indicate they have been

suffered strong thermal stress, which resulted in decreasing in

the zooxantella activity. Productivity data indicate this is a

productive environment, whose biomass is greater than

1mmg/m 3 , probably associated to the local avifauna richness.

Oxygen saturation index suggests it is an environment free of

anthropic action. Silicates have higher concentrations than

nitrate, phosphate and nitrite, although contents vary in the

different sampled points. Nitrate values indicate influence of

the avifauna.

FATE OF HMW-DOC AND LMW-DOC IN CORAL

REEF AT MIYAKO ISLAND, OKINAWA: EXPORT

FLUX, DEGRADATION, AND TURNOVER TIME.

Suzuki, Y.*; Casareto, B.E.; Yoshida, K.; Kurosawa, K.

*Dept. Of Biology And Geosciences, Shizuoka University,

Japan. EMAIL: SEYSUZU@SCI.SHIZUOKA.AC.JP

The organic matter and nutrient cycles among the different

organisms support the maintenance of coral reef ecosystem.

Knowing the fate of organic matter within coral reef is a key

point in order to understand the interaction between organisms

and material cycling. DOC, DON and nutrients were measured

in a coral reef at Miyako Island, Okinawa, Japan. Organic

matters are produced by primary production and released by

metabolism or breakdown of living organisms. According to a

biodegradation experiment, DOC and DON were divided into

two categories: labile and refractory fractions. Our results

showed that fresh and labile organic matter concentrations in

coral reef are greater than in open ocean. Dissolved organic

matter (DOM) was divided using ultrafiltration into three

different molecular weight fractions: < 1, 1-10, and > 10 kDa.

The difference of concentrations between day and night was 15

to 22 µM for DOC and 3 to 4 µM for DON. High molecular

weight (HMW, > 1 kDa) DOC and DON increased from 22

µM DOC and 2.8µM DON in daytime to 37 µM DOC and

6.1µM DON in nighttime. These results indicate that HMW-DOM

has been produced during night time throughout

metabolism by coral reef and low molecular weight DOM (< 1

kDa) was almost constant over the day. The C/N ratio of

HMW-DOM increase from day to night was about 4.5,

suggesting that the contribution of coral metabolism to the

increase of DOM in water during nighttime is important..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A26: Reef Metabolism

Session A26: Reef Metabolism and Nutrient Cycling

140

NITROGEN FIXATION AND NITROGEN BUDGET IN

CORAL REEF AT MIYAKO ISLAND (BORA BAY),

JAPAN

Yamada, Koichi*; Suzuki, Yoshimi; *Department of Fine

materials Engineering , Shinshu University, 3-15-1, Tokida,

Ueda, Nagano Pre. 386-8567, Japan Email :

yamada@giptc.shinshu-u.ac.jp

Nitrogen fixation is a key feature in the nitrogen cycle of

most coral reefs. Here, we determined the nitrogen fixation in

coral reef at Miyako Island (Bora Bay), Japan using

cyanobacteria (Phormidium) collected from flat reef rocks and

then the ethylene method. Our results show that the ethylene

concentrations increased after 8 hours of incubation. Our

results also confirm that nitrogen fixation is related to

photosynthesis; assuming that nitrogen fixation occurred 12

hours/day, we estimated the total amount of nitrogen fixation

at Miyako Island at about 7 mol-N day-1, or 2.5 Kmol-N year-1.

Nitrogen fixation is most active in periphyton, which covers

the rubble, dead coral, and flat rocks, as well as in the layer of

coarse Halimeda sand. This relatively small nitrogen fixation

compared with 40~98 mol-N day-1 (Hanson and Gundersen,

1976) is due to the distribution and composition of

biocommunities in the coral reef and to the large amount of

nutrients supplied as nitrate by stream water into Bora Bay.

Contribution of nitrogen fixation is small for a coral reef

enriched by nutrients, such as for a fringing coral reef..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A27: Tridacnids

Session A27: Tridacna and Other Molluscs and Gastropods

141

CONDITION OF GIANT CLAM NATURAL

POPULATION IN INDONESIA.

Ambariyanto*. *Marine Science Dept., Diponegoro

University, Kampus Tembalang, Semarang, Indonesia.

Email: ambari@indosat.net.id

Giant clams (Tridacnidae) natural populations in many part

of Indonesian coral reef ecosystems have been decreasing

sharply. Although, the government of Indonesia have banned

giant clams exploitation, the people from coastal area around

the country, such as in Irian, Jepara, and Makasar, still use

them as a source of food. building materials, household

equipment and souvenir. The target species is not only large

species, such as Tridacna gigas, T. derasa, T. squamosa, and

Hippopus sp., bust since they are getting harder to be found,

the small species such as T. maximai and T. crocea have

become the target as well. Considering this condition,

restocking project need to be done in order to restoring giant

clam natural populations and the Indonesian coral reef

ecosystems.

POPULATION REGULATION OF THE

CORALLIVOROUS GASTROPOD CORALLIOPHILA

ABBREVIATA LAMARCK (CORALLIOPHILIDAE) IN THE

CARIBBEAN.

Baums, I.B. * ; Miller, Margaret W.; Szmant, Alina

M. * RSMAS-MBF, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker

Causeway, Miami, Fl 33149, USA. Email:

ibaums@rsmas.miami.edu

C. abbreviata is commonly found throughout the Caribbean

preying upon 14 species of scleractinian corals. The two major

frame building corals, Acropora palmata (Ap) and

Montastraea spp (M) are some of the preferred prey. Snail

populations show distinct differences on A. palmata compared

to Montastraea hosts including a lower infestation rate, larger

mean individual size of snails but fewer snails per colony,

higher growth rates of snails (Ap snails: 0.1g/3 months, M

snails: -0.01g/3months) but possibly higher predation pressure

on snails, and more visible tissue eaten. The differences in

snail populations can be at least in part attributed to host

effects: snails transplanted from Ap to M show a decrease in

growth rates whereas snails transplanted from Montastraea to

A. palmata show equally high growth rates as the native snails.

Since Montastraea tissue provides more carbon per area

(981±189 mmol cm -2 ) than A. palmata (343±91 mmol cm -2 ) the

nature of the host effect remains unclear. Ap snails of the same

length as M snails have heavier shells (Ap snails: 0.13±0.04

g/mm, M snails: 0.11±0.01 g/mm), an adaptation widely

attributed to higher predation pressure. Across the Caribbean

snail populations show comparable host specific population

characteristics. It is concluded that a mixture of top-down,

bottom-up and snail population intrinsic effects regulate C.

abbreviata populations.

WATER TEMPERATURE INFLUENCES ON

PHYSIOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR IN THREE SPECIES

OF GIANT CLAMS (TRIDACNIDAE).

Blidberg, E. and Tedengren, M. *. *Department of Systems

Ecology, University of Stockholm, Sweden. Email:

michaelt@system.ecology.su.se

Global warming and coral bleaching have been widely

discussed in recent years. An increase in water temperature

could negatively affect giant clam species that also depend on

symbiotic zooxanthellae. These clams are locally endangered

throughout the Indo-Pacific region and therefore cultured in

several Asian countries. The aim of this study was to

investigate physiological behaviour in three species of giant

clams, Tridacna gigas, T. derasa and Hippopus hippopus,

exposed to an increased temperature (ambient+3 ° C for 24

hours). The experiments were performed at Bolinao Marine

Laboratory, University of the Philippines and the parameters

analysed were oxygen net production and respiration, and

calculated GP/R ratios on 24-hr basis. Tridacna gigas had the

highest metabolic rate per mg wwt (including shell) compared

to the other species, also demonstrated as higher production vs

irradiance (P-I curves). Both T. gigas and T. derasa showed a

negative trend in all parameters when exposed to heat,

reducing their total metabolism. Despite this T. derasa

increases its GP/R ratio because of a decreased respiration. H.

hippopus showed a large increase in respiration when exposed

to increased water temperature resulting in a decreased GP/R

ratio. General ecological knowledge is important when

restocking giant clams and the implication of the results from

this study is discussed from a mariculture perspective.

THE GENUS HALGERDA (MOLLUSCA:

OPISTHOBRANCHIA). THE EVOLUTION OF A

COLORFUL INHABITANT OF CORAL REEFS.

Fahey, S.J.* *Department of Zoology, University of

Queensland. Brisbane, Australia 4072. Email:

sfahey@calacademy.org

The opisthobranch genus Halgerda is found only on the

highly diverse coral reefs of the tropical Indo-Pacific. This

monophyletic group of nudibranchs is found from intertidal to

moderately deep waters. While the animals have been found

associated with a complex assortment of invertebrate life on

the reefs, their primary food source is sponges. This taxon is

important in the study of biochemical compounds, ecological

and evolutionary studies. Recent workers have increased the

described number of Halgerda species from fourteen (prior to

1998) to thirty-two at present. Studies of external,

reproductive and radular morphology have been used to

develop parsimony-based analyses of the relationships of the

described species. The evolutionary hypothesis developed by

Fahey & Gosliner (2000) indicates that the genus is closely

related to another tropical Pacific genus Asteronotus. A highly

derived clade is also found in moderately deep water near the

Philippines and New Caledonia. This indicates that the genus

evolved from shallow water into deeper waters. There is

evidence of vicariant events that have separated species of the

genus in the past. Certain sister taxa are found exclusively in

either the Indian or Pacific Ocean. No members of this genus

are found in the Atlantic or eastern Pacific Oceans. Since the

basal members of the genus are found in the Indo-Pacific, it is

likely that the group was never present in the Atlantic or

eastern Pacific, rather than having gone extinct..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A27: Tridacnids

142

REGULATION OF THE ZOOXANTHELLAE-TRIDACNA

SYMBIOSIS BY LIGHT INTENSITY AND

NITROGEN AVAILABILITY.

Grice, A.M.*, & D. Yellowlees. *Queensland

Environmental Protection Agency, 80 Meiers Road,

Indooroopilly, Queensland 4068.

Angela.Grice@env.qld.gov.au

Light intensity and nitrogen availability are two of the most

important environmental factors affecting the symbiotic

relationship between zooxanthellae and their host animals. A

30-d outdoor experiment was conducted on the giant clam,

Tridacna maxima, and its zooxanthellae to investigate the

effects of light intensity (100%, 30% and 10% full sunlight)

and nitrogen availability (50 dM and <1 dM N) on the

metabolism and physiology of the symbionts. Results of this

study showed that zooxanthellae were able to photoadapt

sufficiently in low light conditions to satisfy their own

nutritional requirements for metabolism and growth. The

composition of the zooxanthellae community was regulated by

light rather than nitrogen conditions. Under all light

conditions, overall zooxanthellae populations increased

significantly in response to nitrogen enrichment. In

contrast to the zooxanthellae, the growth of the host clams

under low light conditions was negligible, primarily due to

reduced translocation of photosynthates from the

zooxanthellae. Extremely low glucose and elevated amino acid

levels in the clam haemolymph at low light intensity indicated

catabolism of the host tissues was occurring. Nitrogen

enrichment at low light intensity was detrimental to clam

growth as the zooxanthellae retained their photosynthate for

growth. A generalised conceptual model of the regulation of

the host animal-zooxanthellae symbiosis by light intensity and

nitrogen availability is presented.

EFFECTS OF SHELL MARKERS ON CALCIFICATION

IN TRIDACNIDS.

Mingoa-Licuanan, S. Suzanne* And Bella Sheila L.

Albasin. *The Marine Science Institute, P.O. Box 1,

University Of The Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City,

Philippines. E-Mail Address:

SUZANNE@MSI01.CS.UPD.EDU.PH

The effects of external physical tags (Floy tag and

monofilament-dymo tag) and an internal shell marker (alizarin

red-S) to permanently mark Tridacna gigas were determined

from short- and long-term studies on survival and growth in

tagged juvenile clams, and from analyses of shell and tissue for

alizarin-stained clams. The physical tag was inserted by

drilling the clam shell and plugging with dental curing

mixture. Alizarin was applied by exposing clams to 0, 5, 10,

20 and 30 ppm alizarin either with daily solution changes or

continuous drip for up to 3 weeks. The amount of alizarin in

stained shells was determined by colorimetry. Clam tissues

were preserved in formalin for sectioning. Linear shell growth

was not detrimentally affected by the presence of the physical

tags. Shell growth rates from the drilled hole to the shell edge

were similar for the Floy and monofilament-dymo tags.

Alizarin could be used in short-term growth studies as an

internal shell marker at 10 ppm concentration, with exposure

for about 3 weeks. Alizarin could be used to measure shell

deposition under defined experimental conditions, and more

importantly, to measure total shell deposition, which is not

completely determined using linear shell growth

measurements. The effects of alizarin on clam tissues are also

discussed.

REPRODUCTIVE CONDITIONING OF THE REEF-DWELLING

SYMBIOTIC CLAM Tridacna crocea

(Tridacnidae) USING ALGAE AND DISSOLVED

INORGANIC NITROGEN.

Roa-Quiaoit, H.F.*, Belda-Baillie, C.A. & Gomez, E.D.

*Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines,

Diliman, 1100 Philippines. Email:

rhamq@cdo.philcom.com.ph

To evaluate whether reproductive conditioning of Tridacna

crocea can be facilitated using nutritional supplements to the

animal host and the algal symbionts (Dinophyceae), adult-size

clams were exposed to one of the following treatments: (1)

mixed algal diet of live Isochrysis galbana and Tetraselmis

tetrathele, (2) dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN), (3)

algae+DIN, and (4) control (no conditioning). After three

months, DIN- and algae-supplemented clams had significantly

increased concentrations of protein and carbohydrate in the

gonads, respectively. Lipid significantly increased only in the

algae-supplemented clams. Although there were significant

changes among treatments in the reproductive stages of the

ovary and testis, these were not associated with the changes in

the biochemical composition of the gonads. The duration of

the study and sampling frequency were not sufficient in

assessing the effect of different conditioning on the

reproductive development of the clams.

ECOLOGY OF THE FAMILY VERMETIDAE

RAFINESQUE, 1815 (MOLLUSCA:

CAENOGASTROPODA): DEPTH TRANSECTS IN THE

BUNAKEN MARINE PARK, NORTH SULAWESI

(INDONESIA).

Schiaparelli, Stefano * ; Giada Franci, Silvester Benny

Pratasik & Lalamentik, Laurentius Th. X. * DIP.TE.RIS.

Università di Genova, Corso Europa 26, I-16132 Genova

Italy. Email: isamge1@unige.it

The family Vermetidae Rafinesque, 1815 is a group of

caenogastropods whose taxonomy, biology, ecology are still

far to be adequately understood. Their particular shell is

cemented to the substratum becoming hardly detectable in the

field. Vermetids feed on particulate organic matter and/or

living plancton which are collected either filtering water or

spreading mucous sticking nets on the substratum. In the

framework of the Biodiversity Program some density estimates

along depth transepts (up to 30 metres), mucus samples

collections and vermetid biodiversity assessments were

achieved for some sites in the Bunaken Marine Park (North

Sulawesi, Indonesia). This lead to understand the possible

ecological ranges of five vermetid species (two belonging to

the genus Dendropoma and tree to the genus Vermetus) and to

define their feeding behaviour..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A27: Tridacnids

143

ENDEMISM AND DISPERSAL IN MARINE

MOLLUSKS: EVIDENCE FOR SPECIES SELECTION

AND CLOSED POPULATIONS?

Selkoe, Kimberly A.* *Dept. of Ecology, Evolution and

Marine Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara,

CA 93106 USA Email: selkoe@lifesci.ucsb.edu

Many believe that dispersal strategy has a strong impact on

the behavior of species in space and time. I examined the

relationship of dispersal ability to 3 species-level traits: species

diversity, endemism and population structure. I catalogued the

developmental mode of 1000 benthic, marine mollusks in 184

families and assigned each family a dispersal ranking based on

the fraction of species in the family with pelagic dispersal

capability. I found that families with both pelagic and non-pelagic

species are 3-4 times more speciose than families with

only pelagic or only non-pelagic species. This finding supports

the idea that shifts in development may be a common, rapid

mode of speciation. Selection for local adaptation may lead

planktonic dispersers to give rise to low dispersal forms with

the cost of increased extinction rate. Next I examined the effect

of dispersal on endemism. I used faunal lists from Easter

Island, tropical Australia, and the Hawaiian, Kermadec and

Galapagos Archipelagoes to assess endemism in 135 families

with dispersal rankings. Endemism is significantly higher in

families with only non-pelagic species than in families with

mostly or totally pelagic species, indicating that dispersal

impacts species range. Finally, I investigated the potential for

high dispersal mollusks to have closed populations. Over 200

endemics in the 5 locations likely have planktonic larvae,

evidence that populations with planktonic larvae can be closed

and self-seeded, perhaps with significant frequency.

POPULATION DYNAMICS OF THE SPIDER SHELL,

Lambis lambis (L.) (GASTROPOD:STROMBIDAE) IN

THE RYUKYU ISLANDS, JAPAN.

Ueno, S. * , Mouri, S. and Hamaguchi, K. *School of

Marine Science and Technology, Tokai Univ. 3-20-1 Orido,

Shimizu, Shizuoka Prefecture 424-8610 Japan. Email:

9jofm005@scc.u-tokai.ac.jp

The spider shell, Lambis lambis is one of the most

common species on coral reefs. Though the number of the

snail is not few and the snail is important for marine products,

the dynamics of the species are unclear. Surveys were

carried out from June 1998 to August 1999 at the sea grass

bed in Amitori Bay on Iriomote Island in the Ryukyu Islands

of Japan. The research site (100_100m) consisted of 100

quadrates (10_10m). All the snails in the area were

marked with a tag and painted. The snail were concentrated in

the sea grass bed. Though the number of adult snails was

stable two hundred every month, the number of immature

and the juvenile snails varied monthly and increased from

September to November. This population increase was the

result of snail births during the spawning season ( March to

October ). Snail population depletion was mainly attributed

to predation by another animals, e.g.. Conus marmoratus

marmoratus, Conus textile_and Calappa gallus . The

number of dead snails was balanced in the year by births,

enabling the area to maintain the snail population in status

quo..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A28: Taxonomy

Session A28: Taxonomy

144

SKELETAL MORPHOLOGY OF Millepora SPECIES

FROM BRAZIL, INCLUDING A PREVIOUSLY

UNIDENTIFIED SPECIES.

Amaral, F.D*; Broadhurst , M.K.; Cairns, S.D.; and

Schlenz, E. * UFRPE, Brazil. Email:

famaral@nelore.npde.ufrpe.br,

The aim of this study was to identify the species of

Millepora occurring in Brazil and also to compare the skeletal

morphology of M. braziliensis from Brazil and M. squarrosa

from the Caribbean. Over 100 colonies of Millepora were

collected from various sites along the Brazilian coast. In an

attempt to facilitate delineation between species, diameters of

the gastropores and dactylopores were compared in addition to

other less specific morphological characters. We proposed that

the colonies collected from Brazil comprised four species: M.

alcicornis (33 colonies), M. braziliensis (45), M. nitida (13)

and one previously undescribed species (9). Analyses of

variance of the diameters of gastropores and dactylopores

among the various species showed considerable intra-specific

variability and some inter-specific spatial variation. At the

Abrolhos Islands, significant differences were detected

between M. alcicornis, M. braziliensis and M. nitida for the

mean diameter of the dactylopores, but not the gastropores. In

contrast, significant differences in mean diameter of the

gastropores were detected between M. braziliensis and M.

alcicornis across three other locations. We hypothesized that

M. squarrosa is a species distinct from M. braziliensis,

although the use of molecular systematics may be required to

eliminate doubts about their synonymy.

A PRELIMINARY APPROACH OF THE

PHYLOGENETIC RELATIONSHIPS OF CARIBBEAN

PORITES (ANTHOZOA, SCLERACTINIA).

Beltrán-Torres, A.U.*, Monks, S. *Depto. de Ecología

Acuática, ECOSUR. Apdo. Postal 424, Chetumal, Q. Roo.

77000. MÉXICO. Email: abeltran@ecosur-qroo.mx.

The phylogenetic relationships and the monophyly of the six

species of Porites present in Caribbean waters were evaluated

based on 41 binary and multistate characters derived from

previous morphometric analyses of Central American

Poritidae. The outgroup consisted of six extant species from

the eastern pacific. A Branch-and-Bound analysis of the data

set produced nine equally parsimonious tree topologies, all 145

steps long with a consistency index=0.938, homoplasy

index=0.062, and retention index=0.816. Two clades were

defined by the strict consensus of the nine trees. One contained

all of the Caribbean species except P. astreoides. Porites

astreoides, found in the Caribbean, was placed in an

unresolved clade along with two Pacific species, P.

panamensis and P. sverdrupi. These two clades were

supported in all of the nine trees. The relationships of the other

four Pacific species were unresolved. Interpretation of the

strict concensus tree suggests that Caribbean species do not

form a monophyletic group and that two separate colonization

events occurred. As well, the occurrence of both ramose and

massive colony types in each of the two clades suggests that

either ramose or massive colonies (or both) evolved more than

once. The ability of the analysis to resolve relationships among

members of the ingroup supports the conclusion that

morphological data are a valuable source of information useful

for phylogenetic analyses.

A DISSIMILARITY MEASURE FOR STRUCTURED

DESCRIPTIONS IN NATURAL SCIENCES: APPLIED

TO SPONGE AND CORAL SYSTEMATICS

Conruyt, N. *; Grosser, D.; Le Renard, J. *IREMIA,

University of La Réunion, B.P. 7151, 97715 Saint-Denis,

France. Email: conruyt@univ-reunion.fr

In the natural sciences, the structuring, depiction and

treatment of knowledge can be of great complexity. For

example, in biosystematics, the scientific discipline that

investigates biodiversity, the descriptions of specimens are

often highly structured (composite or specialized objects),

noisy (erroneous or unknown data) and polymorphous

(variable or imprecise data). Consequently, the design of new

symbolic/numeric methods of data analysis which master this

complexity is a challenge for computer science in inductive

learning and case-based reasoning. We present here a

dissimilarity measure well adapted to the purposes of phenetic

classification and identification. The presentation is divided

into three parts: (1) the explanation of our motivation for

designing this new criterion based on the semantic of the

domain emphasizing the importance of acquiring high quality

descriptions through a well designed descriptive model. (2) the

explanation that the measure is founded on the two structural

and local dimensions of descriptions. We put the emphasis on

the structural dissimilarity, with different treatments depending

on the nature of the dependencies between the objects of the

descriptions (i.e. composition versus specialisation relations).

(3) our application of the dissimilarity measure to the IKBS

system to structured descriptions of : 1/ sponge specimens of

the genus Hyalonema and 2/ coral specimens of the family

Pocilloporidæ for different comparison tests dealing with

monothetic (based on a single criterion in decision trees) and

polythetic (based on multiple criteria in comparisons)

approaches. The results show that our dissimilarity measure is

better adapted to the classification and identification in

computer aided systematics, than classical dissimilarity

measures which fail to take into account relations between

objects of the descriptions..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A29: Non Scleractinian Cnidarians

Session A29: Biology and Ecology of Non-Scleractinian Cnidarians

145

THE ROLE OF FISSION AND FRAGMENTATION IN

POPULATION DYNAMICS OF Palythoa caribaeorum.

Acosta, A * . Sammarco, P. *Pontificia Universidad

Javeriana Carrera 7 # 43-82. Depto. de Biología, Bogotá,

Colombia. Email: laacosta55@hotmail.com

Three variants of fission and two modes of fragmentation

were quantified for one year on Brazilian populations of P.

caribaeorum to assess 1) the impact of ramet production on

population growth, and 2) differences in the frequency of these

modes between two contrasting sites (varying in levels of

turbidity, light, and sedimentation); between two depths

(contrasting in light levels); and between seasons (varying in

temperature). 55% of the monitored colonies (nt = 579)

exhibited at least one variant of fission, yielding 1,304 ramets /

year. Fragmentation occurred in only 7.2% of the population,

yielding 64 new ramets. Fission played a critical role in ramet

production and most likely functions to increase population

growth. There was no significant difference in ramet

production via fission between sites, depths, or seasons. There

was no difference in total ramet production via fragmentation

between sites. Ramet production did vary, however, with

respect to depth and season, with a higher number of fragments

being produced in shallow waters, and in the fall, respectively.

MODES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN THE

ZOANTHID Palythoa caribaeorum.

Acosta A * . & Sammarco, P. *Pontificia Univ. Javeriana.

Kra. 7#43-82. Depto. Biología, Bogotá, Colombia. Email:

laacosta55@hotmail.com

P. caribaeorum populations were followed in Brazil for two

years in order to study their asexual reproductive modes. This

species was found to use four variants of fission (Teardrop

Formation -TF, Polyp Ball Production -PBP, Edge Fission -EF,

and Pseudo-Colony Lift-Off -PCLO) as well as two variants of

fragmentation -via partial colony mortality (i.e. disease), and

via physical disturbance. All modes described here for this

species are reported for the first time (PBP is also new for the

Zoanthidea). In TF, tissue grew into teardrop formations,

hanging beyond the edge of the colony and then autotomizing.

In PBP, a small group of polyps (< 9) grew upward and

outward from the upper surface of the colony; after the

coenenchyme connecting neighboring polyps had degenerated,

the new ramet was dispersed. EF and PCLO required the

formation of basal coenenchyme, and then the production and

severing of polyp-groups. EF occurred at the colony edge,

while PCLO occurred at the center of larger colonies. In the

latter, a polyp-group would separate itself from neighboring

groups and the substratum, then lift off and drift away.

GORGONACEA (OCTOCORALLIA:

COELENTERATA) IN THE GULF OF AQABA

(JORDAN) WITH DESCRIPTION OF TWO NEW

SPECIES AND ONE NEW RECORD.

Al-Zereini, Wael*; Al-Moghrabi, Salim M. *Marine

Science Station, Aqaba, 77110 Jordan. P.O. Box 195.

Email: w_zereini@usa.net

The Gulf of Aqaba is one of two appendages at the north tip

of the Red Sea. It embraces highly diverse reef structures of

the fringing type, which represent the most northern latitudinal

distribution of coral reefs worldwide. Nevertheless, scarce

studies have been done on Octocorallia in general and on

Gorgonians in particular. This is the first study that deals with

the identification of Gorgonians from the Gulf. Samples were

collected from five sites along the northern coast of the Gulf of

Aqaba (Jordan). All samples were found in surge-protected

locations, but in zones of some current due to tidal flow.

Morphological characteristics, including color, shape,

dimensions, etc… of each colony were done in situ and in the

laboratory on preserved samples. Furthermore, several

underwater photographs have been made for each sample. At a

later stage, the specimen itself or a piece of it, was used for

detailed study using scaning electron microscopy. Taxonomic

descriptions of these species are based on such closer

investigation of axial structures and sclerite forms. Collected

samples were found to represent seventeen species of

Gorgonacea that belong to eight genera and four families. Out

of these, two new species were identified and described. In

addition, one sample was reported for the first time to flourish

in the Gulf of Aqaba.

EFFECTS OF AXIAL FLEXIBILITY AND STRENGTH

ON PLEXAURA KUNA FRAGMENTATION.

Boller, M. L.*; Swain, T. D.; and Lasker, H. R.

*University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA. Email:

boller@buffalo.edu

For many colonial marine organisms, opposing selective

forces will influence the flexibility and strength of the

organism’s supportive structures. The ability to form asexual

propagules via fragmentation will be enhanced by stiff

skeletons that are unable to shed drag load and by weak

skeletons. Alternatively, flexing and shedding of drag load

may prevent holdfast failure and strength of the skeleton is

needed for support of the colony in the water column.

Aggregations of the gorgonian coral Plexaura kuna found in

the San Blas Islands of Panama are formed via failure at

constriction points in the axial skeleton and variation in the

size of clones suggests that skeletal properties may vary among

clones. We looked at the flexibility and strength of the axial

skeleton of several genotypes of P. kuna to predict if there was

great enough variation in those traits to cause variation in the

rate of fragmentation . Flexibility, measured with Young’s

modulus, significantly varied among clones suggesting that

stiff clones would shed less drag load, be subjected to higher

forces, and have increased rates of fragmentation. The

modulus of rupture, which measured the strength of the

skeleton, also significantly varied. Variation among clones in

flexibility and strength of the axial skeleton, in concert with

axis constrictions, may provide a mechanism through which

selection can act to favor asexual reproduction and clonal

growth..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A29: Non Scleractinian Cnidarians

146

CONTRIBUTION OF STUDIES ON LIVE TO

ESTIMATE HYDROID BIODIVERSITY IN CORAL

REEFS.

Gravier-Bonnet, N*; & Bonnet, Bernard. *Ecomar,

Université de La Réunion, 15 Av. René Cassin, BP 7151,

97715 Saint-Denis Messag Cedex 9, FRANCE. Email:

Nicole.Gravier-Bonnet@univ-reunion.fr

Hydroids represent an important part of coral reefs

biodiversity regarding to species number, large distribution

within biotopes and depth, and varied adaptations and life-cycles.

In litterature, hydroid biodiversity is usually and

mainly viewed through taxonomy based on the study of

preserved specimens and, for the thecates (75 % of hydroids)

on the diagnosis of the single skeleton. Through examples, we

are illustrating here how the observation of living specimens

can modify and greatly improve the knowledge of species and

even contribute to reconsider both diagnosis and classification.

Including the characteristics of the soft bodies (polyps, tissues,

cells) to the description of specimens conduced to question the

synonymy of two species and their possible belonging to the

genus Sertularella; to discover a new type of specialized

polyps, a new nematocyst type for sertularids and jointed

tentacles at base, i.e. three important characters for their

relationship with other families; and to describe a sphincter

structure, new for hydroids, at the polyp base. In situ and

laboratory studies of living colonies of three species of the

genera Rhizogeton, Sarsia and Nemalecium cohabiting into

shrimp crevices, provided new data about the numerous

adaptations shown by these species inside the microhabitat,

either functional or ecological (varied reproductive modes,

diets and microdistributions). Moreover, adhesive tentacles on

the Sarsia medusae, a so far unknown characteristic within the

family, was discovered.

DETERMINATE GROWTH IN OCTOCORALS: WHY

IT AFFECTS CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT AND

REMEDIATION.

Lasker, Howard R. *Dept. of Biological Sciences,

University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, 14260, USA. Email:

hlasker@buffalo.edu

The Caribbean gorgonian Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae is

harvested for the extraction of commercially valuable

pseudopterosins. Therefore, data on colony growth are

important in developing harvest and mariculture strategies.

Colonies develop through the iterative replication of polyps to

generate branches and the iterative replication of branches to

generate overall colony form. This pattern of modular growth

is generally characterized as indeterminate, i.e., colonies

continue growing after reaching maturity. Analyses of the

growth patterns of 261 colonies on San Salvador, Bahamas

over 2 y indicates many aspects of P. elisabethae growth are

determinate in nature. Tributary branches grow to a

characteristic length and then stop growing. Growth of source

branches, measured as either branching rates or branch

extension, decreases as colonies grow/age and varies with

position. The presumption of indeterminate growth among

modular taxa such as corals and octocorals, suggests that

colonies readily recover from disturbance or harvesting and

that colonies can be indiscriminately partitioned to generate

"brood stock" for mariculture. Determinate colony growth

does not preclude either harvesting or mariculture, but it

indicates that assumptions about the resilience of colonies are

probably inaccurate and that species-specific analyses will

usually be required in developing management plans and

mariculture techniques.

DISTRIBUTION AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION OF

THE TROPICAL ACTINIARIAN, PHYMANTHUS

STRANDESI (CNIDARIA; ANTHOZOA; ACTINIARIA;

PHYMANTHIADE) IN SOUTHERN TAIWAN.

Lin, M.-D.*; Chen, C. A.; Fang, L.-S. *Institute of Zoology,

Academia Sinica, Taipei, 115, Taiwan. Email:

mingdoun@ms32.hinet.net

Distribution and sexual reproduction of the tropical

actiniarian, Phymanthus strandesi, was investigated in the

Hsiaoliuchiu Island, southern Taiwan from June 1997 to May

1998. P. strandesi was distributed in the intertidal zone of reef

flat with a mean density (±SD) of 775.9 ± 462.4 m

-2

. The

distribution pattern of P. strandesi was contagious, and

significantly correlated to the presence of seagrasses,

Thalassia hemprichii and Halodule uninervis. P. strandesi was

a dioecious actinarian with the mean pedal disc diameter of

0.32 ± 0.11 cm. Most of the anemones examined in this study

were reproductively inactive, and their sizes were significantly

smaller than those of males and females. The mean fecundity

and gonad index were 294 and 14.1%, respectively. The

released eggs were 500 to 560 dm in diameter. Gametogensis

examined by paraffin section did not show seasonal variation

among the monthly samples, suggesting that P. strandesi

might reproduce continuously throughout the year. Although

small body size confined the fecundity, large eggs, continual

gametogensis, and contagious aggregation might ensure the

success of sexual reproduction and recruitment of P. strandes

in the seagrass bed of reef flat.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GORGONIAN

ASAMBLAGE ABUNDANCE AND BODY SIZE IN

CARIBBEAN CORAL REEFS.

Rodriguez-Lanetty Mauricio, Mauricio*, Freddy Losada.

*Centre for Marine Studies. University of Queensland. St.

Lucia QLD 4072. Australia. Email:

m.Rodriguez@mailbox.uq.edu.au

Studies of the relationship between body size and animal

population density has been an issue of active research in the

last two decades, especially for terrestrial and non-sessile

animals. All these studies have found a negative linear

relationship between abundance and body size. Several

interpretations of the power value that population density

scales with body size are being based on the energy flow

within animal assemblages. In this study, we examined and

compared the relationship between population density and

body size in assemblages of gorgonians (Octocorallia) in two

coral reefs located on the central coast of Venezuela, to answer

two questions: (1) What form does the relationship between

body size and abundance within gorgonian assemblages

usually take? (2) Is body size a good predictor of gorgonian

abundance? A negative relationship between log body size and

log population abundance was found for both assemblages and

sites studied. Moreover the same amount of variance (40%) in

abundance for both sites is explained by the body size. The

regression slopes were similar for both sites (scaling at – 0.23),

which were different and much lower to those reported so far

for non-sessile animals. This difference could be associated to

the well-known ecological differences between marine sessile

animals and non-sessile terrestrial animals. The explanation for

the relationship found in this study is uncertain at this early

stage. Future work is required to corroborate this finding.

However, we state some possible hypothesis and explanation

based on the ecological properties of coral systems..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A30: Community Structure

Session A30: Coral Reef Community Structure

147

FACTORS CONTROLLING CORAL REEF

COMMUNITY STRUCTURE IN THE SHALLOW RED

SEA REEFS OF MASSAWA (ERITREA).

Ateweberhan, M.*; Bruggemann, J.H.; and Breeman,

A.M. *Department of Marine Biology and Fisheries,

University of Asmara, P.O. Box 1220, Asmara, Eritrea.

Email: mebrahtu@marine.uoa.edu.er

Hard coral and reef algal distribution were investigated for

18 months for four stations in two sites in the shallow reefs of

Massawa (Eritrea). Corals are limited to lower zones and their

distribution in shallow areas is controlled by extreme

environmental conditions in the hot season (south-western

monsoon) and competition by reef algae in the cold season

(north-eastern monsoon). Upper zones are dominated by

different algal functional groups and the community structure

reflects inter-group competition for un-partitioned resources in

temporal and spatial scales.

THE NEW HARD CORAL RESOURCES OF ORISSA

COAST

Bapuji, M.*, Sree, A., Vimala, A. and Choudhury, S.

*Regional Research laboratory, Bhubaneswar, PIN 751

013, India Email: mbapuji@email.com

About one hundred years back, twenty sponges were

collected by dredge from Orissa (Bay of Bengal) coast.

Thereafter, there was no report on the occurrence of any

sedentary fauna in this coast. During the past ten years,

following certain tell-tale signals, systematic geophysical

scanning of the sea bottom, SCUBA diving, under water video

documentation and collection of the live specimens was

carried out. The study revealed for the first time the

distribution of nine species of scleractinian hard corals. Two of

them occur in considerable quantities : the foliaceous

Mycedium elephantotus, is spread over 2 X 0.2 km area in the

southern end of Orissa coast. Video-documentation of this

species shows probable active, biogenic reef build up. The

encrusting coral, Cladangia exusta, which was so far reported

only from Cochin on the west coast of India, is now found to

occur extensively near Dhamra mouth, in the Northern Orissa

coast. Except these two, the rest of the corals are found to be

widely distributed all along the newly found lineations at 30m

depth. These findings are important in view of (1) the

occurrence of other, non-sedentary, unique, endangered marine

resources of this coast like Olive Ridley turtles and the Blue

crab (2) the increasing industrial activity and the Human

needs.

DISTRIBUTION AND DIVERSITY OF CORAL

COMMUNITIES IN THE ABROLHOS REEF

COMPLEX, BRAZIL.

Castro, C.B*; Segal, Bárbara; and Pires., Débora O.

*Museu Nacional/Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro,

Departamento de Invertebrados, Quinta da Boa Vista, s/n,

São Cristóvão, 20940-040, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil. E-mail:

cbcastro@pobox.com

The Abrolhos Reefs Complex is located on a broadened area

of the Brazilian continental shelf. The most complete

description of these reefs was undertaken in the 60s by Jacques

Laborel. Based on descriptive data, he suggested that the

diversity of reef communities in the Abrolhos Reef Complex

rose with increasing distance from the mainland. This

assumption was tested using quantitative and semi-quantitative

data to descrithe diversity of communities and the distribution

of key species. Five point intercept transects (10 m long; 250

data points each) were laid over three reef pinnacles (tower-like

patches) in each of three reef areas located with

increasingly greater disce from the mainland. Shannon’s

diversity and Heip’s evenness indices increased for reefs with

increasing distance from shore, in accordance to Laborel’s

general assumption. This occurred mostly because of the

overwhelming dominance of Palythoa caribaeorum coverage

in areas closer to shore. Non-metric MDS plot showed

transects of the two reef areas closer to the mainland clustered

together, while those of the furthest reefs were scattered aside

from this cluster. Visual estimates and a grading system (ra

sparse, common, 1-5% bottom coverage, 5-25%, 25-50%,

>50%) were used to evaluate a larger number of areas

distributed all over the Complex. Most species are widespread

throughout the Complex. However, mapping of the grades of

each species at each site wed that reefs areas varied in species

abundance and/or occurrence.

POPULATION STRUCTURE OF MUSHROOM

CORALS (FUNGIIDAE) IN THE NORTHERN RED SEA.

Goffredo, S.*; and Chadwick-Furman, N. E.

*Dipartimento di Biologia Evoluzionistica Sperimentale,

Università degli Studi di Bologna, Via F. Selmi 3, I-40126

Bologna, Italy. Email: sgoff@tin.it

Population dynamics of scleractinian corals are difficult to

model due to complex processes that alter the correlation

between size and age (i.e. fragmentation and fusion of

individuals or colonies). In certain solitary forms, for example

in mushroom corals, these processes are rare and if they occur,

are clearly recognizable. In these corals, age and size may be

correlated, and it is possible to apply classic population

dynamic models. The demography of Ctenactis echinata,

Fungia scutaria, F. fungites and F. (Danafungia) spp. was

analyzed on a coral reef at Eilat (Israel). Through identification

of the cohort sizes, we estimated growth parameters and

mortality rates of the coral populations. The four taxa show

different demographic traits, which relate to their relative

depth distributions. Species with individuals that occur mainly

in shallow waters (F. scutaria and Ctenactis echinata) show

the highest mortality and growth rate. In particular, members

of the species that is limited mostly to the reef flat (Fungia

scutaria) have a population structure characterized by a great

quantity of young individuals, in part asexually generated. This

high rate of recruitment could be fundamental to the survival

of F. scutaria polyps in this frequently disturbed reef habitat.

In conclusion, our results indicate a relationship between the

type of reef habitat occupied and the demographic

characteristics of mushroom corals on a fringing reef in the

northern Red Sea..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A30: Community Structure

148

CORAL POPULATION DYNAMICS IN THE

SOLITARY ISLANDS MARINE PARK.

Harriott, Vicki J. * ; Smith, Stephen D.A. *School of

Resource Science and Management, Southern Cross

University, Lismore, NSW (Present address: CRC Reef

Research Centre, James Cook University, Townsville,

4811. Email: vicki.harriott@jcu.edu.au

The population dynamics of coral communities have rarely

been studied in subtropical coral communities, despite

hypotheses that such communities may be subject to more

variable mortality and recruitment rates than tropical coral

reefs. In the Solitary Islands Marine Park (30 o S), changes in

cover of coral and other biota in mapped fixed quadrats were

recorded at three island sites at approximately annual intervals

between 1993 and 1998. At two of the sites, coral cover was

relatively stable over time and ranged between 30% and 35%

cover over the five years. At the third and most inshore site on

the coastline at Coffs Harbour, coral cover approximately

doubled during the study period, from 10% to 20% cover. For

all times pooled, coral recruitment rates averaged 1.3 to 2.0

recruits /m 2 /year, while mortality rate was 1.2 corals recruits

/m 2 /year. Recruitment rate was strongly correlated with

mortality rate for different taxa. Pocillopora damicornis

contributed about 50% of the population turnover, but only

23% of the coral cover at the three sites. Principle causes of

coral mortality during the period were localised storm damage

and overgrowth with worm tubes.

RECRUITMENT AND SURVIVAL RATE IN YANBU

CORAL REEF.

Joseph, P.S.*; & Sy, Jaime C. *Former Project Manager,

Environment Monitoring Project, Royal Commission for

Jubail & Yanbu, Saudi Arabia. Email: dilu@eth.net

A coral recruitment study in Yanbu coral reef (Red Sea)

aimed at measuring the standing crop or biomass accumulation

was conducted at three monitoring sites to ascertain the factors

affecting coral survival. The percentage cover of bare space,

sediment, fleshy algae and crustose coralline algae and the

number of other settling organisms on settling plates were

recorded. The Shannon diversity indices for the inner protected

surfaces of the plates at the less stressed Control station

appeared to be more diverse. The species diversity on the

unprotected plate surfaces at SE End was greater than of the

other stations. Coralline algae were more abundant on the

unprotected plate surfaces at all depths and stations. About 42

–50% of the plates exposed at Control and SE End stations

were recruited by corals, with 25 –30% at Gap station. The SE

End had more coral recruits, with 99 individuals at 5m and 127

at 10m depth, Gap station with the least number of 10 at 5m

and 23 at 10m depth, Control station with 61 at 5m and 36 at

10m. The protected plate surfaces at 5-m depth had more coral

recruits at all stations. The majority of coral recruits at SE End

were over grown by fleshy algae and had a very low survival

rate. The chances of survival were even less at Gap station.

The critical factors on larval attachment and metamorphosis

and the local environment that influenced the coral recruitment

were discussed.

NEIGHBORHOOD EFFECTS ON GROWTH AND

SURVIVAL OF PATCH-FORMING STONY CORALS IN

LOOSE SEDIMENT COMMUNITIES.

Licuanan, Wilfredo Y. *. * Biology Department, De La Salle

University, 2401 Taft Avenue, Manila 1004 Philippines.

Email: licuanan@edsmail.com.ph

Reciprocal cross transplantation experiments were performed

to assess the role of interspecific competition and local

environmental effects on the formation and maintenance of

monospecific stands of stony corals, Anacropora

puertogalerae and Acropora subglabra, found on

unconsolidated reef substrates. Acropora subglabra appeared

superior to A. puertogalerae in terms of digestive interactions.

Despite this, A. subglabra experienced higher mortality rates

when transplanted into A. puertogalerae patches (the cross

transplant treatment for the former). However, branch

extension rates of A. subglabra did not differ among the

control, transplant (handling) control, cross transplant, and

release (colonies moved into areas naturally devoid of coral)

treatments. Anacropora puertogalerae cross transplants and

release colonies, on the other hand, had significantly lower

branch extension (growth) rates when compared to controls but

spread rapidly. These results may be due to the reduced water

flow and sedimentation regimes found in the A. puertogalerae

patches, which allowed the latter species to overcome the

digestively superior A. subglabra. Thus, within-zone

distributions of these corals may be determined by interactions

among neighboring colonies, but the outcomes of these

interactions depend on changes in the physical environment

brought about by the presence of the corals themselves.

CNIDARIAN COMMUNITY STRUCTURE ON BEACH

ROCK IN SANTA CRUZ, ARACRUZ, ESPÍRITO

SANTO, BRAZIL

Longo, L.L.*; Rosso, S.; & Schlenz, E. *Depto de Zoologia,

IB/USP, São Paulo, SP, Brazil, CP:11461, CEP: 05422-970.

Email: lllongo@ib.usp.br

Most studies on benthic communities take into account

faunistic composition and taxonomy. Nowadays there is a

trend towards working with a wider methodology, that supplies

more information on community structure. The present work

aimed at finding out the composition, abundance and space-time

dispersion of a beach rock cnidarian community at the

“Estação de Biologia Marinha de Santa Cruz”, Aracruz, ES

(20 0 S 40 0 10’W). The pools were called erosion pools and

constituted the sampling units. Randomly located 30 sampling

units were studied, using the point quadrat method to measure

substratum coverage, every 2 months during the period from

May-94 to Feb-95. This resulted in a space-time matrix with

35 species and sediment covers, and 180 sampling units. An

environmental factors matrix was also constructed. According

to sand bottom coverage the classification and ordination

analysis pointed to two homogeneous strata. The most

abundant species were the zoanthids Palythoa caribaeorum

(mean coverage between 86,5% and 50,8%) and Zoanthus

sociatus (mean coverage between 21,63% and 4,62%). They

occurred on both strata however, Palythoa caribaeorum was

more abundant on hard bottoms, and Zoanthus sociatus more

so on sandy bottoms. Other Cnidaria species were registered,

but less abundant, and with restricted dispersion. Composition,

abundance and dispersion of organisms did not show any

seasonal variation during all the study period. These data

provided reliable informations for further studies on

environmental impact on beach rocks..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A30: Community Structure

149

THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE BENTHIC FAUNA OF

THE SUVA AND NADI LAGOONS (FIJI).

Mohammed, Shirley*. *Marine Science

Programme,University Of The South Pacific. P.O.Box

1168, SUVA.FIJI.

Email: S95007500@USP.AC.FJ.

Fiji Islands are amongst tropical ecosystems subject to

increasing anthropisation. Although of cultural and economical

importance to human populations, the reef complex is quite

poorly known, especially when dealing with soft bottom

substrata. This research identifies taxa of benthic communities

in lagoon sediments and describes community structure, and

highlights functioning patterns, including effects due to

anthropic disturbances. Comparison with environmental

variables of sediment (grain size, organic composition) and

variables related to benthos (taxonomic richness, abundance,

biomass) lead to identification of the nature and intensity of

disturbances. Research work involved the collection of grab

samples (Smith McIntyre) from stations located in Suva and

Nadi lagoons (FIJI), using global positioning system (GPS). A

preliminary study carried out on 10 stations from the Suva

lagoon showed that abundance and taxonomic variables were

influenced by increasing anthropic disturbances. The

dominance of deposit feeder populations was apparent in

impacted areas. Polychaetes and, mollusc, to a lesser extent are

good indicators for disturbance in the coastal system. The

polychaetes capitella sp. (Polychaete: Capitellidae) and

cossura sp. (Polychaete: Cossurridae) are used as indicator

species for disturbed areas.

PATTERNS OF RARITY IN HERMATYPIC CORALS

OF THE EASTERN PACIFIC.

Reyes Bonilla, Héctor*. *University of Miami. Rosenstiel

School of Marine and Atmospheric Science. Division of

Marine Biology and Fisheries. 4600 Rickenbacker

Causeway. Miami, FL 33149. U.S.A. Email:

hreyes@rsmas.miami.edu

Rarity is a concept applied to taxa that have a restricted

distribution range and are prone to local extinction. It is

important from the conservation point of view but it has been

rarely investigated in marine communities. The objective of

this work was to look for patterns of rarity in the hermatypic

coral fauna of the eastern Pacific region. The research was

supported by a database including all coral species known and

the localities where they were observed. A total of 44 species

of reef corals have been reported for the western coast of the

Americas and of these, 7% are regionally extinct and 11%

have disappeared from specific localities. Taken in account the

extinct species and those that have been observed only in one

or two sites, 19 coral species from the region can be

considered as rare. They are prevalent in the families

Acroporidae, Faviidae and Poritidae and scarce in

Siderastreidae and Agariciidae. In relation to geographic

location, 74% of the rare species are restricted to oceanic

islands, espacially the Revillagigedos, Clipperton and Easter.

Rarity is also linked to characters correlated with a

predominantly asexual mode of reproduction like

hermaphroditism, and ramose, free-living and foliose

morphologies. The eastern Pacific region have a high

percentage of coral taxa with propensity to be extinct due to

their rareness, and its faunal composition should be considered

as unstable. It is presumable that populations of these

uncommon species have a limited ecological role in this

region, but some of them may actually be suffering speciation.

SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF JUVENILE CORALS IN THE

MEXICAN CARIBBEAN.

Ruiz-Zárate, M.A.*; Hernández-Landa, R.C.; Arias-González,

E. *CINVESTAV, km 6 antigua carretera a

Progreso, A.P. 73 Cordemex 97310, Mérida, Yuc., México.

Email: mruiz@kin.cieamer.conacyt.mx

During the 1999 AGRRA surveys of 8 reefs in southern

Quintana Roo, México, small (<2 cm max. diameter),

naturally-occurring, stony corals, presumed to be juveniles,

were counted in 0.0625 m 2 quadrats (N = 1,747) at ~10 m on 3

sites/reef. 21 taxa were identified (10 scleractinians each to

species and genus and 10 scleractinians each to just genus, 1

milleporine species). The richness and density of juvenile taxa

were significantly different at the Sector (75-80 km) and reef

(20-30 km) scales; only density differences were significant at

the Site (0.9-1 km) scale. In three-levels nested ANOVAS, the

Site level contributed the greatest proportion (51.87 %) of the

variance for the richness of juvenile taxa, whereas the variance

among taxa (89.76%) overwhelmed any geographic

differences in their density. Three coral genera (Agaricia >

Siderastrea > Porites) were the most important (Sanders’

biological index) in terms of relative abundance and the

highest frequencies of occurrence (at 88%, 88%, 79% of the

sites, respectively) at 10 m depth. However, the significant

differences among spatial scales found in taxon richness and

density suggest that regulatory mechanisms differentially

modify the composition and survival of coral recruits on these

reefs.

THE FLOWER GARDEN BANKS – THRIVING REEF

SYSTEMS IN THE NORTHWESTERN GULF OF

MEXICO.

Schmahl, George P.*; Hickerson, Emma L. *Flower

Garden Banks NMS, 216 W. 26 th Street, Ste. 104, Bryan,

Texas, USA. Email: george.schmahl@noaa.gov

The Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary

encompasses the northernmost coral reefs on the North

American continental shelf. Located 107 miles south of the

Louisiana/Texas border in the northwest Gulf of Mexico, the

reefs thrive despite being nestled in the middle of one of the

world’s most productive oil and gas producing fields. The

healthy reefs survive precariously at the fringe of coral’s

biological and physiological requirements. The low diversity

and high coverage of the corals make for an impressive show

of mass spawning, as well as provide habitat for resident and

seasonal populations of reef fish, invertebrates, elasmobranchs,

and sea turtles. Since the early 1970’s researchers have been

travelling far offshore to study this unique area, as well as to

initiate the long term monitoring efforts, which continue today.

During the 1990’s scientists have looked to the Flower

Gardens as a healthy coral reef system to help answer

questions pointing to the decline of coral reefs around the

world. Sanctuary personnel use modern techniques to manage

and protect the site. Projects supported by the Sanctuary office

include: satellite tracking of threatened loggerhead sea turtles;

genetic studies of reef fishes, corals, and algae; identification

and habitat use assessment of manta rays; population age

structure of two species of reef fishes; and several mass coral

spawning investigations. This site continues to provide

scientists opportunities for discovery..9ICRS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE A30: Community Structure

150

DYNAMICS OF JUVENILE CORAL POPULATIONS IN

THE NO-TAKE ZONES OF THE FLORIDA KEYS.

Smith, S.R.*; Webster G.; Grayston L.; Stanley A.M.;

Hellin D.C. *Bermuda Biological Station for Research, 17

Biological Station Lane, Ferry Reach, St. George’s GE 01,

Bermuda. Email: robbie@sargasso.bbsr.edu

Juvenile coral populations in large permanent photo-quadrats

at six shallow and six deep reef sites in No-take Specially

Protected Areas (SPA) and reference areas in the Upper and

Lower Keys were surveyed visually and photographed in June

1998 and June 1999. Hurricanes Mitch and Georges affected

the sites in fall 1998. Five of the six shallow sites displayed

unusually high rates of juvenile mortality (35-60%), compared

to historical data (15-25%) from the Keys and may be an effect

of the 1998 hurricanes. Deep sites in the Upper Keys had

higher juvenile coral mortality rates (40%) than deep sites in

the Lower Keys (25%). The Lower Keys deep sites exhibited

the highest levels of juvenile coral recruitment (8-10 m -2 )

compared to the Upper Keys deep sites (2-3 m -2 ). The

recruitment rates were low and fairly consistent at all shallow

sites (2-3 m -2 ). No consistent differences in recruitment and

juvenile coral mortality rates were noted between the No-take

and reference sites.

WHICH FACTORS STRUCTURE CORAL

POPULATIONS OVER REEF SLOPES?

Vermeij, M.; and Bak, R.P.M.*. *Netherlands Inst. for Sea

Research (NIOZ), P.O.Box 59, 1790 AB Den Burg, The

Netherlands, Email: rbak@nioz.nl

The distributional patterns of six species of the coral genus

Madracis, over a reef slope (5-60m), shows: Firstly that all

size frequencies are species specific and, secondly, that species

specific size frequencies do not change with depth. While

species size frequencies remain identical there are significant

changes in abundance of colonies with changes in

environmental factors (light, temperature and sedimentation)

over the reef slope. These changes are not linearly related with

depth. Light is an important environmental factor structuring

coral populations. There are structural and positional

adaptations. At 30m (xx % surface light) positional adaptation

is no longer possible for 3 species, 2 species reach peak

abundance and 2 species only occur beyond this depth.

The similarity of size frequency distribution for each species

over depth shows that life histories respond similarly to a

broad range of interacting environmental factors. However, at

the outer limits of a species’ distribution populations show

characteristic changes. Descriptors of size-frequency data

showed that in these marginal habitats populations are

characterised by relatively large and equally sized colonies.

Size frequencies of these populations are skewed to the left

after log-transformation and gini-coefficients are low (0.2-0.3).

The average colony size, after range-standardising the original

size data, is a new size-independent determinant to see whether

populations occur in marginal habitats. This technique may be

useful to assess other coral populations for their fitness to local

circumstances.

TEMPORAL SHIFTS IN COMMUNITY STRUCTURE

OF LITTLE AFRICA PATCH REEF, DRY TORTUGAS,

FLORIDA: INFLUENCE OF ACROPORA MASS

MORTALITY.

Weaver, D.C.* and Funicelli, Nicholas. *U.S. Geological

Survey, Biological Resources Division, Gainesville, FL,

USA. Email: doug_weaver@usgs.gov

Trends in benthic invertebrate and fish community structure

of the Acropora zone of Little Africa Patch Reef, Dry

Tortugas, FL were surveyed from 1995 to 1999. Shifts in live

coral coverage and fish communities in the A. cervicornis zone

were pronounced after an episode of mass mortality between

the 1995 and 1997 surveys. Percent cover of live corals in the

staghorn zone declined from 13% in 1995 to 1% in 1997, 0.4%

in 1998, and 0.1% in the 1999 survey, while live coral cover

on a nearby Montastrea zone remained relatively high from

1995 to 1998 (15 to 24%). During this period, a shift in reef

fish community structure and overall increase in reef fish

abundance was observed, becoming numerically dominated by

parrotfishes (Scaridae) and grunts (Haemulidae). A decline in

territorial behavior by damselfish and subsequent increase in

reef visitation by grazing parrotfishes is likely to exacerbate

the low recolonization rates of A cervicornis. The increase in

abundance of grazing fishes on the A. cervicornis reef at Little

Africa may be a contributor (in addition to low temperature

mortality and coral disease) to the cycles of Acropora

abundance throughout the Dry Tortugas that has been observed

during the past century.

COMMUNITIES OF CORAL REEF CAVITIES IN

JORDAN, GULF OF AQABA (RED SEA).

Wunsch, Mark *; Al-Moghrabi, Salim M.; and Kötter, Iris.

*Center for Tropical Marine Ecology, Fahrenheitstr. 1,

28359 Bremen. Email: mwunsch@uni-bremen.de

Cavities are a ubiquitous feature of coral reefs offering a

large substrate to benthic organisms. Due to their small size

very little is known about the communities lining their walls.

Using the video-endoscopic CaveCam we investigated the

community composition of coral reef cavities in a Red Sea

fringing reef. Cavities measuring 0.2-0.6 m in diameter and

1.25-1.75m in length were studied at a depth between 2-20 m.

From 1400 close-up images a total of 274 macrobenthic taxa

were distinguished covering 57.7 % of the substrate. Algae

constituted 52.4% of the living cover. The fauna cover

consisted mainly of sponges (15.9 %), polychaete crusts (5.6

%), scleractinian corals (2.2 %) and ascidians (1.8%). Algal

cover decreased from 60 % at the cavity entrance to below 20

% at 0.75 m distance from the entrance. Conversely faunal

cover increased from less than 20 % near the entrance to up to

40 % within the cavities. Light and water flow were the main

factors governing the zonation within cavities, whereas water

depth and water flow determined the community differences

between cavities..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B1: MPAs

Session B1: Designing Effective Coral Reef MPAs: Lessons Learned from Across the

Sciences Around the World

151

SITE SELECTION CRITERIA AND CONSTRAINTS

FOR MPAS.

Agardy, Tundi *. *Conservation International, 2501 M St.

NW Washington, DC 20037 USA. Email

t.agardy@conservation.org

Marine protected area design and implementation has

entered a new phase of sophistication as more rigorous

approaches to protected area planning have emerged, and as

experiential learning across several decades has increased.

Certain scientifically-rigorous criteria now guide the selection

of marine protected area sites as well as the subsequent size,

shape, and management regime of individual protected areas.

These criteria relate directly to the specific objectives that the

protected area or protected area system are established to

achieve. Such objectives include, inter alia, habitat protection

for overall biodivesity conservation, fisheries management and

stock enhancement, nature-based tourism development,

protection of traditional use and tenure, and scientific research.

Coral reef marine protected areas are classified according to

these objectives with objectives-specific subsets of criteria for

selection and design. Specific examples are given for each

subset, spanning the spectrum from small-scale community-based

marine protected areas to large scale protected areas and

networks of protected areas administered by centralized

government authorities. Finally, we must recognize that

though serious advances have been made in marine protected

area planning, the "science" of marine protected area site

selection and design is still something of an art, and neither

hard and fast rules for optimizing design nor a model marine

protected area can be said to exist.

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION FOR THE

MANAGEMENT OF MARINE PROTECTED AREAS

(MPAs) IN THE PHILIPPINES.

Aliño, Porfirio M.*, Hazel O. Arceo, Nadia Palomar and

Andre Uychiaoco. *The Marine Science Institute,

University of the Philippines at Diliman, Quezon City 1101,

PHILIPPINES. Email: pmalino@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

The Philippines provides a broad range of experiences in

conservation initiatives at the community based levels, in

national integrated protected areas planning and the

establishment of transboundary MPAs. Despite the paucity of a

consistent objective and clear framework statement for

representative network of MPAs, community participation has

been espoused as inherent feature in the formulation of a

conceptual approach for designing these networks of marine

protected areas. Lessons drawn from the evaluation of various

criteria in the planning and operational implementation of

MPAs in the Philippines show various challenges and

opportunities to achieve greater impacts and sustainability.

For most of the community based MPAs, the expectation for

sustaining fisheries has been consistently apparent. While

larger biogeographic regions primarily aim to conserve and

protect biodiversity these management objectives are linked to

a perceived paradoxical utility to the community. The

challenge presented by this seeming contradictions can be

overcome by looking at opportunities for cooperative areas and

processes as seen in the sample cases of good practices. These

sample cases show participatory adaptive management at the

local community level, mechanisms for harmonizing national

and regional legislation, and moving towards joint activities to

enhance confidence and goodwill in working together towards

common goals or at least identifying complementary roles and

contributions.

CORAL REEF CONSERVATION IN HONG KONG:

DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW MARINE PARK IN TUNG

PING CHAU - MANAGEMENT ISSUES AND

STRATEGIES.

Ang, P.O. Jr*. *Department of Biology, The Chinese

University of Hong Kong, Shatin, N.T., Hong Kong SAR,

China. Email: put-ang@cuhk.edu.hk

Tung Ping Chau, an island in the NE part of Hong Kong, has

one of the most extensive coral reefs and seaweed beds within

the Hong Kong territorial water. Its conservation value is one

of the best in Hong Kong. It is being proposed as the fourth

marine park by the Hong Kong SAR government. The island is

located close to the border with the Shenzhen Special

Economic Zone in mainland China. Management issues facing

this new proposed marine park are therefore more complicated

than those of the other existing marine parks in Hong Kong.

Many of these issues, including trans-border illegal fishing

activities, potential siltation problem arising from urban and

industrial development on the mainland side of the border, risk

management associated with increase in container boat traffic

in the adjacent waters and disposal of marine debris, require a

higher degree of collaboration between governments from the

two sides of the border to ensure effective implementation of

marine parks regulations. The island itself is becoming a

popular weekend destination for Hong Kong people. Control

of further develop-ment in the island and other activities

associated with this increase in human pressure, are the main

issues that should be faced by Hong Kong government. Some

management strategies to address these issues are proposed.

WHAT MOLECULAR GENETICS CAN CONTRIBUTE

TO THE DESIGN OF SUSTAINABLE MARINE

PROTECTED AREAS.

Barber P.H.* and Stephen R. Palumbi. *Dept. Organismic

and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge

MA 02138, Email: pbarber@oeb.harvard.edu

Although Marine Protected Areas can enhance local

productivity and biomass, individual MPA's may be too small

to retain locally produced pelagic larvae. Because most coral

reef organisms have a pelagic larval phase, it is believed that

sustainable MPA's should consist of networks of reserves

interconnected through larval dispersal. Pelagic larval phases

may last weeks or months leading to the assumption that

dispersal between distant populations is high and surface

current patterns between reserves have been proposed as a

crucial predictor of the ecological and genetic connections

among reserve populations. To test such predictions, patterns

of genetic structure were examined in several species of mantis

shrimp from reefs throughout Indonesia. Although current

patterns predict high connectivity between populations, results

showed striking patterns of genetic differentiation, showing

that ecological connections are rare across distances as low as

300 – 400 km. Patterns of genetic differentiation mirror the

separation of ocean basins during periods of low sea level

indicating that biogeographic history can be an essential

consideration when predicting contemporary connectivity and

that current mediated larval dispersal cannot naively be

assumed to provide ecological connectivity among distant

marine populations. Genetics offers an indispensable tool for

determining realized connections between distant reserve

populations and should be incorporated into the design of

marine reserve networks..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B1: MPAs

152

DANJUGAN ISLAND: A UNIQUE INTEGRATED

APPROACH TO ESTABLISH A COMMUNITY-BASED

MARINE PROTECTED AREA IN THE PHILIPPINES.

Beger M.*, A.R. Harborne, G. Ledesma, A.W.M. Page and

P.S. Raines. *Coral Cay Conservation, 154 Clapham Park

Road, London, SW4 7DE, UK. Em ai l: science@coralcay.org

T he Danjugan I sl and Mari ne Reserve and Sanct uary (Negr os

Occi dental, Phili ppines) was est ablished via a collaborat ive

pr oj ect t hat aimed to pi oneer a unique approach t o m ar ine

resource management . T he pr oj ect combined reef assessm ent

using i nt ernat ional ‘vol unt eer’ di ver s, expert knowl edge of a local

NGO and cont inuous invol vem ent and tr ai ning of the l ocal

comm uni ty. L essons l earnt i ncl ude ( a) t he im por tance of

addressi ng needs l ocall y but wi th l egi sl ati on up t o provinci al

l evel ; ( b) the use of a habi tat map and associated data in both

reserve design and to describe the ecosystem to local

stakeholders; (c) the cost-efficiency of using a volunteer

programme for data collection; (d) that acquiring island

ownership rights facilitates long-term stability; (e) the presence

of a continuous research programme leads to steady alternative

local income generation and highly effective community skills

development and involvement; (f) t hat successf ul sm al l -scal e

projects can act as an im pet us for l ar ger r egi onal init i at ives;

( g) coll aborati on bet ween Fi li pino and i nternati onal

organi sati ons i s crucial and ( h) the provision of alt er nat ive

l ivel i hoods i s vit al for l ong- t er m sustai nabi l it y of the r eserve.

T hi s project would be f ur t her assist ed by i ni t iati ves at a r egi onal

or nat ional l evel whi ch coul d i nclude: a database of inf or mat ion

on ot her pr ogram mes and t hei r out put s, an expert networ k, an

accredit at i on scheme for t rained local people, r egi onal scal e

r esear ch pr ogram mes, reser ve desi gn workshops and f acil i tati ng

access t o f undi ng.

A RATIONALE FOR MINIMUM 20% NO-TAKE REEF

PROTECTION.

Bohnsack, J.*, Billy Causey, Michael Crosby, Roger

Griffis, Mark Hixon, Tom Hourigan, Karen Koltes, James

Maragos, Ashley Simons, and James Tilmant. *Southeast

Fisheries Science Center, NOAA Fisheries, 75 Virginia

Beach Dr., Miami, FL 33149 USA. Email:

Jim.Bohnsack@noaa.gov

In response to worldwide coral reef declines, several

countries and conservation organizations have adopted a goal

of protecting a minimum of 20% area of all representative reef

habitats with no-take reserves (NTRs), areas protected from all

fishing and other extractive activities. Fishing disturbs coral

reefs by removing organisms for food, sport, commerce and

bait, but also damages habitat and kills unwanted organisms as

bycatch with mostly unknown long-term impacts. Quantitative

support for 20% NTRs comes from reproductive theory, past

fishery failures, empirical data from existing NTRs, and

knowledge about life history and vulnerability of reef species

to exploitation. Additional support comes from the need to

apply precautionary and adaptive management and to have

minimally disturbed areas with ecological integrity for

scientific reference purposes. NTRs should be viewed as an

ecosystem and habitat based protection measure to be used in

addition to other traditional resource management measures.

20% NTR protection should be considered a minimum for

protecting biodiversity and ecosystem structure and function,

but will not be sufficient to protect all species. Optimal fishery

production will require other protective measures and possibly

larger total closed areas applied to all species or individual

fisheries. Management must focus on protecting the integrity,

health and beauty of the coral reef ecosystem.

DESIGNING MARINE PROTECTED AREAS: THE

NEED TO INTEGRATE THE SCIENTIFIC AND

PRACTICAL APPROACHES.

Causey, Billy D. Superintendent. *Florida Keys National

Marine Sanctuary, P.O. Box 500368, Marathon, FL, USA

33050. Email: Billy.Causey@noaa.gov

The greatest achievements in the design and management of

marine protected areas are yet to come. They will occur when

theorists and practitioners learn how to effectively collaborate.

The new wave of theory in designing marine reserves has the

potential to assist in planning and placing these areas in ways

we never thought possible. Researchers have developed

computer models that, given the critical physical and

biological data, can forecast the benefits of locating an

ecological reserve (marine reserve) in one site over another.

Using oceanographic data such as water circulation patterns,

the location, velocity and duration of local currents,

reproductive patterns and mechanisms for fish and other

marine life, scientists soon will be able to recommend precise

locations for reserves. While this is a tremendous

advancement, this is not the sole answer to establishing MPAs

and more precisely, “no take” ecological reserves (marine

reserves). Herein lies the void between the science of MPAs

and their field application. Practitioners, or managers of

MPAs, have abundant “lessons learned” to integrate into the

process of designing and locating MPAs. Excellent MPA

science and models are becoming available to field managers.

However, the long-term acceptance of these areas by the

waterfront community must be considered if they are to be

successful. This acceptance is best gained through a process

that includes local stakeholders who provide their years of

experience in a collaborative process. This paper describes

one such process.

OBJECTIVES, DESIGN AND EVALUATION OF

CARIBBEAN MARINE RESERVES: WHAT HAVE WE

LEARNED?

Chiappone M.*, S.L. Miller and D.W. Swanson. *The

National Undersea Research Center, University of North

Carolina at Wilmington, 515 Caribbean Drive, Key Largo,

Florida, 33037, USA. Email: mark@benthos.cox.miami.edu

Marine reserves, areas of the ocean protected from extractive

activities, are important mechanisms to advance conservation

and fisheries management. This is especially true in the

Caribbean, where conventional approaches to reef fisheries

management are problematic because of the lack of data,

diversity of species targeted, complex species interactions, and

diverse fisheries objectives. Ecological theory and mounting

empirical evidence provide strong arguments on the potential

benefits of marine reserves for fisheries, maintenance of

ecosystem structure and integrity, and enhancement of non-consumptive

opportunities. Factors driving the creation of

most reserves, and marine protected areas in general have

centered on “hot spot” criteria, and biological performance

evaluations are often problematic because of this biased site-selection.

The majority of marine reserve studies show

predictable effects on target species, but spillover effects from

movement patterns and larval export have not been

unequivocally demonstrated. Evaluations of fisheries benefits

have often been undertaken in an ad hoc fashion, and as a

result, several recent reviews advocate the use of design

principles from a few, well-studied areas to guide the

implementation of marine reserve networks..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B1: MPAs

153

MANAGING MARINE PROTECTED AREAS OF

SOUTHEAST ASIA TO IMPROVE THEIR

CONTRIBUTION TO SUSTAINABLE FISHERIES.

Chou L.M*. *Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty

of Science, National University of Singapore, Blk. S2, 14

Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543. Email:

dbsclm@nus.edu.sg

A growing variety of reef conservation measures is present

throughout Southeast Asia in direct response to increased

awareness of the benefits of reefs and their continuing

widespread degradation. Many protected areas were selected

based on biological diversity of the reef systems while some

were former fisheries protected zones. Reefs contribute to

fisheries production and their use as spawning and nursery

grounds are well documented. Reef fisheries contribute as high

as 30% of total fish catch in the region and effective reef

management to enhance sustainable fisheries has been

demonstrated. The selection of protected areas should focus

not only on reef areas but also on non-reef sites that are used

by spawning aggregations. The inclusion and effective

management of such sites will enhance the contribution of

protected areas to fisheries production. To further facilitate the

fisheries-production function of protected areas, a systematic

approach should be adopted in identifying target areas serving

as larval sources and sinks, or along main migratory routes.

This should be considered in connection with hydrodynamic

patters for the region rather than within national boundaries.

Emerging from this is a regional system of strategically located

protected areas that remain connected rather than isolated.

COMMUNITY-BASED MARINE SANCTUARIES IN

NORTH SULAWESI, INDONESIA.

Crawford B.R.* and Johnnes Tulungen. Coastal

Resources Center, University of Rhode Island,

Narragansett RI 02882, USA Email: crawford@gso.uri.edu

Community-based marine sanctuaries are an increasingly

popular element of integrated coastal management programs in

many parts of the world. In the Philippines, these no-take

zones have proven effective in conserving coral reef

ecosystems, increasing fish biomass, increasing fish

production in adjacent areas, as well as benefiting nearby

coastal communities. In nations where governance regimes are

moving towards increased decentralization and local autonomy

this can be an appropriate, simple and cost effective coastal

management approach. Efforts have been underway in North

Sulawesi since 1997 to adapt community-based marine

sanctuary approaches that have been developed over a twenty-year

period in the Philippines to the Indonesian context. This

paper summarizes North Sulawesi experience in establishing

community-based marine sanctuaries as part of participatory,

village-level, integrated coastal resources management plans.

It includes current efforts to scale-up from pilot sites to a

regency-wide community-based marine sanctuary extension

program. Analysis of lessons learned concerning the

challenges of widespread scaling-up in the Philippines and

how they can be applied in the North Sulawesi case are also

explained.

THE BONAIRE STORY: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE

MANAGEMENT OF SMALL SCALE CORAL REEFS

MARINE PROTECTED AREAS.

De Meyer.K.* *CORAL (The Coral Reef Alliance). 2014

Shattuck Ave. Berkeley. CA 94704. USA. Email:

kdemeyer@coral.org

Like many small islands around the world, the mainstay of

the economy on Bonaire for the past several decades has been

tourism. Tourism development and exploitation have also

become the source, directly and indirectly, of the major threats

to the island’s marine resources, particularly its fringing coral

reefs. The management objective of the Bonaire Marine Park

is to protect and preserve the island’s coral reefs, seagrass beds

and mangroves whilst maximizing returns from recreation and

commerce. The challenge has therefore been to make tourism

work for the island. The proactive role of the Marine Park and

its innovative work over the past decade have resulted in an

unprecedented level of protection for the island’s fringing

coral reefs. It has also lead to the Marine Park fast becoming a

role model to other aspiring protected areas and has set the

pace for the management of small scale coral protected areas

throughout the region. The Bonaire Marine Park has had some

notable successes particularly in terms of developing a

mechanism for sustainable funding and in benefiting from

close and productive working relationships with the local

community, tourism industry and visiting tourists. This paper

examines the implications of the work which has been done on

Bonaire for the management of small scale coral protected

areas around the world with particular reference to sustainable

financing mechanisms and the pivotal role of stakeholders in

protected areas management.

MANAGEMENT AND POLICY DYNAMICS IN

SUPPORT OF A SYSTEM OF MARINE PROTECTED

AREAS IN INDONESIA

Djohani, Rili*, Dahuri, Rokhmin *The Nature

Conservancy, Director, Coastal and Marine Conservation,

Jl. Pengembak no.2, Sanur, Bali

Within the dynamic political and socio-economic context of

Indonesia marine protected areas or other forms of closed areas

may be the only option to protect coral reef resources from

excessive fishing pressure. Apart from their importance for the

coastal fishery, most of the marine parks are great assets for

nature based tourism which can lead to the financial self

sufficiency of marine reserves. With the establishment of the

new Department of Sea Exploration and Fisheries, Indonesia

has the opportunity to focus and put together a concerted and

coherent effort to coordinate and implement the policy and

implementation context for marine protected areas. At present,

there are 34 MPAs, which cover more than 4,600,000 ha in

Indonesia. A combination of enforcement, awareness and

training programs, monitoring and alternative livelihood

programs has proved to be a successful strategy for the

abatement of destructive fishing practices in Komodo National

Park. Essential for the feasibility of MPAs and no take reserves

is the ability to not only deal with the status quo but also with

the dynamics in the field, i.e. emerging threats, new

stakeholders, and long term financing mechanisms. This paper

will review and recommend the local and regional policy

context, key elements for design and management tools for

MPAs and no take reserves that would allow: I) adaptive

management, II) collaborative management, and III) self-financing

mechanisms..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B1: MPAs

154

SEX, FOOD, AND SHELTER: THE STORY BEHIND A

PROPOSED MARINE PROTECTED AREA IN THE U.S.

VIRGIN ISLANDS.

Garrison, V.*, J. Bohnsack, R. Boulon, G. E. Davis, and J.

Tilmant. Biological Resources Division, U.S. Geological

Survey, P.O. Box 710, St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands 00831.

Email: ginger_garrison@usgs.gov

In their present configurations, virgin islands national park

and buck island reef national monument lack essential habitats

and sufficient areas of habitats necessary to sustain their coral

reef system, making preservation and protection of the marine

resources over time nearly impossible. At the request of the u.

S. Secretary of the interior, boundaries were proposed for a u.s.

virgin islands marine protected area, created to preserve and

protect a functional coral reef ecosystem. Primary factors in

boundary selection included: current national park boundaries,

location of protected watersheds, location of essential habitats,

unique habitats, habitats and species not currently represented

in existing parks, spawning sites, and the life histories of key

species (nassau grouper, spiny lobster, and queen conch).

Simply changing the boundaries would provide little benefit,

as current fishing pressure is unsustainable, with populations

of some harvested species near collapse. Prohibition of

extractive activities is the most effective method of habitat and

ecosystem management, is ideally suited to the ecology of

marine organisms, and will allow the system to restore itself.

Three “no-take” areas constitute the central core of the

proposed marine protected area and incorporate upland

watersheds, mangroves, shelf habitats (including coral reefs,

seagrass beds, sand flats, gorgonian hardbottom and algal plain

communities, unique bank and barrier reefs, shelf edge),

abyssal, and oceanic habitats.

A HIGHLY ADAPTABLE METHOD FOR DEALING

WITH THE MESSY BUSINESS OF DESIGNING

MARINE PROTECTED AREAS.

Grober-Dunsmore, Rikki *, Ridgley, Mark. *University of

Hawaii, Dept. of Geography, 2424 Maile Way, Honolulu

96822. Email: rikki@akule.soest. hawaii.edu

For all their merits, the design, siting and implementation of

marine protected areas (MPAs) often founder on the shoals of

conflict, uncertainty, and vastly different forms of knowledge

and communication. A conceptual and linguistic chasm

separates those reasoning through experiential knowledge

(e.g., fishermen) and those employing the practices of Western

science, making the decision process difficult. A general

multi-disciplinary methodology to circumvent these problems

is discussed and we will demonstrate how it can be adapted to

quite disparate and contentious situations. In all variations of

the method, objectives are formulated, alternative MPAs are

designed and then evaluated. Three quite different ways of

designing options are presented-- a “low-tech” (LEGOLAND)

approach, a “medium-tech” GIS approach and a “high-tech”

procedure employing multiobjective optimization. While the

sophistication of the approaches varies considerably, several

features make it easy to apply. Multicriterion methods are

used to measure intangibles, assess the importance of

uncertainty, accommodate subjective judgement and local

knowledge, and integrate these with conventional scientific

data. Candidate MPAs are then generated and evaluated. A

case study of the methodology will focus on our experience in

Kaneohe Bay, Oahu during a Hawaii Coral Reef Initiative

project.

THE IMPACT OF MARINE RESERVES: A REVIEW OF

KEY IDEAS

Halpern B.*. *Dep’t. of Ecol., Evol., and Mar. Biol.,

UCSB, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA. Email:

halpern@lifesci.ucsb.edu

Marine reserves are quickly gaining popularity as a

management option for marine conservation, fisheries, and

other human uses of the oceans. However, few appear to have

been designed with biological considerations in mind and little

is known about general patterns of how reserves affect species

within them. I reviewed the literature that empirically assessed

the impacts of marine reserves on the density, biomass, size,

and diversity of organisms, paying particular attention to the

role reserve size plays in determining those impacts and the

rapidity of occurrence and duration of any impacts following

reserve creation. Results from 89 separate studies show that,

on average, overall density doubles, biomass triples, and size

and diversity increase by 20-30% inside reserves compared to

reference sites, and results are similar for each functional

group (carnivorous, herbivorous, and planktivorous fishes, and

invertebrates), with few exceptions. Surprisingly, results also

show that the effects of marine reserves increase linearly in

proportion to reserve size. Therefore, small reserves can

function well but larger reserves will provide greater absolute

differences in biological measures. Consequently, larger

reserves may be necessary to meet the goals set for marine

reserves. Finally, biological measures increase in value inside

reserves shortly after reserve creation, and these higher values

do not change or become more variable as reserves age. These

results suggest that nearly any marine habitat can benefit from

the implementation of a reserve, and that reserves may offer a

quick and lasting solution for conservation and management

goals.

THE DEVELOPMENT AND ESTABLISHMENT OF

CRMPAs.

Kelleher, Graeme*. Email:

graeme_kelleher@gbrmpa.gov.au

Particularly in developing tropical countries, many local

communities depend on coral reefs for food. These reefs are

subject to many stresses, both from direct use and from the

effects of land-based human activities. The progressive

degradation of these resources has been documented in many

publications. Setting up MPAs in these circumstances is

difficult. Strong support from local users is essential. This

paper describes the approaches that have been successfully

applied in developing and establishing coral reef MPAs.

Lessons learned globally are outlined..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B1: MPAs

155

SOLOMON ISLANDS COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION

IN MARINE CONSERVATION AREAS:

INTEGRATING SCIENCE AND CUSTOM.

Kile, Nelson *, John E. Parks, A. Meriwether Wilson, and

Michelle Lam. *Honiara PO, Solomon Islands. Email:

lamkile@welkam.solomon.com.sb

The solomon islands archipelago comprises over 900 islands

and is reputedly one of the largest areas of intact coral reef

ecosystems throughout the pacific islands. However,

increasing dependency on nearshore marine resource

extraction to support even basic subsistence livelihoods

threatens to degrade the functioning of these reefs.

Community-based management of coastal resources in the

solomons is the de facto inshore management regime as village

communities have ancestral-based customary tenure rights for

86% of nearshore waters. In order to proactively address

increasing food scarcity and cash income needs, reef owners

and landowners, resource managers, and researchers are

forming management alliances to minimize coastal-marine

ecosystem degradation through exploring ways of integrating

science and customary practices. As part of a global

environment facility project preparation exercise, field-based

economic, ecological and socio-cultural reviews were

conducted to examine offshore and nearshore resources

management issues and consider models for establishing

marine conservation areas which could enhance fishery

productivity through linking traditional wisdom with

conservation science monitoring protocols.

EVALUATING PRIVATE SECTOR INVOLVEMENT IN

THE MANAGEMENT OF MARINE PROTECTED

AREAS.

Kramer Randall A.*. *Nicholas School of the

Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708 USA.

Email: kramer@duke.edu

Concerns about coral reef destruction and loss of marine

biodiversity have led to the establishment of marine national

parks and other protected areas by the public sector in many

tropical areas around the world. In addition to these expanding

public efforts, there is a small but growing set of examples of

the private sector engaging in marine biodiversity conservation

efforts, especially when tourism presents significant revenue

potential. This paper examines the role of the private sector in

establishing and managing marine protected areas. In this

context, private sector means anything not purely

governmental. Hence, private sector involvement could refer

to activities by stakeholder organizations, not for profit

organizations, and for-profit firms. The activities of the

private sector organizations might include a wide range of

possibilities including raising revenues from users and donors,

provision of tourism services, implementation of conservation

programs, monitoring and enforcement and outright

ownership. This paper provides a framework for assessing the

relative strengths and weaknesses of private sector

organizations as compared to state agencies in implementing

and managing marine protected areas. Several case studies are

presented including the Chumbe Island Coral Park Project in

Zamzibar, (an example of a privately owned park), the

Bunaken Marine Park in Indonesia (an example of a private-public

partnership), and the Komodo National Park in

Indonesia (an example of a proposed tourism concession

involving a for profit firm). Lessons learned about the

advantages and disadvantages of private sector involvement

will be presented, and a research program will be proposed for

more systematic hypothesis testing about the effectiveness of

different organizational types.

THE ARNAVON ISLANDS MARINE CONSERVATION

AREA: LESSONS IN MONITORING AND

MANAGEMENT.

Lincoln Smith, M. P*., Bell, J. D., Pitt, K. A., Thomas, P.

and Ramohia, P. The Ecology Lab Pty Ltd, 4 Green Street,

Brookvale, NSW, 2100, Australia. Email:

projects@theecologylab.com.au

The Arnavon Islands Marine Conservation Area (MCA) was

declared in August 1995 as a refuge for marine invertebrates.

Protection from harvesting was done with agreement from, and

active participation by, local communities. Protection was also

facilitated by appointment of a local management committee

and conservation officers. Variation in abundance of species at

the MCA and at three fished “reference” areas was established

before declaration, and monitored over the next four years.

Regular visits to communities by the management committee,

conservation officers and monitoring team maintained local

commitment to the MCA. However, some illegal harvesting

indicated that a regulatory component was also important for

management. Increases in invertebrates within the MCA

occurred slowly, and at small spatial scales. Despite the illegal

harvesting, significant increases in abundance occurred within

the MCA relative to the reference areas, particularly for

trochus. The main lessons from the MCA so far are that

recovery of most invertebrates has been slow and patchy, and

would not have been detected without the monitoring program.

It has also proved difficult to provide complete protection to

the MCA, even with the commitment and participation of local

communities. Mechanisms that allow communities to benefit

from species that have recovered, while continuing to protect

the other species, may be needed to maintain total commitment

of local communities to management plans.

DESIGNING EFFECTIVE CORAL REEF MARINE

PROTECTED AREAS: INSIGHTS FROM POLITICAL

SCIENCE THEORY.

Mascia Michael B.. Duke University. 135 Duke Marine

Lab Rd., Beaufort, NC 28516, USA. Email:

michael.mascia@duke.edu

Coral reef marine protected areas (CRMPAs) are a critical

component of local, national, and international biodiversity

conservation and sustainable development policies, but our

ability to design CRMPAs that meet these policy objectives

remains limited. In order to inform the policymaking process,

I tested political science theories of sustainable resource

governance at three study sites in the Wider Caribbean region

(Hol Chan Marine Reserve, Belize; Exuma Cays Land and Sea

Park, Bahamas; and Barbados Marine Reserve, Barbados),

using quantitative and qualitative measures of political, social,

and biological variables derived from formal and informal

interviews, document analysis, direct and participant

observation, focus groups, and participatory mapping

exercises. Study results are consistent with theoretical

predictions. CRMPA governance regimes with clear resource

boundaries, well-defined resource use rights, accountable

monitoring and enforcement systems, graduated sanctions,

accessible conflict resolution mechanisms, and state

recognition of user-designed management strategies led to

positive social and biological outcomes. CRMPAs without

these traits were characterized by negative social impacts and

sub-optimal biological performance. Though this research

needs to be replicated, these results strongly suggest that coral

reef management could be significantly improved by designing

CRMPAs consistent with the theoretically based, empirically

grounded framework presented here..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B1: MPAs

156

DESIGNING EFFECTIVE CORAL REEF MPAS? A

CASE STUDY OF THE CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEM

FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN PROCESS.

Miller Katharine B.*, Nancy Daschbach, James E.

Maragos, David A. Gulko, Alan M. Friedlander, Cynthia

L. Hunter, , Todd J. Pitlik

*Coral Reef Ecosystem Plan Team, PMB 72 P.O. Box

10003, Saipan, MP 96950 U.S.A. Email:

kb_miller@itecnmi.com

Under the Magnuson-Stevens Fisheries Conservation and

Management Act (M-S Act), the fisheries management

councils have been given the authority to develop fishery

management plans (FMPs) for fisheries occurring in the U.S.

exclusive economic zone (EEZ). All of the existing FMPs

have focused on species or species complexes as the basis for

management. The vast majority of these plans have also been

developed to primarily address fishing for food resources, as

opposed to fisheries for aquaculture, ornamentals or other uses.

In 1998, the Western Pacific Regional Fisheries Management

Council convened a group of Pacific coral reef scientists and

managers to develop a Coral Reef Ecosystem FMP that

addresses fisheries as diverse as marine ornamental collection

and bioprospecting. This is the first attempt to apply the M-S

ActÕs species-specific fisheries management scheme to an

entire ecosystem. One of the principle management tools that

the Coral Reef Ecosystem Plan Team (CREPT) recommended

in draft versions of the FMP was the establishment of several

no-take Marine Protected Areas in the EEZ surrounding the

NW Hawaiian Islands.

SUSTAINABLE ARTISANAL FISHING WITHIN A

MULTIPLE USE ZONE OF A RED SEA MARINE

NATIONAL PARK.

Ormond R.F.G.* & Galal N. *University Marine

Biological Station Millport, Isle of Cumbrae, Scotland, UK.

Email: rupert.ormond@millport.gla.ac.uk.

Since its establishment the Ras Mohammed National Park

(Egyptian Red Sea) has been extended to include the whole of

the Sinai coast of the Gulf of Aqaba, although artisanal fishing

by local bedouin is permitted in this northern section. We

investigated methods of securing the sustainable use of reef

fish resources within the 20 km long Nabq sector of the Park.

Here trammel and gill nets are used to obtain a catch

dominated by parrotfishes, surgeonfishes, rabbitfishes,

emperors and groupers. Total yield at different sites was found

to range from 1.9 to 6.2 ton km -2 yr -1 . Total yield increased

with effort to a maximum at 100-150 unit gear km -2 yr -1

beyond which yield decreased. Catch per unit effort (CPUE)

declined sharply from 1.3 – 2.7 kg net.ha -1 at lightly fished

sites to 0.6 – 1.8 kg net.ha -1 at those which were most heavily

exploited. With the support of the local bedouin, obtained

after extensive consultation, 5 no-take reserves were

established occupying nearly half of the Nabq sector, so that

fisheries activities were concentrated in the intervening area.

After 2 years a significant increase in both abundance and

mean size of some fish species had occurred within some no-take

areas, while mean CPUE in the fished areas had increased

from 0.84 to 1.01 kg net.ha -1 . The combination of regulated

total effort and no-take reserves may secure maximum

sustainable yield, while leaving ample fish on the reef for the

benefit of the SCUBA-diving based tourist industry.

HOW TO AVOID “PAPER PARKS” – EXPERIENCES

FROM SE ASIA.

Pet-Soede Lida * . *Wageningen Agricultural Univ.

Netherlands. Email: lidapet@attglobal.net

Coastal fisheries in South-East Asia are difficult to manage

due to their multi-gear and multi-species character, the open

access nature of the resource, the vastness of coastal waters,

and the small-scale nature of the operations. The concept of

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) is sold to managers as an

option to facilitate monitoring and control and it is explained

to fishers as an option to improve catches. Although these are

indeed major advantages in theory, in practice it takes more

than declaring an area officially protected. Careless site

selection, little understanding of socio-economic and other

factors that influence fishers attitudes, and a lack of funds and

local presence of authority, are three major reasons causing

MPAs not to live up to expectations. Disregard of the status of

reefs and fish stocks at a proposed site, of patterns in

oceanography, of the presence of spawning populations or sites

and of characteristics of the fishing communities living off it,

blocks the outcome from the beginning. Lack of a community

strategy that incorporates measures to sustain the existing

socio-economic environment, reduces community acceptance

and involvement. This in turn, puts a greater pressure on the

budget (funds and manpower) available for monitoring and

control. This paper draws upon experiences, mainly in

Indonesia, to illustrate each of these issues and to conclude

with recommendations on how to improve the effectiveness of

existing MPAs and on what to consider when selecting new

areas. A well designed and implemented MPA can then serve

as a showcase to both managers and fishers of the causal

relation between fishing pressure and the status of fish stocks.

ARE MARINE PROTECTED AREAS EFFECTIVE IN

THE RESTORATION AND THE MANAGEMENT OF

MULTI-SPECIES INVERTEBRATE FISHERIES: A

CASE STUDY IN SOLOMON ISLANDS.

Ramohia, Peter C.* *Fisheries Division, Ministry of

Lands, Agriculture and Fisheries, P. O. Box G13, Honiara,

Solomon Islands. Email: sbfish@ffa.int

Marine reserves or marine protected areas (MPAs) are

created for many purposes including the management of

marine resources. Although numerous studies have been

undertaken on the effectiveness of MPAs both in temperate

and tropical countries, appropriate ways of evaluating MPAs

are lacking as a result of (a) lack of baseline information

before establishment of MPAs and (b) no spatial controls to

measure natural variation compared to the reserve. To evaluate

the effectiveness of an MPA, data on abundance and average

body size of trochus (Trochus niloticus), sea cucumbers

(Holothuridae) and giant clams (Tridacnidae) were collected

prior to and after the declaration of the Arnavon Marine

Conservation area (AMCA) in Solomon Islands between 1995

and early 1999 using a sampling program which provides a

sound basis for detecting the effects of AMCA on the

abundance and size structure of studied species. Data from

three surveys prior to and three surveys after the declaration of

the AMCA were interpreted graphically for selected study

invertebrate species. The implication for Solomon Islands in

terms of MPAs as a tool for management of multi-species

invertebrate fisheries is discussed. The broader implication of

the results is also presented..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B1: MPAs

157

BIO-PHYSICAL DESIGN OF MARINE PROTECTED

AREAS.

Roberts, Callum M.*. *Environment Department,

University of York, York, YO10 5DD, UK. Email:

cr10@york.ac.uk

A key constraint on the success of marine protected areas

(MPAs) is the extent to which they are able to encompass the

life cycles of the organisms we hope they will protect. People

often assert that only very large MPAs will be sufficient to

protect highly mobile or migratory species. However, even

sedentary and sessile species, those that might seem well-served

by small MPAs, may be highly mobile during some life

stages (e.g. larval dispersal). Other species may require a series

of habitats as they develop, migrating from one to another

throughout life, and some authors suggest all such habitats

should be included for MPAs to successfully protect them.

MPAs are also subject to large-scale physical oceanographic

influences that both shape the ecology of the habitats they

protect, but could also harm them through the transport of

pollutants, for example. While such processes and life cycles

argue for very large MPAs, there are few opportunities to

establish them. Most will have to be far smaller than the scales

of either species’ life cycles or physical oceanographic

influences. However, to be successful, MPAs must protect

sufficiently-large areas of habitat to be viable over the long-term,

placing constraints on their minimum effective size. In

this paper I discuss design approaches for realistically-sized

MPAs that will help secure essential large-scale linkages

without the necessity of physically encompassing them. I will

also explore ways of designing reserves to help assure habitat

viability.

PUERTO MORELOS REEF NATIONAL PARK: HAVE

5 YEARS OF COMMUNITY WORK BEEN WORTH IT?

Rodríguez-Martínez, R.E. * , E. Jordán-Dahlgren. Instituto

de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, UNAM. Ap. Postal

1152, 77500 Cancún, Q. Roo, México. Email:

rosaer@mar.icmyl.unam.mx

Puerto Morelos Reef National Park, created in 1998, runs

21km along the eastern side of the Yucatán Peninsula, México

and has an area of 9,066 hectares. This Park is a community-based

project that started in 1995 to prevent unsustainable use.

In 1998, a management program was devised by Puerto

Morelos town stake holders with the participation of two

research Institutes, and is expected to be published by June

2000. Government agencies support the creation of the park

but declined to provide funds for its operation so stake holders

have taken several actions to implement the management

program. Fishermen and tourist operators pay the salary to an

enforcement agency employee, and for the maintenance and

operation of a boat. Tourist operators have installed buoys and

agreed to respect regulations. Fishermen have agreed to stop

fishing in some reef sectors. Environmental education has

been given by local scientists and NGOs. Unfortunately a new

law, published in December 1999, requires that the money

collected in the NPA has to go to the Internal Revenue Service

with no mention of how the money will be used. High level

negotiations are presently being made in an attempt to modify

the law so that the money is used for management in the areas

where it is obtained. Unless this happens the implementation

of the management program will not be possible. Causes of

conflicts and how they were resolved are discussed.

EXPERIENCE FROM IMPROVING MANAGEMENT

OF AN “URBAN” MARINE PROTECTED AREA:

GILUTONGAN MARINE SANCTUARY, PHILIPPINES

Ross, Michael A.*, Arleigh C. Sitoy, Maria Fe Portigo,

Dolores A. Diamante-Fabunan *Tetra Tech EM, Inc.,

Coastal Resource Management Project 5 th Floor, CIFC

Tower, North Reclamation Area Cebu City, Cebu,

Philippines 6000 Email: crmhot@oneocean.com

Since the first so-called municipal marine protected area

(MPA) was officially established in the Philippines in 1974,

the establishment of such MPAs has been widely promoted as

a practical yet important means of managing coastal resources,

particularly coral reefs and their associated fisheries, within the

country. In general, most of these MPAs have been declared

or established in relatively remote areas. Numerous reports and

studies have documented the experienced gained in planning

and managing these types of MPAs. In contrast, Gilutongan

Marine Sanctuary (Municipality of Cordova, Cebu) is located

near a major urban and tourist resort center, with an estimated

population of some 2 million within a 20 kilometer radius. A

process for improving the planning and management of an

“urban” MPA is presented, involving multi-sectoral

stakeholder collaboration and initiation of user fees, to

strengthen and support community-based management and

monitoring activities. Initial monitoring results and cost and

benefit analyses show that there is a very strong justification

on the part of the Gilutongan community, local government

and the private sector to further strengthen sanctuary

management. A proposed action plan is presented to support

these future activities building upon the experiences gained to

date.

COMMUNITY-BASED STRATEGIES FOR THE

SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF MARINE

PROTECTED AREA.

Salmo S.G. III*, Ma. Antonette R. Juinio-Meñez and

Porfirio M. Aliño. *Marine Fisheries Resources

Management Project, Marine Science Institute, University

of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City 1101 Philippines.

Email: jon@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

The community-based strategies in the implementation of a

marine protected area (MPA) in Bolinao, Pangasinan

(northwestern Luzon, Philippines) is presented. The factors

necessary to sustain the successful implementation of a

community-managed MPA involved heightening of

environmental awareness, training, information campaigns and

legal/institutional and financial assistance. The empowerment

of a people’s organization (PO) played an important role in

sustaining the management of the MPA. Among the activities

conducted by the PO are sponsoring information campaigns,

forging multi-sectoral collaboration, lobbying and networking

to advocate institutional assistance and patrolling of the MPA.

The PO are also conducting regular monitoring of the MPA

(e.g. benthic lifeform, fish visual census, fish catch). Results of

recent monitoring compared to the baseline data reveal

improved % coral cover and increased fish biomass. Overall,

the community-based strategies in the management of the

MPA has proven to be very resilient indicating a high

possibility of sustaining its successes despite some obstacles

and shortcomings. Thus, this case study will draw on the

lessons from the experience of a community-managed MPA..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B1: MPAs

158

EFFECTIVE MARINE PROTECTED AREA

MANAGEMENT IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA:

MAKING THE MYTH A REALITY

Samarasekara, Vidhisha N.*, Sukumaran, Jeet. *WWF

Malaysia - 49 Jalan SS23/15 Taman Sea, 47301 Petaling

Jaya MALAYSIA. Email: svidhisha@wwfnet.org

Well-managed MPA’s should contribute directly to the

conservation of marine ecosystems, while at the same time

supporting the sustainable use of their natural resources. In

Southeast Asia however, the reality is often far from this ideal,

and Malaysia is no exception. Conflicting uses of MPA’s

seriously challenge management efforts, while at the same

time, activities taking place outside the protected areas may

render management useless altogether. This paper will present

an overview of the current challenges confronting the

management of MPA’s in Malaysia. It will outline positive

management actions that can be taken to address these

challenges—such as zoning Marine Parks; gazetting park

islands as State Parks; implementing comprehensive education

and awareness programmes; enforcing Marine Park

regulations; limiting visitor use; training Marine Park

Managers, tour and dive operators; as well as establishing

monitoring and evaluation programmes. These proposed

solutions may find applicability in marine protected areas

throughout the Southeast Asia region, given the commonality

of issues.

INCREASE OF FISHES IN CORAL REEF FISHERY

RESERVES: A COMBINED ANALYSIS.

Uychiaoco, A.J.*. *Marine Science Institute, University of

the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines.

Email: auychiaoco@yahoo.com

Most of the past reported attempts to investigate the effects

of marine reserves on reef fishes do not properly test the

effectiveness of reserves in general to cause changes: some do

not simultaneously monitor comparable control sites, others

report on "snap-shot" differences at one point in time while the

handful that do both of these only report of 1 protection

treatment each (no replication). Four recently-established

coral reef fishery reserves (Sibulan, Cabacongan, Minombonan

& Lomboy-Cahayag in the Philippines) and adjacent control

areas were monitored for 3 years. Responses of major

carnivorous (Epinephelinae, Lutjanidae and Lethrinidae),

Chaetodontidae, Scaridae and Acanthuridae to protection were

observed. These data were combined with data of 5 other

coral reef reserves taken from the literature (Saba Marine Park,

Kisite and Mombasa Marine National Parks, South Lagoon

Marine Park and Apo Islands Reserve). Non-parametric

Wilcoxon paired rank tests were used to see if carnivorous reef

fishes, butterflyfishes and herbivorous reef fishes increase

faster in unfished sites than in fished sites. Carnivorous and

herbivorous reef fishes in the fished areas did not change

significantly with time whereas those in the unfished areas

increased significantly with time. Butterflyfishes did not

change significantly with time in either the fished or unfished

areas.

EXPERIENCE WITH MARINE PROTECTED AREA

AND FISH SANCTUARY PLANNING AND

MANAGEMENT, PHILIPPINES.

White, Alan T.*, Albert Salamanca and Catherine A.

Courtney *Tetra Tech EM Inc., Coastal Resource

Management Project 5 th Floor, CIFC Tower, North

Reclamation Area Cebu City, Cebu, Philippines 6000

Email: awhite@mozcom.com

Coastal management has been practiced in the Philippines

over the last two decades to try to stem the increasing tide of

destruction to coastal habitats and the decline of fisheries. Yet,

coastal resources continue to decline and deteriorate at

alarming rates. Selected experiences and two case studies in

coastal management that involve marine protected areas and

fish sanctuaries are presented. Important lessons and

approaches that can be used for marine protected area

management in the context of sustainable coastal management

are highlighted such as: the role of donor-assisted non-government

organization and government projects in

establishing marine protected areas; the effect of devolution of

authority from central to local governments (municipal, city,

and provincial); and the role of other institutions, including

research institutions, employing different strategies and

approaches. Other key findings include the importance of

defining marine protected areas in the Philippine context, the

value of truly participatory processes, various localized options

for financing protected areas and the need to establish

integrated coastal management programs to provide planning,

institutional and financial support.

CHANGES AND LESSONS (1985-2000) FROM TWO

MARINE PROTECTED AREAS IN CENTRAL

PHILIPPINES.

White Alan T. *, Christie, Patrick and Deguit Evelyn.

*Tetra Tech EM Inc., Coastal Resource Management

Project 5 th Floor, CIFC Tower, North Reclamation Area,

Cebu City, Cebu, Philippines 6000. Email:

awhite@mozcom.com

A May 1999 survey team collected baseline data on the

condition of the coral reefs inside and adjacent to marine

sanctuaries in southwest Bohol Island and updated surveys

conducted at two sites in 1986 and 1992. The study sites all

show signs of fairly healthy coral growth except for corals

affected by bleaching of 1998 and physical damage from boat

anchors and other causes. On those reefs with survey data

from 1986 and 1992, the coral condition is stable and not

significantly different than in years past. Fish abundance and

diversity, in contrast, are very low at all sites except where

sanctuaries are being actively implemented on Balicasag and

Pamilacan Islands. Particular problems include: 1) location

and maintenance of anchor buoys at all sites because of

increasing numbers of recreation boats; 2) increasing over-exploitation

of fish for food and the aquarium trade and other

useable marine organisms outside of the sanctuaries; 3)

sporadic incidents of destructive fishing; and 4) a lack of

implemented use zones for popular dive sites, in and outside of

sanctuary areas. A growing awareness about the importance of

conserving reefs was noticed through interactions with local

villagers and boatmen. Lessons learned from 15 years of

management focus on participation, localized benefits, clear

authority and responsibility and the need for broad support

from government..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B1: MPAs

159

DEVELOPMENT OF A LOCALLY-MANAGED FISH

SANCTUARY AT DISCOVERY BAY, JAMAICA.

Woodley, Jeremy*, *Centre for Marine Sciences,

University of the West Indies (Mona), Kingston 7, Jamaica.

Email: woodley@uwimona.edu.jm

Coral reef fish populations of the narrow submarine shelf off

the north coast of Jamaica have been severely over-exploited.

In 1976 I proposed the creation of a Scientific Reserve, within

which fishing would be prohibited, to limit degradation of the

benthic community, and to benefit adjacent fisheries. It would

also be an opportunity to work with a single fishing

community, helping them to introduce management measures.

Such work needed more staff, and awaited a funding

opportunity: the Fisheries Improvement Programme (FIP) of

the University of the West Indies was established in 1988, and

has worked with the fishing communities around Discovery

Bay ever since. Products of this collaboration include the

formation of fisher's organizations; support for gear changes;

and creation of the Discovery Bay Fishery Reserve, a fish

sanctuary rather than a scientific preserve. Together, we have

learned many lessons. Biologists wishing to manage natural

resources, found that they had to manage people: a task for

which they had no training. They found that education is a

two-way process. They learned that changes in knowledge,

attitudes and behaviour take much longer than they had

suspected. The fishers learned the value of group solidarity,

saw some benefits to their catches, and began to restrain their

rivalries. The transfer of operational funding to the Fishermen's

Association, increased its sense of ownership. But local action

still requires government support in a co-management

framework: legal status of the Reserve is essential. Finally, we

all learned the value of continual communication ..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B2: Large Scale Conservation

Session B2: Large-scale Spatial Frameworks for Tropical Marine Conservation

160

USING INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL LAW

TO ENHANCE CONSERVATION OF CORAL REEFS

THROUGH MARINE PROTECTED AREAS.

de Fontaubert A.C.*, *Marine Specialist, 1428 Foxhall

Road, NW, Washington, DC, 20007, USA. Email:

fontaubert@att.net

As States and other stakeholders strive to enhance the

conservation of threatened coral reefs, they sometimes ignore

the opportunities provided by the evolving international legal

regime. Starting with the Law of the Sea Convention adopted

in 1982, the community of nations has developed a strong legal

regime to manage marine living resources sustainably. Whilst

coral reefs have not been the subject of a particular legal

regime, their protection has been tremendously enhanced by

the negotiation and adoption of a growing body of agreements

and programmes of action, particularly those that call for the

designation of marine protected areas. Among the most

significant are the Convention on Biological Diversity and the

Barbados Programme of Action on the Sustainable

Development of Small Island Developing States. In addition,

States have recognized that existing political boundaries do not

reflect a biological reality and transnational cooperation has

been enhanced by a series of regional agreements and the

evolving work of UNEP’s Regional Seas Programme. At the

national and regional levels, governments can and should make

full use of these international legal instruments to give

stakeholders better control over this important resource.

THE CORALWEB: A WWF GLOBAL PROGRAM TO

ENHANCE THE CONSERVATION OF CORAL REEF

ECOSYSTEMS.

Jorge, Miguel *; Atkinson, S.; Cripps, S.; Drijver, C.;

Golder, B.; Kamau, I.; Llewellyn, G.; Mangubhai, S.;

Marin, S.; Millstein, E.; Nias, R.; Putra, K.; Ratsimbazafy,

R.; Romero, M.; Samarasekara, V.; Tupacz, J..

*WWF, 1250 24 th Street, Washington D.C. 20037 Email

jorge@wwfus.org

Coral reefs throughout the world are under intense pressure

from anthropogenic threats, including destructive fishing,

over-harvesting of key species, pollution, sedimentation,

coastal development, and many others. Recent bleaching

events have highlighted both the vulnerability of coral reef

ecosystems to natural perturbations and the possible

relationship between bleaching and climate change.

Recognizing these persistent threats, the World Wide Fund for

Nature (WWF) has launched the CoralWeb initiative, which

provides a framework of action by which WWF will redouble

its efforts to enhance the conservation of coral reefs globally.

The mission of CoralWeb is to mobilise action at all levels to

overcome the most critical threats to the long-term health of

coral reef ecosystems. CoralWeb will pursue this mission by

working to increase the conservation capacity and skills of

WWF and our partners, facilitating opportunities to learn how

to improve conservation practices, and engaging the public and

major actors in a global campaign to conserve coral reefs.

CoralWeb will enhance, refine, and build upon ongoing

conservation activities in priority ecoregions to magnify

collective conservation action and help secure the long-term

ecological integrity of coral reef systems. This paper provides

a synopsis of the CoralWeb initiative, including the rationale

for its development and the framework by which it will strive

to enhance the conservation of coral reefs.

THE APPLICATION OF GIS-BASED ANALYSIS FOR

SELECTING CONSERVATION PRIORITY AREAS IN

THE MESOAMERICAN REEF SYSTEM.

Kramer, Philip A.,* Vierros, M., Kramer, P.R. *Rosenstiel

School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of

Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL, 33149.

Email: pkramer@rsmas.miami.edu

The Mesoamerican Reef System (MRS) is the second largest

barrier reef in the world supporting extensive marine

biodiversity. A standardized, systematic Geographical

Information System (GIS) was developed and used to

synthesize existing data and create new data layers in order to

provide a spatial framework for conservation planning in the

region. The multiple layers in the GIS incorporated benthic

habitats, species distribution, oceanic currents, marine

protected areas, watersheds and socioeconomic data. A cross-shelf

habitat approach was used to develop a common

classification scheme and conduct a representation analysis.

For the analysis, benthic communities were subdivided into

cross-shelf zones, ecounits, conservation priority areas and the

amount of a particular substrate and cover type in each area

was determined and compared. Key ecological processes,

threats, and habitat and species distribution were incorporated

in the final analysis. The use of GIS-based spatial analysis of

large systems provides a powerful tool for assessing the

distribution of natural resources, the interconnectedness of

these resources, and ultimately for determining where to focus

efforts and resources for management, conservation and

research.

ECOREGION BASED CONSERVATION (ERBC) AS A

PLANNING FRAMEWORK FOR TROPICAL MARINE

CONSERVATION

Llewellyn G.*, M. Jorge, S. Atkinson, D. Olsen, E.,

Dinerstein *WWF Indonesia, Wallacea Bioregion, 179 Jl.

Hayam Wuruk, Denpasar 80235 Bali, Indonesia

mcmast@idola.net.id

Ecoregion Based Conservation (ERBC) is the planning

framework being advocated and implemented by the World

Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) at priority sites for conservation

throughout the globe. Working within a framework of large

spatial units termed Ecoregions, the foundations of successful

conservation interventions over large spatial and temporal

scales are considered to be I) a biological vision that provides

inspiration and sets priorities II) an Ecoregion Conservation

plan that provides guidance for interventions. Involving a wide

range of stakeholders is considered fundamental to the process

of formulating both these strategic documents, preferably

through workshops where priorities can be identified and

consensus can be built. What sets ERBC apart from previous

planning frameworks is that both the time-scale and spatial

scales are much larger than typically used, and the use of large

participary workshops both to set biodiversity priorities and

design interventions. Experiences from the Sulu-Sulawesi Sea

and Meso-American reef have been strongly supported by both

scientists and local resource managers and provide many

lessons for achieving ambitious conservation goals when

working with tropical marine ecosystems..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B2: Large Scale Conservation

161

LARGE-SCALE SPATIAL CLASSIFICATION

SYSTEMS FOR MARINE CONSERVATION

PLANNING

Llewellyn G., K. Putra, N. Dwisasanti *WWF Indonesia,

Wallacea Bioregion, 179 Jl. Hayam Wuruk, Denpasar

80235 Bali, Indonesia Email: mcmast@idola.net.id

Relative to the terrestrial realm, the marine realm has proven

difficult to sub-divide into smaller spatial units. Coastal

oriented classification schemes favor geomorphological

criteria, oceanic oriented classifications tend to favor

productivity or some other biophysical parameter, while

general schemes tend to integrate both physical and

biogeographic criteria. Over the last decade, several new

theoretical schemes have been published, including a range of

global marine conservation planning systems such as the wwf-us

ecoregions, large marine ecosystems (lmes), conservation

international’s hotspot approach, the iucn commission on

national parks and protected areas’ (cnppa) map-based

description of ‘world marine regions’, bailey’s marine

ecoregions, and longhurst’s biogeochemical provinces. A

comparison of these schemes is useful as it reveals the

orientation of the various authors and institutions with respect

to setting priorities, and points to general trends in marine

conservation science. For example, the large marine

ecosystems (lmes) approach focuses on ‘trophically linked’

areas of ocean space, whereas wwf ecoregions place greater

emphasis on spatial arrays of habitats rather than on

biogeography. However both focus on relatively large units for

conservation or marine resource management planning and

point to a general adoption of ‘systems’ or seascape based

approachs. If adopted broadly, these schemes have the scope to

totally reorient marine conservation strategic planning if

adopted broadly across the globe.

A MULTIOBJECTIVE APPROACH FOR

IDENTIFYING NO-TAKE ZONES IN LARGE-SCALE

CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEMS.

Parrish, Frank Ridgley, Mark *. *Dept. of Geography,

University of Hawaii; 2424 Maile Way; Honolulu, HI

96822; USA. Email: Ridgley@hawaii.edu

"No-take" (no-fishing) marine protected areas (MPAs) are

becoming a core element in the management of coral reefs. A

recent Federal decision has mandated that 20% of all US reefs,

by area, are to be so designated by the year 2010, with the

figure of 30% currently (May 2000) being discussed for

uninhabited coral-reef areas such as the Northwest Hawaiian

Islands (NWHI). The criteria on which such designation

should be based, while still being formulated, include:

maximizing biological value (e.g., biogeographic

representativeness, biodiversity, ecosystem integrity,

ecological significance); minimizing socioeconomic impacts of

closure; maximizing support by nearby communities; and

maximizing compatibility with existing no-take zones. Such

criteria clearly conflict, and tradeoffs among those objectives

will generally be unavoidable. The task is thus one of selecting

an adequately sized subset of the total area that reflects the

most preferred tradeoffs. Uncertainty (e.g., due to poor data or

expert disagreement) and conflicting preferences across

interest groups exacerbate the problem. We formulate this task

as a multiobjective optimization problem and, using the case of

the NWHI for illustration, demonstrate how the model can be

used.

MARINE PROTECTED AREAS, STATUS AND

MANAGEMENT IN THE EASTERN AFRICAN

REGION.

Waruinge, Dixon*; Nilsson, Agneta; Njunguna, Stephen.

*FAO Project Coordinator, P.O. Box 30552 Nairobi,

Kenya Email Dixon.Waruinge@unep.org.

This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the status

of the Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and policies governing

the management of the coral reefs in protected areas in the

Eastern African Region. The overview was prepared as part of

a study undertaken in the implementation of a UNEP project

entitled “ International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN)

in the Eastern African Region. Management plans and

objectives of key MPAs in Comoros, Kenya, Madagascar,

Mozambique, Seychelles, and Tanzania, are analysed. In an

attempt to protect the integrity of the marine ecosystems,

Governments of the region have created protected areas

referred to as Marine parks, reserves, or sanctuaries.

Ordinances, acts of parliament or administrative regulations

are in place at the national level, however, at the local level,

besides private sanctuaries, none of the protected areas has

effective management structures. Inadequate and unpredictable

funding, untrained personnel, management plans that are

inimical to local communities, are some of the reasons for

failed management regimes. A series of participatory

workshops with frontline stakeholders have provided action

strategies and indicators for effective management required to

reduce the effects of human related activities that threaten the

health of marine ecosystems in the Region.9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B3: Conservation Reef Fishes

Session B3: Conservation Biology of Coral Reef Fishes

162

ABUNDANCE PATTERNS AND DYNAMICS OF

LARGE CORAL REEF TELEOSTS.

Choat, J.H.*, *School of Marine Biology, James Cook

University, Queensland Australia 4811 Email

john.choat@jcu.edu.au

The harvesting of coral reef fishes in the Indo-West-Pacific

region has three main features. Most species targeted have

wide geographic distributions. They are generally large fishes.

Of 95 species targeted in the Asia-Pacific live fish trade 70%

have a maximum size > 0.5 m. Most are uncommon relative to

numerous smaller fishes on coral reefs. Management of large,

widely distributed and uncommon species requires two sorts of

biological information. 1) estimates of abundance and size

structures; 2) estimates of age specific demographic events,

growth, reproductive maturity and mortality. Abundance

estimates of large reef fishes require methods that take into

account relative rarity, clumped distributions and distinctive

patterns such as mobile schooling or cryptic behaviours. Visual

census methods for large fishes will require extensive swims

within defined habitat features. Numerous counts over small

areas are unlikely to yield useful results. Estimates of age

specific demographic rates are necessary as in many species

age and size are decoupled. Moreover reef fishes may show

marked demographic changes along latitudinal gradients.

Examples used to illustrate these points will be drawn from a

variety of taxa. Large labroid fishes (Bolbometopon and

Cheilinus) may be mobile and display diver oriented

behaviours. Serranids (especially Epinephalus) are usually

cryptic. The relationship between size and age will differ

substantially between different lineages of reef fishes,

especially labroids and acanthurids, and among different

localities for similar taxa. Estimates of the effects fishing

pressure over wide areas of a species geographic range must

take such variation into account.

CHANGE IN FISH BIODIVERSITY FOLLOWING A

CORAL BLEACHING EVENT AT HELEN REEF,

SOUTHWEST PALAU ISLANDS.

Donaldson, T.J.* and Myers, R.F.. *International

Marinelife Alliance, University of Guam Marine

Laboratory, UOG Station, Mangilao, Guam 96923 USA.

Email:

Helen Reef (Hotsarihie Atoll) is a large (61.7 km -2 reef slope

perimeter), relatively remote, and biologically diverse atoll in

the Southwest Palau Islands of Micronesia. Biogeographic

affinities are more closely aligned with neighboring Indonesia.

This atoll experienced a coral bleaching event between July-September,

1998. The effects of this event upon biological

resources were assessed in April-May, 2000. The assessment

included measures of fish biodiversity which could be

compared against those made during a previous expedition

(1992). The results of this comparison indicate a shift in

species richness and diversity of fishes at Helen Reef. We

attribute this shift to losses of habitat and food as a

consequence of coral bleaching. The pattern of species

presence-absence observed resembles that of another large,

recently surveyed atoll in the Solomon Islands that also

experienced a significant bleaching event in 1998. Both atolls

are currently at risk from illicit harvests that threaten recovery

of their respective fish communities from this bleaching event.

RARITY OF HUMPHEAD MAORI WRASSE AND

BUMPHEAD PARROTFISH IN FIJIAN SUBSISTENCE

REEF FISHERIES.

Dulvy, N.K.* and Polunin, N.V.C. *Department of Marine

Sciences and Coastal Management, University of

Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, NE1 7RU,

UK. Email: N.K.Dulvy@ncl.ac.uk

Larger species are theoretically more vulnerable to

exploitation than smaller species, due to lower rates of

population increase. On coral reefs this assumption has

scarcely been explored. We determined the abundance of the

both the world’s largest wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus), and

parrotfish (Bolbometapon muricatum), down a fishing

gradient. Questionnaire surveys indicated spearfishers target

both species and that fishing pressure was relatively light, <50

people per km -1 of reef front island -1 . B. muricatum had not

been caught at 8 islands for at least 10 years, although it had

been caught recently at 3 islands. Numbers and lengths of each

species were visually censused on the leeward outer fringing

reefs, <10m deep, by a single observer. A single reef section

~130-150m long was examined at each of 3-8 sites per island

and repeated for two seasons. Abundance was calculated as

numbers or biomass hour -1 island -1 . Forty-five C. undulatus

were observed and their abundance was weakly log-linearly,

negatively related to fishing pressure. Only 11 individuals,

comprising one shoal, of B. muricatum were sighted in 130

hours of survey time. This suggests studies of fishing effects

have little statistical power to detect rarity or extinction of

large species, and this may in turn help explain the paucity of

documented marine extinctions. We present data from nine

additional Pacific locations to suggest that B. muricatum is rare

or absent at exploited locations, but common at unexploited

locations.

IDENTIFICATION AND MONITORING OF GROUPER

AGGREGATIONS IN SOUTHERN FLORIDA, U.S.A.

Eklund A.*, Coleman, Felicia C.; Harper, Douglas E.;

Koenig, Christopher C.; and McClellan, David B.

*Southeast Fisheries Science Center, NOAA Fisheries, 75

Virginia Beach Dr., Miami, FL 33149 USA. Email:

anne.marie.eklund@noaa.gov

Jewfish, Epinephelus itajara, aggregate on isolated wrecks in

the eastern Gulf of Mexico in 30-50 m of water during their

spawning season from July-September. Up to 100 individuals

were observed on these aggregations when they were first

discovered. Within a couple of years after discovery, the

abundance of jewfish at the aggregation sites declined

precipitously to less than 10 individuals. After ten years of

protection, these numbers have increased to 20-40 fish per

site. In 1998, we also documented an aggregation of 100 black

grouper, Mycteroperca bonaci, in the Florida Keys, during

their spawning season in January and February. This

observation is the only documented siting of black grouper in

numbers greater than a dozen individuals. The black grouper

are not afforded the same protection as the jewfish, however

future marine protected areas may encompass the vulnerable

aggregation..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B3: Conservation Reef Fishes

163

REEF FISHES AND FISHERIES IN BRAZIL´S CORAL

COAST MPA: MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVES.

Ferreira, B.P.* and M. Maida. *Dep. Oceanografia,

Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil.

Email: beatrice@free.elogica.com.br

Reef fisheries is an important activity in the Coral Coast

MPA, Northeast Brazil. Since 1998 fish and fisheries

assessment through fishermen interviews, collection of

fisheries catch statistics and underwater visual census have

been conducted along the MPA. Local fishermen were trained

to collect and report fisheries data and participated of the UVC

surveys. Initial phase Scarids were the most caught fish by line

and spear fishing in the inshore, shallow reefs. Top predators

as Serranids and Lutjanids, which dominate the catches of the

offshore bottom line fisheries, were less abundant, and

represented mainly by juveniles or smaller, faster growing

species. In 1999, a reef area of four square kilometers was

closed to all fishing and tourism activities. A rapid initial

recovery was observed, probably the result of reduced

mortality, fish migration and behavioural changes. Fishing

avoidance may have played an important role in the recovery.

Due to weather conditions, fishing intensity varied seasonally.

Catches decreased during summer, as fishing pressure was

intensified and increased again after the winter recess. Deeper

reefs may be for some species, a spatial refugia that has been

maintaining fisheries despite the intense pressure over the

shallower habitats.

EFFECT OF OVER-EXPLOITATION BY CYANIDE

FISHING ON THE POPULATION STRUCTURE OF

PLECTROPOMUS LEOPARDUS (SERRANIDAE:

EPINEPHELINAE) IN THE PHILIPPINES.

Mamauag, Samuel S. * ; Pratt, Vaughan R.; Donaldson,

Terry J.; and McCullogh, Bryan. * International Marinelife

Alliance, 83 West Capitol Drive, Bo. Kapitolyo, Pasig City

1601 Philippines. Email: sam@imamarinelife.org.

Cyanide has been reportedly used in the live fish food trade

(LFFT) in the Philippines. Present levels of harvest in the

LFFT may indicate that over-exploitation is likely. One of the

highly targeted fish species in the LFFT is the coral trout

Plectropomus leopardus (Serranidae: Epinephelinae). To

determine the effects of over-exploitation by cyanide fishing

on the population structure of P. leopardus, fishery data

between 1997-1999 were assessed in Coron and Guiuan.

Landings of live P. leopardus in the two sites showed

increased catches. Population parameters of P. leopardus were

estimated using FISAT analysis of age estimates which,

however, await validation. Initial results from age estimates

inferred from validated age estimates of P. leopardus in a

previous study, indicated that P. leopardus was slow-growing

and long-lived. Recruitment of P. leopardus peaked in summer

while total mortality (Z) and exploitation (E) rates seemed to

be high. Since cyanide-fishing targets a wide range of sizes

(and ages) and is biased towards sexually mature moderate-sized

fish that bring high prices, this harvest method could

therefore result in recruitment overfishing. As such, cyanide

fishing will possibly cause limited recruitment of P. leopardus

and, consequently, may lead to the decline and/or depletion of

the population.

THE LIVE FISH TRADE: IMPACTS ON THE

SUSTAINABILITY OF REEF FISH STOCKS AND THE

FISHING COMMUNITY.

Muldoon, Geoffrey *; Fernandes, L.; Davies, C. *CRC for

the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area, James Cook

University, Townsville QLD 4811 AUSTRALIA. Email:

geoffrey.muldoon@jcu.edu.au

The growing demand for live reef food fish has seen an

increasing number of countries participating in the live fish

trade. This has raised concern over the effects targeting this

‘high value-added’ product may have on the sustainability of

fish stocks. Live product, predominantly Common Coral trout

(Plectropomus leopardus), was first marketed from the Great

Barrier Reef (GBR) reef-line fishery in 1993 and has coincided

with an increase in fishing effort and catch. This research

examined implications of the shift to live fishing in terms of

individual vessel productivity and found significant differences

in productivity of vessels that fished solely for frozen product

versus those that targeted live product. The implications of the

shift to marketing live fish within the GBR region may be both

positive and negative with respect to the fishery’s

sustainability. In the short term, the premium paid for live reef

fish provides considerable incentive for fishers to augment

effort to increase profits. In the longer term, increased revenue

per unit of product allows for smaller catches with income

remaining stable or increasing. The net effect of these will be

contingent on effective management of both effort and fishing

practices. In South-east Asia and the Indo-Pacific, higher

prices for live fish have led to the use of destructive fishing

practices that threaten the long-term sustainability of biological

and human systems. Evidence from this research suggests that

with passive and non-destructive fishing techniques (ie hook

and line) and effective controls on fishing effort, the live fish

trade could have long term ecological and economic benefits

for fish stocks and the community

ARE MANGROVES AND SEAGRASS BEDS OBLIGATE

NURSERIES FOR CARIBBEAN REEF FISHES?

Nagelkerken, I.; S. Kleijnen, T. Klop, R. van den Brand,

C.M. Roberts, G. van der Velde, M. Dorenbosch, M.C. van

Riel, E. Cocheret de la Morinière, and P.H. Nienhuis.

Aquatic Ecology, University of Nijmegen, 6525 ED

Nijmegen, The Netherlands. Email: inagelk@cura.net

Mangroves and seagrass beds are considered important

nursery habitats for coral reef fishes, but it is not known if

these habitats are obligate or facultative nurseries. The

abundance of 17 fish species, known to utilise mangroves and

seagrass beds as nurseries, was compared among 11 different

bays with/without mangroves/seagrass beds in Curaçao. Also ,

the densities of these fish species on the coral reef were

compared between islands with bays containing

mangroves/seagrass beds and islands lacking these nursery

habitats. Most fish species were absent or showed highly

reduced densities in bays without mangroves/seagrass beds and

on islands lacking these nursery habitats..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B3: Conservation Reef Fishes

164

CHALLENGES AND FRUSTRATIONS IN AN

OVERFISHED MULTI-SPECIES REEF FISHERIES.

Pastor, Davelyn S.*; Castrence, Fernando I.; Aliño,

Porfirio M.; and Juinio-Meñez, Marie Antonette. * Marine

Science Institute, University of the Philippines, Diliman,

Quezon City 1101, PHILIPPINES.

dabe@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

Over the years declining fishery resources have been

documented in Bolinao, Pangasinan, Philippines. Changes in

the state of coastal resources were determined from habitat and

resource monitoring, landed catch, underwater fish visual

census, gear maps and harvest techniques. The decline is in

terms of species diversity and composition, catch volume,

catch-per-unit of effort (CPUE). Moreover, commercially

important fin fishes and invertebrates were significantly

reduced – reaffirming the overfished status of the Bolinao reef.

The rabbitfish Siganus fuscescens is one of the most important

fishery resource of Bolinao. The traditional harvesting of S.

fuscescens recruits (padas) for fish paste and spawners

(barangen) before it can successfully spawn are classic

examples of the combined effect of growth and recruitment

overfishing. Added to this issue are the conflicts on gear use

(i.e. mesh sizes), ineffective implementation of open and close

season and the lack of support for the establishment of a

marine protected area around the Malilnep Channel, a major

siganid spawning route in Bolinao. Thus, the regular

monitoring of the fisheries indicate challenges as well as

opportunities to address overfishing in Bolinao. Some

interventions that in place are the establishment of a marine

protected area (reserve), policy reforms on concession,

resource enhancement and engendering stakeholder

participation.

REHABILITATION OF CORAL REEF FISH

COMMUNITIES: ARE HIGH-RELIEF ARTIFICIAL

STRUCTURES BETTER RECRUITES THAN LOW-RELIEF

ONES?

Rilov, Gil; * and Benayahu, Yehuda. *Institute for Nature

Conservation Research, George S. Wise Faculty of Life

Sciences, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv 69978, Israel.

Email: shaishir@hotmail.com

Artificial reefs have been suggested as a potential tool for the

restoration of coral reef systems. Size, relief, surface area,

complexity and location were all demonstrated to be important

factors in influencing the success of an artificial reef. In the

present study, conducted in eilat, red sea, we tested the

hypothesis that high relief structures are a most useful design

for artificial reefs in coral reef areas. First, we demonstrated

that both species richness and fish abundance were

significantly higher around the pillars of the eilat oil jetties

(vertical structures) than at all three natural sites investigated

(located on a moderated slope), with the lowest values at the

site closest to the city (most exposed to anthropogenic effects).

Secondly, we compared the initial recruitment of coral reef

fishes to vertical high-relief versus near-bottom low-relief

experimental installations, and showed that recruitment was

about two orders of magnitude higher to the former design.

Planktivores formed the initial stage of the fish-assemblage on

the vertical installations, and most settled at the installations’

upper sections. Regarding conservation, this study

demonstrates that in order to achieve rapid recruitment and

maximum biodiversity of coral reef fish in a denuded coral

reef environment, the construction of complex vertical

structures is preferable over low-relief ones, where applicable.

THE QUESTION OF SPECIES ENDANGERMENT IN

REEF FISHES.

Sadovy, Yvonne*. *The Department of Ecology &

Biodiversity, The University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam

Road, Hong Kong. Email: yjsadovy@hkusua.hku.hk

The question of whether or not marine fishes can or have

become endangered by human activities has only received

serious consideration within the last decade. Prior to this, and

even among many biologists today, it has been assumed that

the widespread geographic distribution, high fecundities and

dispersive capabilities of the eggs and/or larvae of most marine

fishes, especially those of commercial importance, render them

immune to reductions in population numbers at a scale that

could threaten the long-term persistence of the species. Data

on several species of reef fishes, however, strongly suggest

potentially serious population-level declines. Examples are to

be found particularly among the groupers (Serranidae) and the

wrasses (Labridae) with these two groups representing 10% of

all fishes, fully 50% of all the commercial species, included in

the 1996 IUCN Red List of marine fishes. Species in these

families exhibit life history characteristics that make them

particularly vulnerable. These include long lives, and, for

many species, reproductive activities that are highly

concentrated in time and space. Moreover, for many, their

market value increases with rarity whereby fishing pressure

persists even under severely reduced catch rates per unit of

effort. The life history traits and our ability to assess these

meaningfully in the context of species endangerment, and the

fishing pressures encountered by these two families of reef

fishes are examined and evaluated.

IMPACTS OF THE 1998 CORAL MORTALITY ON

REEF FISH COMMUNITIES IN THE SEYCHELLES.

Spalding, Mark D.*. *Cambridge Coastal Research Unit,

Department of Geography, Downing St, Cambridge, UK

Email: mark.spalding@wcmc.org.uk

Coral reef fish communities in the Seychelles are highly

diverse and remain less affected by the direct impacts of

human activities than many other reefs in the Indian Ocean.

These factors make them highly suitable for a detailed survey

of the impacts of the 1998 mass coral mortality which

devastated the coral faunas of the region. Using underwater

visual census (UVC) techniques, fish communities were

sampled from three localities in the southern Seychelles and

one locality in the northern (granitic) Seychelles. Initial counts

were undertaken from one site in 1997, counts were taken at

all sites during the coral bleaching episode in 1998 prior to any

major changes in the reef fish communities. Repeat counts

were undertaken in 1999 one year after the coral mortality.

Over 250 fish species were sampled from 35 families. Results

suggest changes in the overall fish community structures and

biomass have been minimal, despite massive changes in the

benthic cover. There have been minor changes in the

abundance of particular species, notably those most heavily

dependant on live coral cover for shelter or sustenance. Future

potential changes are discussed, and potential management

interventions are considered..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B3: Conservation Reef Fishes

165

ASSESSING THE STATUS OF ORNAMENTAL FISH

AND INVERTEBRATES IN SRI LANKA: A DUAL

APPROACH USING UNDERWATER SURVEYS AND

COLLECTOR'S KNOWLEDGE

Wood, Elizabeth*; and Rajasuriya, Arjan. *Marine

Conservation Society, 9 Gloucester Road, Ross-on-Wye,

Herefordshire HR9 5BU. UK. E-mail:

ewood@globalnet.co.uk

For many years the marine ornamental export trade in Sri

Lanka was not monitored or regulated, and there were

concerns about possible impacts of the fishery. This led to the

development of a collaborative programme involving resource

managers and the ornamental industry, the aim of which was to

produce a conservation management plan for the fishery.

Underwater censuses were carried out by researchers to

provide data on the distribution and abundance of a range of

species of interest to the ornamental trade. These findings were

reviewed by collectors and exporters and their collective input

sought so that a more comprehensive assessment of

conservation status could be made. Those who work daily with

the resource hold a huge store of knowledge which goes

largely unrecorded. Whilst information from collectors is not

quantitative, and so may be rejected as being ‘unscientific’, its

usefulness in providing an assessment of the availability of

species is beyond doubt. Population censuses and user

assessments of the resource have made it possible to produce a

plan for the conservation and management of marine

ornamental resources that is acceptable to all sectors and so

more likely to succeed..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B4: Coelacanth

Session B4: Global Priorities for Coelacanth Research and Conservation in the 21 st

Century

166

ON-GOING CONSERVATION EFFORTS FOR THE

PRESERVATION OF LATIMERIA CHALUMNAE IN

THE COMORO ARCHIPELAGO

Ahamada, Said *. Association for Gombessa Preservation

B.P. 1545 MORONI Comoros. Email:

s.ahamada@caramail.com

Until the recent discovery of an Indonesian coelacanth, the

Western Indian Ocean islands of Grand Comoro and Anjouan

were the only known biotope in the world of coelacanth

populations. Recent estimates by Drs. Hans Fricke and

Raphael Plante reported this population to be between 200 to

300 individuals. However, since the discovery of the Comoros

Islands population in 1952, more than 200 coelacanths

specimens have been captured as accidental by-catch of an

established artisanal fishery. There is therefore a risk of

extinction of the population in the next few decades. In

previous years the high demand for specimens from museums

and other scientific institutions was met, in part, by an increase

in near-shore fishing activity. This may directly or indirectly

have resulted in a serious depletion of the Comoros coelacanth

population. This situation has led to conservation actions

undertaken by local communities and political authorities,

assisted by international and regional scientists and sponsors.

Those efforts include Public Awareness and Environmental

education; Research and Monitoring ; Law Enforcement;

Alternative fishing techniques; Establishment of the regional

marine coelacanth park; Establishment of the coelacanth

Resuscitation unit and deep-water release techniques. In each

programme we discuss aspects of the diagnosis of the

situation, specific aims and activities. For the establishment of

the regional coelacanth marine park an emphasise is given to

steps of the process especially the feasibility study.

The above programmes need to be consolidated through a

holistic plan to be conceived and executed from a local level

with the co-operation and participation of all interested parties.

NEUROANTOMY OF COELACANTHS: UNIQUE

INSIGHTS INTO NATURAL HISTORY AND

ECOLOGY

Albert James S.*. Florida Museum of Natural History,

University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA, Email:

albert@flmnh.ufl.edu

The morpholgy of all vertebrate species is a mosaic of

specialized and primitive features. Coelacanths provide a

celebrated illustration if this principle, being the only surviving

members of an ancient vertebrate lineage while simultaneously

possessing certain features highly specialized for life in deep,

dark, poorly oxygenated tropical waters. Neurological studies

of Latimeria menadoensis will provide unique insights into

natural history and ecology. In particular, detailed knowledge

of the connections in olfactory, visual, electrosensory, and

gustatory pathways provides otherwise inaccessible

information on the nature of meaningful life history cues.

Using fluorescent tracers we can study neural connections in

formalin preserved specimens. Neural networks are now being

resolved for members of all major vertebrate taxa. Yet the

organization of the brain of Latimeria remains among the most

poorly understood of all vertebrates. R. Nieuwenhuys reports

“our present knowledge of the CNS... of Latimeria chalumnae

is exclusively based on non-experimental histological

materials, most of which is at best of mediocre quality

(Nieuwenhuys, 1998:1038).“ Establishing a protocol for

preserving incidentally captured coelacanths is indispensable

to advancing knowledge of their biology, and for making

informed conservation decisions.

THE SENSORY CANAL SYSTEMS IN THE LIVING

COELACANTH.

Balon E.K.* & Karol Hensel. *Axelrod Institute of

Ichthyology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G

2W1, Canada. Email: ebalon@uoguelph.ca

The entire sensory canal system of the late term fetuses of

coelacanth, Latimeria chalumnae, is described: not only the

course of principal canals with their primary and secondary

collaterals, but also the course and branches of the pit-line

and reticular canals. The number of pores on one side of the

head were found to be 296 in an early ( yolksac) embryo, 321

in a late term fetus, 485 in a juvenile, and 2974 in adults. This

means that in Latimeria most of the lateral-line canal system

develops after parturition. Pit lines of the living coelacanth are

not rows of superficial neuromasts but canals covered by

thin epidermis similar to other sensory canals of the lateral

line. These pit-line canals, however, have a very specific

structure and branching pattern: the medial dorsal pit-line

canals are connected by fine branches on top of the head. The

infradental pit-line canal connects via these branches with

canals deep inside the bones. Several fine and richly branched

canaliculi of unknown function radiate from each

quadratojugal pit-line canal. The gular plate pit-line canal has

superficially branching arms as well as connections to

numerous deeper canals inside the bone. These canals consist

of fine branches that in turn open on the ventral surface of the

gular plates as small pores. The system is reminiscent of the

reticular (pore) canal system known only from some fossil

agnathans and fishes. Thus Latimeria combines the reticular

system of ancient vertebrates with the lateral-line system of

modern fishes.

LATIMERIA MENADOENSIS: A CONSERVATION

SUCCESS STORY.

Erdmann M.V.,* MK Moosa and RL Caldwell. Univ.

California, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA. Email:

flotsam@manado.wasantara.net.id

The discovery of the heretofore unknown coelacanth

Latimeria menadoensis provided a unique opportunity to

formulate a conservation plan for a species not yet

intentionally exploited by humans. Before the discovery was

publicly announced, we initiated an awareness campaign

among Indonesian government officials to begin the process of

enacting conservation measures to prevent overexploitation of

L. menadoensis by local and international museums,

aquariums, and rare animal collectors. Shortly after the public

announcement, a series of meetings with Indonesian scientists,

environmentalists and policy makers resulted in a national law

protecting the species and an international proposal to expand

CITES Appendix 1 protection to the Indonesian coelacanth.

An intensive coelacanth conservation awareness campaign by

the Indonesian Institute of Sciences and the Japanese agency

JICA produced posters, information brochures, tshirts, hats,

calendars and a children’s book, all with a coelacanth

conservation message. This campaign, aided by frequent and

widespread media exposure of the coelacanth and its

conservation status, has resulted in a strong sense of local and

even national pride over the Indonesian coelacanth. A recent

program funded by WWF has created a team of youth

volunteers in the park to monitor coelacanth catches, and has

promoted the development of several cottage industries

producing coelacanth handicrafts for sale to tourists..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B4: Coelacanth

167

CONFESSIONS OF A COELACANTH CATCHER: THE

EVOLUTION OF THE COELACANTH RESCUE

MISSION AND EXPERIENCES WITH

RESUSCITATION ATTEMPTS ON CAPTIVE

SPECIMENS OF LATIMERIA CHALUMNAE.

Hamlin J.* . Coelacanth Rescue Mission, Greenwich CT

06831 U.S.A. Email: dinofish@cloud9.net

In the 1980's the author led a series of expeditions to the

Comoro Islands with the goal of capturing a living coelacanth

for eventual display in a public aquarium. These attempts were

met with a mixture of support and international outcry, and

eventually led to the development of the present Coelacanth

Rescue Mission Conservation Project which focuses instead on

public education and coelacanth conservation strategies in the

Comoros. The author will present an historical overview of the

evolution of the Coelacanth Rescue Mission, with a focus on

recent initiatives including the www.dinofish.com website,

deep release kits for use by Comoran handliner fishermen, and

especially the "life boat" resuscitation pool strategy for

accidental coelacanth bycatch specimens. Failures of

resuscitation attempts in the past are examined critically and a

new strategy for accidental catch resuscitations using a unique

cooling system is presented. The use of this resuscitation

method in combination with fishermen deep release kits should

help greatly reduce fatalities of bycatch coelacanth specimens

in the Comoros.

THE COELACANTH PARADIGM : A COGNITIVE

ECOLOGY FOR THE ENVIRONMENT.

Henon C*. CRRM-University of Aix-Marseille III, France

(and CRC-University of Canberra). Postal Address: 15 rue

Mme Curie, 08000 Charleville-Mézières, France. Email:

christinehenon@hotmail.com

The coelacanth has survived relatively unchanged throughout

~ 400 million years, today comprising 2 species surviving at 2

widely separated localities (latimeria chalumnae in comoros

island, latimeria menadoensis in sulawesi). This paper

discusses the circumstances and characteristics of the

coelacanth which may lead to an understanding that

“development” doesn’t always mean “evolution” toward

increased complexity. The history of the coelacanth and of the

human view on the exceptional particularities of this fish, from

the old socio-economics dominated paradigm to the new

paradigm (one of environmental knowledge and awareness),

can help us to understand the different approach to knowledge,

the different values, and the values of such knowledge. The

coelacanth may thus symbolize and benefit the diversity and

complexity of life and cognition, and the natural environment,

in both space and time. The paper develops the concept of a

cognitive ecology for the environment, aimed to a new

environmental philosophy of “evolutionary everlastingness”. A

pragmatic proposition follows with a project centered on the

iconic coelacanth. This project begins with a complementary,

cooperative and adaptive organization and management of a

cluster of «complexity reserves» (displaying environmental,

sociologic, economic, and cognitive complexity), through

sustainable tourism (as a transitional tool from the old

paradigm to the new paradigm).

COELACANTH PRESERVATION AND UTILIZATION.

Jewett, Susan L.* Division of Fishes, National Museum of

Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC

20560-0159, USA. Email: jewett.susan@nmnh.si.edu.

The large size of coelacanths and the unpredictable timing of

their capture has resulted in many specimens being preserved

by the most convenient method available. This often entails

freezing the specimen initially. Formalin fixation followed by

alcohol preservation is the time-honored method of preserving

fish specimens for scientific collections and is ideal for the

study of gross anatomy. Tissue sampling for DNA analysis

must be conducted prior to formalin fixation. Freezing

specimens before fixing them hinders the study of

microanatomy because the resulting ice crystals severely

damage tissues for use in histology. The various needs of

scientific study also must balanced with those of public

exhibition and education. A protocol for the preservation of

incidentally captured coelacanths is proposed, based on

maximizing the potential use for scientific study and public

exhibition. A summary of the preservation methods used for

existing museum specimens is presented, along with (where

determinable) each museum’s policy on allowing examination

and destructive sampling of the specimens. The establishment

of an international coelacanth advisory committee to make

recommendations pertaining to coelacanth preservation,

appropriate international repositories for newly obtained

specimens, and policies relating to international transport and

the sharing of resources is suggested.

CHARACTERIZING DEEPWATER HABITATS IN

HAWAII USING MULTIBEAM SONAR AND

SUBMERSIBLE TECHNOLOGIES.

Kelley, Christopher*. *Hawaii Undersea Research

Laboratory, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI,

96822, USA.

The ehu, Etelis carbunculus, is a commercially valuable

deepwater snapper whose population in the main Hawaiian

Islands has been severely depleted. These fish inhabit areas of

hard substrate between the depths of 200-350 m. Since very

little else is known about their ecology, research is presently

being conducted to gain a better understanding of their habitat

requirements. Four habitat sites around the island of Oahu

were recently studied in an attempt to identify their common

geological and biological features. High-resolution bathymetry

and backscatter data were obtained using a Simrad 300

multibeam sonar system and imported into Arcview GIS to

generate 2-D and 3-D seafloor images. Direct observations of

the substrate, invertebrates, and fish on the sites were obtained

with the use of the Pisces V submersible and the RCV-150

ROV. The submersible and ROV tracking data were

subsequently imported into Arcview and superimposed on the

multibeam images. At the megahabitat scale, the multibeam

data showed distinct topographic differences between these

sites. However, at the meso- and macro-habitat scales, data

from the submersible and ROV dives indicated that the four

sites had several important similarities with respect to

availability of cavities and densities of small fish and

invertebrates. The results of this study indicate that a substrate

with numerous cavities, where ehu and their potential prey

organisms can find shelter, is an important characteristic of the

habitats for this deepwater snapper. The potential applicability

of these technologies to the study of coelacanths is discussed..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B4: Coelacanth

168

TH E 1975 CAS COELACANTH EXP EDITION, WITH

CO MMENTS ON ATTEMPTS BY AQUARIUMS TO

CAPTURE AND DISPLAY LATIMERIA.

McCosker J. *. Calif ornia Acad em y of Sci en ces, San

Fran cisco, Cal iforn ia, USA. Email :

jmccosker@calacademy.org

T he hi story of t he 1975 Am eri can-F ranco Coel acant h

Expedit ion t o Grande Com ore will be r eviewed. No specimens

were capt ured dur ing t he si x- week expediti on, probably as a result

of t he east Af rican dr ought ; however, t wo pr evi ously-capt ur ed

fr ozen speci mens were retur ned t o Ameri can m useum s and

intensely investi gated. Many deep-water scuba di ves were m ade

in t he vi cinit y of Iconi and at ot her l ocati ons, an ichthyological

inventory was accom pli shed, and coelacanth f isher men were

intervi ewed. The hist or y of att em pts by var ious aquar ium s to

capt ure coel acant hs for research and di spl ay wi ll be r evi ewed

DEMOGRAPHICS AND EXTINCTION RISK IN THE

COELACANTH, LATIMERIA CHALUMNAE.

Musick, John A.*, Milani Chaloupka, and David H. Secor.

Virginia Institute of Marine Science, PO Box 1346,

Gloucester Point, VA 23062 USA. Email:

jmusick@vims.edu

Examination of the otoliths of a female specimen of

Latimeria chalumnae (CCC no. 141) suggest that previous

estimates of age and growth of this species based on scales

have grossly overestimated these parameters. In addition, the

relationship between growth rate, size, and ambient water

temperature recorded for other fishes suggests that growth in

L. chalumnae should be much slower than that estimated from

scales. The reliability of scales as an aging tool has been

questioned for many species of fishes, particularly those that

are long-lived. A Von Bertalanffy growth curve based on

back-calculation of presumed annuli found on the otoliths

suggests that L. chalumnae has very slow growth, (k=0.04),

matures at about 27 years, and may attain 60 years of age.

Based on these parameters and the average of two published

accounts of litter size (x=16) we have used stochastic

demographic modeling techniques to simulate the population

trajectory of L. chalumnae off Grand Comoro. We examine

published estimates of fishing mortality and submersible

observations of recent population decline as part of this

simulation study.

A COELACANTH PARK IN GRANDE COMORE ?

REQUISITES AND PROJECTS.

Plante, R. *, H. Fricke, C. Chaboud, G. David, C. Hénon,

Y. Hénocque. *C.O.M. Univ. Méditerranée, rue Batterie

des Lions 13007F Marseille France. Email:

Plante@com.univ-mrs.fr

Because the source population of Latimeria menadoensis in

Indonesian waters has probably not yet been found, the

Comorian population of coelacanths remains sofar the only

known well established coelacanth population on earth. From

in situ observations and studies on traditional fishing activities,

the Comorian population appears to be endangered, primarily

by the bottom-line fishing method of local fishermen. For

several years, ecological investigations and socio-economic

feasibility studies for a Marine Coelacanth Park have been

performed at Grande Comore. Because of the behavioural and

ecological habits of the coelacanths, the Park should be

established more in terms of a new fisheries management than

of restrictions of rural fishing activities. We propose the use of

Fish Aggregating Devices (FAD's) to target pelagic fisheries,

thus diverting the fishing effort from the bottom. The socio-economical

context of the project (fishermen are among the

poorest groups in comorian society) leads to the idea of an

integrated management policy: conservation of coelacanths

should go together with the social development of fishermen

and coastal human populations. Such prerequisites are similar

to those which are used under the Man and Biosphere

regulations, i. e. ensuring a simultaneous and harmonious

development of environment and human society. In the past,

political instability prevented the enforcement of a rigid

environmental program. Therefore the establishment of a

Marine Coelacanth Park should rely upon the traditional

organisation of the Comoran society, i.e. the village´s civilian

and religious authorities, but at the same time it should be

ruled by an International Association..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B5: Examples Resources Man.

Session B5: Worldwide Examples of Coral Reef Resource Management

169

PROACTIVE MANAGEMENT FOR CONSERVATION

OF ACROPORA PALMATA AND ACROPORA

CERVICORNIS: APPLICATION OF THE U.S.

ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT.

Bruckner, A.W. * and Hourigan, T.F. *NOAA/National

Marine Fisheries Service, 1315 East West Highway, Silver

Spring, Maryland, United States. Email:

andy.bruckner@noaa.gov

Acropora palmata and A. cervicornis are important

framework-building corals that provide a critical structuring

role on shallow Caribbean reefs. In recent decades both

species have declined from white-band disease and other

factors. To increase awareness about their decline, the

National Marine Fisheries Service in June 1999 identified A.

palmata and A. cervicornis as candidate species for the United

States Endangered Species Act (ESA). Candidate status does

not add legal protection, but is designed to promote efforts to

obtain reliable information on the species and to encourage

voluntary conservation strategies for the protection of

remaining populations. Application of the ESA to marine

invertebrates presents several challenges. While distinct

vertebrate populations can be listed, a marine invertebrate must

be threatened throughout its range. Both Acropora spp. are

widespread, however a survey of available information

revealed gaps that prevent a synoptic overview of their status.

Furthermore, measures of rarity have been developed for

individuals, and may not be applicable to clonal organisms that

rely on asexual fragmentation as a primary mode of

propagation. An ESA listing requires implementation of a

recovery plan and action by Federal agencies to conduct

conservation programs, and to promote research, restoration

and protection for these species, thereby benefitting associated

coral reef organisms and the ecosystems upon which they

depend.

MANAGING CONSERVATION PLAYERS:

SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECT OF SSME PLANNING.

Cola.R* *WWF-Philippines, 23 Maalindog St. UP Village,

Diliman 1101 Quezon City. Email: rcola@skyinet.net

Gearing individual and group behavior for conservation is

prerequisite to its success. This is the reason behind the

conduct of two main activities in ecoregional planning:

profiling the conditions and activities of resource users along

Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME) and conduct of

nation-wide stakeholders’ planning meetings. The profile

presents the population dynamics, cultural processes and

resource use of people directly using the SSME’s resources.

The profile attained many purposes including identification of

key players and emphasizing the urgency of SSME. The

players range from government bodies making sweeping

national policies to subsistence fisherfolks who fish everyday

just to eat. The multi-player planing process anticipates a

multi-player implementation process required by the enormity

and complexity of SSME conservation. The stakeholders attain

common understanding of SSME condition in six regional and

one national meetings. The national meeting wrapped-up the

result of regional meetings into national agenda. The result is a

multi-activity and multi-phase plan. In the national meeting,

the stakeholders committed their participation in

implementation in consideration of their mandate and

resources. The actions developed into Philippine SSME

Management Framework Plan that merged with those of

Indonesia and Malaysia to become SSME Management

Framework Plan.

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED AND REMEDIAL

MEASURES NEEDED IN THE GULF OF MANNAR

BIOSPHERE RESERVE.

Dhandapani P.*, *Chief of Marine Biological Station, ZSI,

Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. Of India, C-9/

113, Kendriya Vihar, Thiruverkadu. P.O., Chennai-600

077. Email : telflow@vsnl.com

The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve is known to have a

rich marine biodiversity comprising of coral reefs, pearl

oysters, sacred chunks, marine algae, seagrass, innumerable

species of invertebrates, Hemichordates, Protochordates ,

ornamental and edible fish, turtles, the migrating Cetaceans

and the domicile Sirenian, the Dugong dugon . Unfortunately,

improper management and unethical methodology adopted to

harvest the marine products with absolutely no respect for

environmental ethics is gradually depleting its biodiversity.

The trade in seahorses, sea cucumbers, sea fans, sea ferns and

algae has almost tilted the process of natural recuperation of

these biotic components to the extent of possible extirpation

from this coral reef ecosystem. Shore based industrial

activities, coral mining, use of dynamite for fishing have added

to the misery of this biosphere reserve. It is high time to take a

serious view of this situation and with the involvement of local

communities, take up remedial measures through regulated

trade of marine products backed by community based marine

resource management.

CORAL REEFS OF THE ABROLHOS BANK, BRAZIL:

MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION STATUS.

Dutra, Guilherme F.* & Werner, Timothy B..

*Conservation International do Brasil, Av. Antônio

Abrahão Caram, 820/302 – 31275 000 – Belo Horizonte,

MG, Brazil. Email: g.dutra@conservation.org.br

The Abrolhos Bank, located off the Southeast coast of the

state of Bahia in Brazil, supports the most biologically diverse

coral reefs in the Southern Atlantic, and has the largest

concentration of Brazilian reef endemics. The biodiversity of

the Abrolhos Bank is currently threatened by overfishing from

coastal communities, by an apparent increase in sedimentation

from logging of the once extensive coastal Atlantic Forest, and

by unmanaged growth in tourism. Since 1983, three marine

protected areas have been established on the Abrolhos Bank,

and a fourth will soon be established for a total coverage of

532,000 hectares. Although all of these areas together will put

over 90% of the Bank's coral reefs under protected status, only

15% of this area can be considered effectively managed. A

recent rapid marine biodiversity survey of the Abrolhos Bank

also identified that a number of biologically rich and distinct

areas were not yet captured within existing protected areas.

Management of existing conservation units falls under

different government departments at the national, state, and

municipal levels. The protected areas of the Abrolhos Bank

form the core of a multiple-use area that falls under a regional

conservation strategy developed by Conservation International

together with these government agencies, local fishermen,

scientists, tour operators, and other non-governmental

organizations. In our paper, we present some progress to date

including the creation of a mangrove forest reserve and an

extractive fishing reserve, as well as plans for integrating coral

reef protection into a broader coastal zone management

strategy..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B5: Examples Resources Man.

170

PROTECTION OF THE CORAL REEFS OF GUAM.

Gawel M.*. 120 Bengbing St., Yigo, GU 96929, USA.

Email: mgawel@ite.net

Guam consists of a single main island surrounded by shallow

fringing coral reefs. The marine species and ecology of

Guam’s coral reefs have been studied extensively, especially

through programs of the University of Guam’s Marine

Laboratory. In addition to overfishing and destructive fishing

practices, the coral reef communities of Guam have been

damaged by destruction from major storm waves; loss of

corals to crown of thorns starfish predation; damage by

recreational swimmers, divers and watercraft operators;

grounding of ships and pollutant discharges of sewage and of

stormwater. However, the most serious damage is due to

accelerated siltation, sedimentation and turbidity due to

erosion related to land use practices. Steps are taken to protect

Guam’s coral reefs and coastal waters through legislation,

regulations, permit systems and policies. Environmental

impact assessments, Guam’s Coral Reef Initiative, fisheries

regulations, water quality standards and controls by the Guam

Seashore Protection Commission play a major role in the

protection of Guam’s coral reefs, while research and plans for

new legislation to protect coral reefs and their resources are

underway.

MANAGEMENT OF MARINE SANCTUARIES IN

BOHOL, CENTRAL PHILIPPINES.

Gulayan S*, Ancog, Isidore; Pajaro, Marivic; and Brunio,

Erwin. *Haribon Foundation for the Conservation of

Natural Resources, 9 Malingap St. Teachers Village,

Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines. Email:

gulayan@mozcom.com

Bohol has 58 marine protected areas more (commonly

known as marine or fish sanctuaries) scattered all over its

mainland and islets. These are mostly no fishing zones with

only 28 of them strictly enforced and the other 15 with

moderate and weak enforcement. The rest (15 MPAs) have

only a legal basis but is not enforced. Bohol has a tradition of

managing coastal areas called sona which may be part of the

reason for the ready acceptance of MPAs in many villages.

There is support from several local government units, i.e. the

provincial, municipal and village levels which help enforce

the sanctuaries although management is mostly at the village

level. One of the very few MPAs that operate with a

management plan is that of Batasan village which formulated

this in a participatory manner. The community became

involved in assessment of the coastal resources and in the

analysis which was carried on to management planning. This

process of designing management plans is also being done in

other MPAs whose management is being shared by more than

one village. However, absence of a formal management plan

does not preclude effective management of MPAs in Bohol.

Several other mechanisms of managing its MPAs either

through people’s organizations, management councils and the

local government units has been evolved. The management

scheme that works and does not work for this island province

can serve as guide to other areas wanting to establish or

improve the management of their MPAs.

BEYOND DATA: THE EXPANDED ROLE OF A

VOLUNTEER PROGRAMME ASSISTING RESOURCE

ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT IN THE BAY

ISLANDS, HONDURAS.

Harborne, A.R.*, Afzal, D.; , M.J.; Ridley, J.M.; and

Rodriguez, M.C.. *Coral Cay Conservation, 154 Clapham

Park Road, London, SW4 7DE, UK. Email:

arh@coralcay.org

The use of non-professional researchers is an efficient means

of generating data within marine science, providing self-financing

manpower to undertake large-scale temporal and

spatial surveys, particularly in remote locations. In addition,

‘volunteer’ programmes can significantly expand their role

when located within coastal communities and can add value to

internationally funded interventions. For example, work by

Coral Cay Conservation (CCC) in the Bay Islands, Honduras,

is benefiting local communities by providing immediate

technical assistance on sustainable use and protection of

coastal resources and expanding the scope of the Government

of Honduras’ Environmental Management Project of the Bay

Islands (EMPBI). CCC achieves this by (a) establishing a

constant fieldwork programme which rapidly provides ‘no

cost’ habitat descriptions for resource mapping along with reef

health and monitoring data; (b) the continual presence of

qualified staff to provide objective opinions on reef

management; (c) an ability to implement studies to address

new community concerns such as dredging or bleaching and

(d) providing logistical support to visiting researchers. In

addition, CCC’s training and environmental education to host

country counterparts complements that of the EMPBI and with

tangible benefits to the local community. Finally, CCC’s long-term

commitment provides a conduit for additional funding to

develop local capacity for sustainable coastal management.

THE TORTUGAS ECOLOGICAL RESERVE:

PROTECTING CRITICAL CORAL REEF HABITAT IN

THE FLORIDA KEYS NATIONAL MARINE

SANCTUARY.

Haskell B.*, Delaney, Joanne. *Florida Keys National

Marine Sanctuary, P.O. Box 500368, Marathon, FL, USA

33050. Email: ben.haskell@noaa.gov

The remote Tortugas region of the Florida Keys, located over

225 km from the continental U.S., is an area of high stony

coral density and soft coral diversity, excellent water quality,

and productive reef fisheries. Due to its location at the

juncture of several major ocean currents, the Tortugas has the

potential to serve as both a source and sink for marine larvae.

The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary is designating a

no-take ecological reserve in the Tortugas to conserve the

unique marine resources of this region. The reserve will

preserve biodiversity, maintain ecosystem integrity, and act as

a reference site to help scientists discriminate between natural

and anthropogenic changes to the Keys’ ecosystem. Planning

for the reserve has emphasized community input and

consensus-based decision-making. Critical to the success of

the process has been a diverse working group comprised of

stakeholders and government agency representatives. The

Tortugas Ecological Reserve will complement the Sanctuary’s

existing network of 23 no-take zones, instituted in 1997 to

protect marine resources from overuse, conserve biodiversity,

and separate conflicting uses. Reserve implementation is

scheduled for late 2000..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B5: Examples Resources Man.

171

A REGIONAL PROGRAM FOR THE CONSERVATION

AND SUSTAINABLE USE OF THE MESOAMERICAN

BARRIER REEF.

Hatziolos M.*. *The World Bank. 1818 H St., N.W.,

Washington, D.C. 20043, U.S.A. Email:

Mhatziolos@worldbank.org

The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System (MBRS), extending

from the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico to the Bay Islands of

Honduras, includes the second longest barrier reef in the

world. It is unique in the Western hemisphere due to its length,

composition of reef types, and diversity of habitat. Despite its

designation as a World Heritage Site, the MBRS is

increasingly at risk to a number of threats. These include: (i)

coastal/island development and unsustainable tourism; (b)

inappropriate land use in upland watersheds; (iii) overfishing

of high value stocks such as lobster, conch, and grouper, and

poaching of sea turtles and manatee, (iv) increased shipping

and maritime pollution; (v) natural disturbances linked to

climate change. Recognition of these threats to the ecological

integrity and economic productivity of the MBRS has led to a

commitment by the governments of Mexico, Belize,

Guatemala and Honduras, to a regional plan of action for the

conservation and sustainable use of this transboundary system.

Implementation of the plan is being supported by the Global

Environment Facility, the World Bank and several partners.

Regional coordination is required to: (i) harmonize national

policies and regulations governing use of shared resources; (ii)

establish marine protected areas in transboundary locations;

(iii) develop and implement a regional coral reef ecosystem

monitoring and information system; (iv) promote sustainable

development of the fisheries and marine tourism sectors; (v)

increase capacity for environmental management through

education and training.

ESSENTIAL FISH HABITAT (EFH) LEGISLATION

PROMISES CONSERVATION, ENHANCEMENT AND

RESEARCH BENEFITS FOR U.S. CORAL REEFS.

Hill R.L.*, Leathery, Stephen L.; and Bigford, Thomas E.

*U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA/National Marine

Fisheries Service, 4700 Ave U, Galveston, Texas, USA

77551. Email: ron.hill@noaa.gov

In 1996, the United States Congress unanimously passed the

Sustainable Fisheries Act (SFA), increasing the conservation

mandate for U.S. managers of marine fisheries, including those

dependent on coral reefs. The SFA bolstered existing habitat

protections in the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation

and Management Act, the primary legislation governing US

marine fishery resources, by requiring that regional fishery

management councils describe and identify essential fish

habitats (EFH), minimize to the extent practicable adverse

effects on EFH caused by fishing, and identify other actions

for the conservation and enhancement of such habitat.

Councils throughout the USA have identified coral and coral

reef habitats as essential. This paper provides an overview the

description and identification of coral habitats as EFH, a

discussion of the steps taken to reduce adverse effects to these

key habitats, and explores research topics needed to improve

our conservation and management of coral reefs and coralline

fish habitats.

MANAGEMENT AND MONITORING PROPOSAL OF

THE MEXICAN MESO-AMERICAN BARRIER REEF

SYSTEM (MBRS).

Lara M,* Loreto R.M, Padilla C, Gutiérrez D, Bezaury, J.

*SEMARNAP, km.4.8 Z.H, Cancún77500, Q.Roo, México.

Email: pncontoy@prodigy.net.mx

Located in the state of Quintana Roo, Mexico’s fringing reef

constitutes the northern extent of the MBRS, extending

approximately 645 Km. These reefs represent an important

regional resource base for fisheries, tourism, and marine

conservation areas. The recently developed MBRS action plan

promotes a consistent management regime to support

conservation and sustainable development in the reef system at

a regional level, and incorporates reef characterization,

monitoring, and marine protected areas. Since 1990, scientists

and local NGO have collaborated to develop a detailed survey

of these reefs. The belt-quadrant methodology was used to

analyse macroalgae, scleractinian, gorgonian, sponges and

fishes communities; as well as aerial and bathymetry surveys

were made. The reef assessment utilized the following

classification criteria: a) reef zonation patterns, b) scleractinian

species assemblages; and c) reef framework development. This

resulted in the classification of 6 coastal areas and 3 insular

areas, divided in to 60 subareas according the criterions used.

This information identifies exceptional reef traits, conservation

areas and disturbance areas, as well as the existing use by

humans. Within mexican MBRS developed a management

proposal which incorporates 7 new MPAs (in addition to the

existing 5). The team has also proposed the development of a

sustained monitoring network with 15 stations. This network

would incorporate monitoring of both existing and proposed

MPAs, and would gather data at three resolution levels.

CENTRAL SULAWESI – A “FORGOTTEN

PROVINCE”?

Moore, Abigail*; Sofyan, Andi SP; *Yayasan Adi Citra

Lestari, Jl Setia Budi No 14D, Palu Timur 94111, Sulteng,

Indonesia, Email: rosontapura@palu.wasantara.net.id

Central Sulawesi is the largest Province, with arguably the

longest coastline, in Sulawesi. At the heart of the Wallacea

maximum biodiversity region, blest with rich and diverse

natural resources, it has to date largely escaped the attention

which has been foccused on the other three provinces with

their Marine National Parks (Bunaken, Taka Bone Rate and

more recently Wakatobi). The state of knowledge regarding

marine resources is particularly poor, with the exception of

some sterling work in the Togean Islands and to a lesser extent

in the Banggai Islands. Available data, anecdotal information,

and personal observation lead the authors to believe that nearly

all of the coastline is fringed by reefs, which although mainly

of the fringing type, include all forms, and are a vital source of

livelihood for many coastal communities. It also paints a

picture of an area heavily impacted by anthropogenic

activities, including destructive fishing, overfishing, coral

mining, sedimentation, pollution, etc, and with severe and

increasing poverty in many coastal communities. Firstly, the

extent of current data related to these reefs and associated eco-systems,

including socio-economic factors is evaluated.

Various implications are then presented, including examples,

gaps in our knowledge, and some likely outcomes if no action

is taken. Finally, various options and ideas for the future will

be put forward, including integrated survey and monitoring

programmes, and processes which it is felt could lead to a

more hopeful future for the people and reefs of this beautiful

and diverse region..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B5: Examples Resources Man.

172

THE SURVIVAL CRISIS FACED BY COASTAL

ECOSYSTEMS IN TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL

AREAS

Nakaza, Eizo *; Tsukayama, Seiko; Makino, Tosiaki;

Kitamura, Koji; Takeuchi, Rika; Eto, Shunsuke.

*University of the Ryukyus, Shenbaru-1, Nishihara,

Okinwa, Japan. Email: enakaza@tec.u-ryukyu.ac.jp

In tropical and subtropical coastal areas, there are unique

ecosystems in which the land hermit crab plays an important

roll. Recent land developments have forced them into a

survival crisis, particularly around the Okinawan islands in

southern Japan. The Okinawan islands consist of several dozen

small islands that lie on the path of Kurosio, a warm ocean

current th atoriginates along the equator, nears the Philippines,

then travels northward toward Japan. The islands of Okinawa

used to be surrounded by cobalt color reef seas and abundant

ecosystems, of which the land hermit crabs were at the heart.

While still dominant, most of them are now being destroyed by

the construction of artificial barriers such as sea walls for

roads, and land development. Land hermit crabs usually live

among vegetation on land near the seashore. At spawning time,

they make their way to the sea where they release their spawn.

They cannot easily survive in an environment that contains

artificial eco-barriers. Field surveys have revealed that coastal

ecosystems in subtropical seas are facing a survival crisis.

STATUS OF MARINE PROTECTED AREAS IN THE

PHILIPPINES: BETTER MANAGEMENT OF CORAL

REEFS AND THE COASTAL AREAS IN THE

TROPICS.

Pajaro, M.G.*, Nozawa, C.M.; Lavides, M.; and

Gutierrez, S. *Haribon Foundation for the Conservation

of Natural Resources, 9 Malingap St. Teachers Village,

Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines. Email:

science@haribon.org.ph

The Philippines has a rich experience in the establishment

and management of marine protected areas. This is proving to

be a popular management technique for both local

communities and local governments specially with the recent

enactment of Republic Act 8550 requiring every coastal

municipality to allocate an area for a fish sanctuary. Thus, a

total of 558 MPAs are recorded with over 150 areas being

proposed in the Philippines. These are of various purpose,

design, sizes, management and enforcement. The size of one

protected area can range from 1 to 2,000 hectares and may

have strictly no fishing zones, regulated zones or a

combination of both. Fisheries enhancement appear to be the

major objective for most of these MPAs. Their management

may entirely be by the local government, by the people’s

organization, by an NGO or a composite of the two or three

groups. Less than half of the total number of MPAs are

functional, mostly managed by the communities and usually

with core zones of below 50 hectares in size. Issues and

problems before, during and after the establishment of MPAs

were encountered. Most problems included lack of facilities

and/or financial support and politics. The communities

appeared to persevere due to encouragement from catalysts

and the perceived benefits such as increase in biodiversity and

biomass particularly among fish populations. The number of

MPAs is expected to increase over the next few years and the

formation of a national alliance of community managers of

MPAs to assist communities in sustaining their efforts in

managing functional MPAs was seen as a necessary

intervention.

EVALUATING TOURISM TRAINING AND

INTERPRETIVE STRATEGIES IN THE GREAT

BARRIER REEF MARINE PARK: A COMPARATIVE

APPROACH.

Potter, Elizabeth* and Dinesen, Zena. *School of Tropical

Environment Studies and Geography, James Cook

University, Townsville 4811, Australia. Email:

Elizabeth.Potter@jcu.edu.au

Performance indicators are currently being developed to

assess management of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) through

the use of case studies. Within the reef-based marine tourism

industry, visitor interpretation is seen as one of the key means

by which tourist impacts on reef ecosystems can be minimized.

This study focuses on evaluation of tourist operator education

programs within the Whitsundays (central section of the GBR

Marine Park). Two key sectors of the Whitsunday marine

tourism industry, bareboat and day reef trip operations, will

serve as the focal point of this research. An accreditation

program involving tourist operator staff training and visitor

interpretation has recently been introduced in the Whitsunday

bareboat sector, however the program’s effectiveness has not

been evaluated. Within the day-trip sector of reef tourism, no

standardization of staff training or visitor interpretation efforts

has been introduced, thus emphasis placed upon these areas

varies widely. Descriptive and comparative surveys of

operator staff and visitors will be used in order to draw

comparisons between groups within each of these sectors.

Such differences will serve to highlight strengths and

weaknesses of various training and interpretive strategies

currently employed, as well as provide a tool for future

evaluation in other geographic areas. Initial results of this

work will be presented, and challenges of developing

performance indicators for the marine tourism industry will be

discussed.

SUSTAINABILITY – ATTAINABLE GOAL OR WILD

DREAM?

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE PROSPECTS OF

ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF

CORAL REEF RESOURCES IN THE MAFIA ISLAND

MARINE PARK, TANZANIA

Rubens, Jason. * and Msumi ,, George D *Worldwide Fund

for Nature (WWF), PO Box 23, Mafia Island, Tanzania.

Email: wwfmafia@raha.com

The Mafia Island Marine Park was established in 1995 as

Tanzania’s first national marine park. Despite initial success in

eliminating dynamite fishing and beach-seine nets, sustainable

management remains a far off goal. Fish catch-per-unit-effort

continues to deteriorate as a result of increasing fishing

pressure and habitat damage. Marine resources such as sea

cucumber, shells and lobster, once economically important,

have virtually disappeared. In an increasingly urgent attempt to

reverse the corresponding decline in livelihoods, fishermen are

switching to more destructive, less sustainable fishing gears.

Adding to this the coral bleaching in 1998, the condition of

reef habitats has deteriorated significantly even since the

establishment of the park, causing serious concern to tourism

investors. Financially, far from being self-financing, the

marine park still depends heavily on donors and the Tanzanian

central government. Under a new 5-year programme, the

marine park is developing a strategic plan aimed at resolving

short-term livelihood demands with long-term conservation

and sustainability goals. A zoning plan, gear regulations and a

resource-use permit system provide the legislative core around

which to build a sustainable pattern of resource-use and

alternative income sources within the park..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B5: Examples Resources Man.

173

PRESENT STATUS OF REEF FAUNA OF GULF OF

MANNAR, A BIOSPHERE RESERVE ON THE

SOUTHEAST COAST OF INDIA AND STRATEGIES

FOR ITS CONSERVATION.

Satyanarayana*,Ch; and Venkataraman, K. *Zoological

Survey of India, Marine Biological Station, 100 Santhome

High Road, Chennai-600 028, INDIA.

Email:dugong@md2.vsnl.net.in

Gulf of Mannar the biologically rich biosphere reserve

situated on the southeastern board of India is composed of a

chain of 21 islands of coral origin along the coast line for a

distance of 140 kms and has a reef area of 6.49 sq.kms. It has

nearly 3,600 recorded biological species to its credit. The

fauna of Gulf of Mannar is subjected to ever increasing

anthropogenic pressure. An inventory of fauna of an ecosystem

depicts the health of the ecosystem and status of individual

organisms in that ecosystem. Nine faunistic surveys (1988 to

1996). A total of 1097 species of fauna belonging to 254

families and 567 genera are reported on this account and the

results clearly show a decline in the abundance and

disappearance of some species. The GIS based underwater

biophysical ground truthing surveys between October 1988 to

February 2000 revealed the presence of only 25% of live coral

represented by a half of live corals reported earlier from this

reserve. The ramose form Montipora digitata and the massive

forms dominante over one time dominants Acropora sps. An

incidence of coral bleaching due to raise in temperatures is

also noticed during the GIS survey.

CONSORTIUM TOGEAN’S CONTRIBUTION TO

MARINE AND COASTAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

IN THE TOGEAN ISLANDS, CENTRAL SULAWESI

Uno, Jana Halida;*, Togean, Sekber; *Jl.

Sisingamangaraja 10C, Palu, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia;

Email: togean@palu.wasantara.net.id

Consortium togean is a joint project by conservation

international and local non-governmental organization yabshi

(indonesian foundation for the advancement of biological

sciences). In field, all the program is accomplished by sekber

togean, the implementing agency of consortium togean. The

togean islands is an archipelago of some 50 small islands in

tomini bay with a total land area of 60,000 hectares and a

marine area of 100,000 hectares. The togean islands are rich in

both marine and terrestrial biodiversity. In 1996, consortium

togean began working directly in villages to develop

sustainable development alternatives. Consortium togean’s

program is designed to handle human and nature threat to

biodiversity, pressure from outside interest, and the needs of

the local community. Consortium togean’s program is divided

into 3 main activites : (1) collection of baseline data on

ecology, social, and economy. Specific to ecological aspects

overall studies should be carried out employing both rapid

assessment techniques and detailed research covering soils,

and topography, climate, geology, hydrology, vegetation

structure and composition, inventory of terrestrial and marine

flora and fauna ; (2) empowering communities and local

institutions, through an integrated program that combines

community enterprise development and community self-confidence

improvement through participatory activities and

local information gathering ; (3) policy influence is achieved

through formal and informal communication with decision

makers at kecamatan, kabupaten, and provincial level, such as

: workshops, dialogs, negotiations with involve local people

and decision makers

AN ASSESSMENT OF COASTAL RESOURCES IN THE

NORTHERN SIERRA MADRE NATURAL PARK AND

AN APPROACH FOR MANAGEMENT.

Van Lavieren, Hanneke*. *Plan International Philippines;

Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park Conservation

Project. Project Management Office In Eic Buildings, Isu

Campus, Garita Heights, Cabagan, Isabela, The

Philippines. Email: HANNEKE@CAG.PWORLD.NET.PH

The Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park located in North-Eastern

Luzon, Philippines, covers 287,861 hectares of forest

and 71,629 hectares of marine habitats and is one of the ten

priority sites for biodiversity selected under the National

Integrated Protected Area System Act, 1996. Since it’s

declaration as a park, several rapid marine resource appraisals

were conducted, but more detailed assessment studies on the

coastal resources, habitats and management issues were not

conducted until 1999. Detailed studies endangered species,

shellfish status and uses, fisheries and resource utilization

patterns, coral reefs and the associated fish communities,

seagrass beds and mangroves were conducted. An over view is

given of the results of these studies and constraints to

community based conservation and management of this

protected area are discussed together with suggestions for

sustainable management. The socio-cultural attitudes of the

indigenous people or “Agta’s” and the lowlanders or

“Philipino’s” within the park influence the acceptability and

effectiveness of coastal resource management schemes.

Involvement of coastal community members in the protection

of marine resources has been achieved through their

participation in a bio-diversity monitoring system and their

participation in the formulation of development plans for the

coastal areas. A management plan has been formulated for the

NSMNP and zonation is designed and enforced as defined by

the Department of Environment and Natural Resources

(DENR)..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B6: GBR

Session B6: Managing the World’s Largest Coral Reef Ecosystem

174

BETTER PRACTICE MARINE IMPACT

ASSESSMENT: A CASE STUDY OF THE GREAT

BARRIER REEF MARINE PARK AUTHORITY.

Abdulla A* *School Of Tropical Environment Studies And

Geography, James Cook University Of North Queensland,

Townsville, Qld 4811, Australia. Email:

AMEER.ABDULLA@JCU.EDU.AU

Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is widely

recognised as an integral part of natural resource and protected

area management. Post-decision EIA however is

underdeveloped in theory and less emphasised in practice.

Furthermore, increasing the quality of scientific information

and effectively incorporating it within EIA are current

challenges. Environmental impact monitoring is a crucial

scientific component of the post-decision audit of potential

impacts caused by coastal development activities within

protected areas. One such region, the Great Barrier Reef, has

been designated as a multiple-use Marine Park and World

Heritage Area due to its outstanding value, large size, and

varied range of users. A "better practice" model for marine

impact assessment incorporating distinct environmental

monitoring and post-decision management has been developed

by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority in an effort to

balance conservation and reasonable use of the Marine Park.

The process in use is characterised by rigorous ecological

sampling, a technical foundation for decision-making,

independence between consultants and developers, and

external review to ensure quality control. Suggestions to

further refine the process are presented as an adaptive cycle of

policy development, technical review, and information

dissemination.

CHOOSING THE APPROPRIATE SPATIAL

RESOLUTION FOR REMOTE SENSING OF CORAL

BLEACHING EVENTS.

Andréfouët, Serge * , Ray Berkelmans, Terry J. Done, Jamie

K. Oliver, Lucia Odriozola, Frank E. Muller-Karger.

*University of South Florida, Dept. of Marine Science, 140

7 th Ave. South, Saint Petersburg, Fl. 33701, USA. Email:

serge@carbon.marine.usf.edu

Bleached corals provide a strong optical signal that suggest

that remote sensing investigations of bleaching events is

feasible using airborne or satellite sensors. However, the

patchy patterns, the local coral cover and the variations in

depth limit the potential of remote sensing. Today,

multispectral high resolution satellite sensors provide images

from 4 meters to 30 meters resolution but the adequacy of

these sensors for monitoring bleaching events remains unclear.

To clarify this issue, scanned aerial photographs acquired

during a significant bleaching event in 1998 around Magnetic

Island (Australia), were analyzed at various spatial resolution,

from 10cm to 5 meters. Results show that the resolution

necessary to capture the maximum of local variance of a

bleached reef is around 50cm. The most common supervised

image classification algorithms accurately recognized bleached

surfaces because of the high contrast with the background. The

10 cm resolution images show that the maximum of bleached

surface was about 10% of the total surface (considering

160x160m quadrats). This maximum drops to 5% using 1

meter resolution data, and 2% using 5 meter resolution data.

The main spatial patterns are still visible at 1 meter but not at

lower resolution. Therefore, to investigate accurately bleaching

events with similar intensities than in Magnetic Isl., it appears

that 1 meter resolution is a minimum requirement.

REEFS, WORLD HERITAGE, DEVELOPMENT AND

POLITICS - CAN THEY CO-EXIST?

Bugler, Michael*. Southern Pacific Petroleum

(Development) PO Box 7101, Riverside Centre, Brisbane,

Qld. 4001. Australia.

The greatest reef in the world, the Great Barrier Reef, is a

World Heritage Area and lies off north Australia's east coast.

Near and on this coast there are a large number of current and

potential developments, many of them world class in

processing, manufacturing and infrastructure resources. But it

is difficult to obtain objective and rational assessment of

proposals to develop these resources. Several new industries,

thousands of long-term jobs and billions of dollars of income

are potentially at risk due to a decision-making system that

currently struggles to balance competing demands. This paper

outlines the issues, and examines an alternative approach to

decision-making being developed by proponents, with

scientists, regulators and other key stakeholders, in which a

balance is sought between environmental, social and economic

factors.

KEEPING THE WOLF FROM THE DOOR:

MANAGING LAND-BASED THREATS TO THE

GREAT BARRIER REEF.

Brodie, Jon*. *Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority,

PO Box 1379, Townsville, Qld 4810. Australia. Email:

j.brodie@gbrmpa.gov.au

Pollution of the GBR is dominated by runoff from the

adjacent catchment. Catchment land-use is dominated by

grazing & cropping with relatively minor urban development.

Runoff of sediment, nutrients & pesticides is increasing & for

nitrogen is now four times the natural amount discharged 150

years ago. Significant effects & potential threats are now

evident on inshore reefs, seagrasses & marine animals. There

is no effective legislation or processes in place to manage

agricultural pollution. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act

does not provide effective jurisdiction on the catchment.

Queensland legislation relies on voluntary codes & there is no

assessment of the effectiveness of the codes. Integrated

catchment management strategies, also voluntary, provide

some positive outcomes but are of limited success. Pollutant

loads are predicted to continue to increase & it is unlikely that

current management regimes will prevent this. The Great

Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority is investigating

mechanisms which may improve this situation..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B6: GBR

175

ACHIEVING ECOLOGICALLY SUSTAINABLE

FISHERIES IN THE GREAT BARRIER REEF WORLD

HERITAGE AREA

Cadwallader, Phil. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

Authority, PO Box 1379, Townsville, Qld 4810. Australia.

Email: phil@gbrmpa.gov.au

The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park is a multiple-use park in

which commercial, recreational, charter and indigenous fishing

activities occur. Commercial fishing includes trawling, line

fishing, netting, crabbing and several “collection fisheries”.

The Park is zoned to regulate the various kinds of fishing

activities. Achieving the balance between conservation and

sustainable fisheries requires on-going consultation between

marine park managers, fisheries managers, scientists, industry

and other stakeholders. The ecological sustainability of fishery

resources and the ecosystems on which they depend is required

under legislation. The State of Queensland is responsible for

day-to-day fisheries management under a Federal/State

agreement. A key political question is the extent to which the

GBRMPA (a Federal agency) can achieve its objectives

through cooperation and negotiation with State agencies, rather

than use its legislative mandate in areas that are traditionally

the responsibility of fisheries management agencies.

MANAGING THE GREAT BARRIER REEF MARINE

PARK AND WORLD HERITAGE AREA THROUGH

CRITICAL ISSUES MANAGEMENT.

Chadwick, Virginia *. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

Authority, PO Box 1379, Townsville, Qld. 4810. Australia.

The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) and World

Heritage Area (WHA) is the largest Marine Protected Area in

the world. Unlike most large coral reef ecosystems, the

GBRMP is under one system of management through the

Commonwealth Government’s Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

Authority (GBRMPA). GBRMPA has taken a critical issues

approach to managing the GBRMP and WHA by clearly

identifying the issues that present the greatest threat to this

important area. They are: maintaining the conservation,

biodiversity and world heritage values of the site; ensuring

ecologically sustainable uses (especially fisheries, tourism and

recreation); and reducing land based impacts on water quality

through active participation in coastal zone management. In

order to address these more effectively, the Authority is

structured around critical issues groups which provide a

strategic, policy-based approach to these issues. Policies are

implemented through planning and environmental impact

management. Compliance surveillance and enforcement

programs are implemented through a Day to Day Management

unit jointly funded by the GBRMPA and the State Government

of Queensland. Other sections provide support for these

initiatives, including providing a scientific basis for

management, educational programs (through the aquarium),

technical support (eg GIS unit), and parliamentary and

ministerial liaison.

REGIONAL VARIATION IN THE EFFECTIVENESS OF

MARINE PROTECTED AREAS ON THE GREAT

BARRIER REEF: EVIDENCE FROM CPUE AND SIZE

STRUCTURE OF PLECTROPOMUS LEOPARDUS.

Davies, C. R. * and B.D. Mapstone. CRC Reef/School of

TESAG, James Cook University Queenland 4811

Australia. campbell.davies1@jcu.edu.au

Coral reef fisheries are generally complex, multi-species

fisheries for which assessment and management resources are

often scarce. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have received

considerable attention as an alternative for management of

coral reef fisheries. There have been, however, few empirical

tests of the effectiveness of MPA as a management tool. We

examine the effectiveness of MPA in relation to relative

abundance (CPUE) and size structure of the common coral

trout, Plectropomus leaopardus , the primary target species of

the reef line fishery on the Great Barrier Reef. Twenty-four

reefs were surveyed in spring 1995-1996 by research line

fishing surveys, as part of baseline surveys for a large-scale

manipulative experiment (Effects of Line Fishing Experiment).

The reefs were located in four clusters of six reefs spread over

a 7 o latitudinal gradient. Each cluster included four reefs that

were closed to fishing and two reefs that were open to fishing.

Analyses of CPUE and size structure data for P.leopardus

indicated that the effect of management zone (open/closed to

fishing) differed among regions of the GBR. Furthermore, the

magnitude of the regional trends in abundance was

substantially greater than the contrast between management

zones in any one region. We conclude that MPA cannot be

assumed to be uniformly effective, and emphasise the need to

incorporate large-scale spatial variation in the structure and

exploitation of reef fish populations into the design of MPAs

and assessment of their effectiveness.

THE REPRESENTATIVES AREAS PROGRAM –

PROTECTING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE GREAT

BARRIER REEF WORLD HERITAGE AREA.

Day, J*, L Fernandes, B Barnett, S Slegers, B Kerrigan, D

Breen, G De’ath, A Lewis, J Innes & J Oliver. Great

Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, PO Box 1379,

Townsville, Qld 4810. Australia. Email:

j.day@gbrmpa.gov.au

One of the most exciting but challenging tasks currently

being undertaken by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

Authority (GBRMPA) is the Representative Areas Program

(RAP). Current zoning does not adequately protect the range

of biodiversity that is known to exist within the Great Barrier

Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA). Presently, highly

protected areas (ie ‘no-take’ zones) within the Great Barrier

Reef Marine Park reflect a historical focus on coral reefs and

remote areas. The aim of the RAP is to enhance protection of

the region’s biodiversity by developing a network of highly

protected areas typical of all the different habitats and

communities within the GBRWHA. Biophysical data

combined with expert consensus has now enabled the

classification of 65 reef and non-reef bioregions within the

GBRWHA. Current phases of RAP aim to identify and protect

adequate and representative examples of each bioregion.

GBRMPA is identifying options for networks of highly

protected areas using a combination of expert opinion,

stakeholder involvement and analytical approaches (including

a computer-aided reserve selection process developed in

conjunction with some of Australia's top analytical experts).

Minimising economic, cultural and social costs (where 'costs'

do not refer just to monetary value) will be critical in the

selecting the final network of highly protected areas..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B6: GBR

176

LONG TERM CHLOROPHYLL MONITORING IN THE

GREAT BARRIER REEF. CONCERNS FOR THE

EUTROPHICATION OF THE INSHORE LAGOON.

Devlin Michelle* and Jon Brodie Great Barrier Reef

Marine Park Authority, PO Box 1379, Townsville. Q.

Australia.

…The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority long term

water quality program was established in 1992 to provide

long-term data on trends and regional differences in the

nutrient status of GBR waters. Chlorophyll concentrations are

used as a surrogate measure of water column nutrient status.

Samples are collected at fixed sites at monthly intervals along

transects in the GBR. Chlorophyll a, salinity, secchi depth and

sea conditions are measured. Data collected from seven years

of the monitoring program demonstrates persistent cross-shelf

and regional differences in chlorophyll concentrations.

Chlorophyll a concentrations (an indicator of eutrophication)

were higher and more variable in nearshore waters than in

samples collected further from the shore. Latitudinal trends

were significant with inshore concentrations of chlorophyll a

up to three fold higher in the coastal waters adjacent to the

catchments with high human use than of inshore waters

adjacent to the ‘pristine’ catchments. Chlorophyll a time series

over seven years demonstrate seasonal and local variability

PERFORMANCE INDICATORS TO EVALUATE

MANAGEMENT OF THE GREAT BARRIER REEF –

HOW CAN WE TELL IF MANAGEMENT IS

EFFECTIVE?.

Dinesen, Zena.*, *CRC Reef Research Centre and Great

Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, P.O. Box 1379,

Townsville 4810, Australia. Email:

Zena.Dinesen@jcu.edu.au

This research seeks to develop performance indicators and

benchmarks to evaluate management of the Great Barrier Reef

World Heritage Area. The aim is to develop practical

performance indicators, to assess how key ecological, social,

economic, cultural and management objectives are being

achieved in different regions of the Great Barrier Reef. Given

the scale of this marine protected area, this major task is

focusing initially on some critical issues for management of

the Great Barrier Reef, namely biodiversity conservation and

tourism management. In this paper, performance indicators

relevant to ecological, social and management concerns are

discussed in the context of a case study, the Representative

Areas biodiversity conservation program. The “Rep. Areas”

program aims to provide a comprehensive, adequate and

respresentative network of highly protected areas within the

Great Barrier Reef ecosystem, whilst minimising impacts on

existing users. This case study addresses some interesting

challenges in identifying appropriate indicators to assess the

effectiveness of marine biodiversity conservation strategies. It

also highlights the need to have clear management objectives

and targets, acceptable to resource managers and stakeholders,

against which to measure progress.

SELECTING INDICATORS TO ASSESS STRATEGIES

TO CONTROL ANCHOR DAMAGE ON FRINGING

REEFS IN THE WHITSUNDAY REGION, GREAT

BARRIER REEF.

Dinsdale E.* and Zena Dinesen. *School of Tropical

Environment Studies and Geography, James Cook

University, Townsville, 4811 Australia. Email:

Elizabeth.dinsdale@jcu.edu.au

Performance indicators are being developed to evaluate the

effectiveness of management of the Great Barrier Reef World

Heritage Area. This particular project evaluates a reef

protection strategy, where moorings and reef protection

markers have been installed to protect some sensitive fringing

reefs from anchor damage while still allowing people to access

the areas. The reef protection markers identify the reef edge

and anchoring is not allowed landward of the markers.

Indicators to evaluate the reef protection strategy were selected

using the following process: 1) A wide range of parameters of

coral condition were quantified on heavily and lightly visited

reefs, including numbers of injuries, fragments, overturned

corals, and diseased colonies. 2) Parameters found to differ

significantly between compared reefs were identified as

potential indicators and evaluated against a set of feasibility

criteria. 3) Potential indicators that met the criteria were

checked to ensure their ecological relevancy and ease of

interpretation. Indicators that fulfilled all these requirements

will be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the reef protection

strategy to reduce coral damage.

REACTIVE MONITORING OF SEAGRASS

MEADOWS.

Hall, Vicki*, Graeme Inglis, & Michelle Boyle. CRC Reef

Research Centre, James Cook University, Townsville Qld

4811, Australia. Email: vivki.hall@jcu.edu.au

Reactive monitoring studies are now a standard requirement

in the environmental management of developments within the

Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. To be useful, reactive

monitoring programs must provide information on changes in

the condition of the resource in a timely manner, so that

subsequent remediatory actions can be taken before

irreversible damage is done. In this study, we describe the

development of rapid assessment techniques using Near-Infrared

Reflectance Spectroscopy (NIRS) for monitoring the

condition of submerged aquatic vegetation during periods of

light stress. Marine angiosperms (“seagrasses”) have a

comparatively high requirement for light and are adversely

affected by reduced light availability caused by human

activities and natural disturbances. Survival during periods of

light stress is facilitated by mobilisation and transport of

carbohydrate reserves within the plant to support anaerobic

respiration of the roots. We investigated the utility of NIRS for

monitoring changes in storage carbohydrates of seagrasses

under light stress by (1) measuring concentrations of storage

carbohydrates in both clear and turbid water for seagrasses in

three regional areas of the Great Barrier Reef, and (2)

monitoring changes in the concentrations of storage

carbohydrates under ambient and low light regimes for two

commonly occurring species, Halophila ovalis and Halodule

uninervis. An assessment of variability in these stored

reserves under different ambient conditions and their

utilisation by plants under stress will provide a means of

assessing the susceptibility of individual seagrass meadows to

changes in light availability caused by coastal construction

works..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B6: GBR

177

RESEARCH AND EDUCATION FOR CORAL REEF

MANAGEMENT: AUSTRALIA’S COOPERATIVE

RESEARCH CENTRE FOR THE GREAT BARRIER

REEF WORLD HERITAGE AREA.

Harriott, Vicki J.* Vicki R. Hall, David McB. Williams

CRC Reef Research Centre, James Cook University,

Townsville, Australia. 4811. Email:

vicki.harriott@jcu.edu.au

The functions of the Cooperative Research Centre for the

Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (CRC Reef) are to

enhance the viability of reef-based industries and to provide an

improved basis for reef management and regulatory decision

making. To fulfil this function, the CRC Reef facilitates an

integrated program of applied research, development,

education and extension. The formation of the CRC Reef is

consistent with the Australian government’s policy to

encourage applied research and close co-operation between

researchers and industry, and to provide postgraduate training

that meets industry needs. The CRC is funded by contributions

from industry partners and research and educational

institutions, as well as by a government grant, with an aim to

produce significant research and educational training that

would not otherwise have been possible within the member

organisations. In its second seven-year funding cycle, the CRC

supports four major research programs: Management for

Sustainability; Sustainable Industries; Maintaining Ecosystem

Quality; Information Systems and Synthesis, and a fifth

program in Education and Communication. In this paper, the

success of the CRC Reef program in achieving its aims will be

evaluated, and the CRC model will be discussed with respect

to its capacity to integrate science, management, industry and

education.

MANAGEMENT ISSUES FOR SUBTROPICAL CORAL

REEFS AT LORD HOWE ISLAND, EASTERN

AUSTRALIA.

Harrison, Peter L. *. *School of Resource Science and

Management, Southern Cross University, PO Box 157,

Lismore, NSW 2480. Australia. Email:

pharriso@scu.edu.au

Lord Howe Island is a World Heritage List site located 630

km east of the subtropical East Coast of Australia (31º33’S).

Although it is located more than 1,000 km south of the Great

Barrier Reef, the island is surrounded by the southernmost

coral reefs in the Pacific Ocean. These coral reefs are

characterised by luxuriant reef communities and clear water,

and support unique assemblages of tropical, subtropical and

temperate species of corals, algae, fish and other reef biota.

Most of the tropical species are at, or near, their southernmost

distribution limits, and it is likely that many of these tropical

species have recruited from northern reefs including the Great

Barrier Reef through larval dispersal via the East Australian

Current. Some endemic subtropical marine species also occur

at Lord Howe Island. The coral reef communities around Lord

Howe Island are mostly in a pristine condition. The Lord

Howe Island Marine Park was declared in February 1999.

Major management issues for the coral reefs at Lord Howe

Island include predation on corals by Crown of Thorns

starfish, intermittent disturbance from coral bleaching, severe

storms, exposure by unusually low tides, and landslides and

low salinity stress associated with occasional severe rain

depressions. Potentially important human impacts on these

reefs include the inflow of eutrophic ground water and runoff

from urban areas, overfishing, fish feeding, and anchor

damage. Monitoring the status of water quality and reef

communities is essential for managing these unique subtropical

coral reef ecosystems in perpetuity.

MANAGING TOURISM SUSTAINABLY - LESSONS

LEARNED ON THE GREAT BARRIER REEF,

AUSTRALIA.

Ilett, Annie *. *Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority,

GPO Box 1379, Townsville Qld 4810. Australia. Email:

anniei@gbrmpa.gov.au

The Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area is a

phenomenal collection of reefs and islands located adjacent to

the north-eastern coast of Australia which attracts visitors from

all over the world. Growth in tourism to the Great Barrier Reef

has been dramatic in the past ten years. Unmanaged tourism

could not continue without bringing about degradation of the

very environment that tourists come to experience. Yet it is

through the assistance of the tourism industry that most people

are able to experience the Reef. A range of management

“tools” has been established by the Australian Government’s

Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority in conjunction with

the Queensland State’s Parks and Wildlife Service to manage

tourism in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area. These

include regulatory Zoning Plans, Area Plans of Management

and site specific plans as well as a standardised permit system

and monitoring and enforcement strategies. Industry “best

practice” is also encouraged and an education and training

program is in place. This paper reviews this range of

management “tools”, identifies the lessons learnt by the

managing agencies and the industry in the Great Barrier Reef

and proposes a way forward to a less prescriptive and self-regulatory

approach by governments and the industry in

partnership.

COMPLIANCE IN THE GREAT BARRIER REEF

MARINE PARK - A STRATEGIC APPROACH.

McGinnity, Peter * & Bob Nankivell. *Great Barrier Reef

Marine Park Authority, PO Box 1379 Townsville, Qld

4810. Australia. Email: peter.mcginnity@env.qld.gov.au

Education and enforcement activities aimed at ensuring

compliance have been undertaken in the Great Barrier Reef

Marine Park since the mid 1980s. Initial emphasis was given to

extensive public information programs supported by vessel

patrols in high use locations. By the early 1990s, managers

began placing more emphasis on enforcement and with the

purchase of two larger sea going vessels and formal training

for inspectors the number of prosecutions rose from less than 5

per year, to between 50 and 70 per year since that time.

Despite the immediate results of the stronger emphasis on

enforcement, in the late 1990s management was receiving

concerning reports of significant illegal activity, culminating in

a research report estimating that up to 40 commercial vessels

were illegally operating in one of the more remote parts of

Park. In response the Government has provided an additional

$3.4 million dollars over three years to implement an enhanced

surveillance and enforcement program. This paper outlines

how a strategic approach has been adopted for the enhanced

Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Compliance Program,

resulting in a combination of: short term increase in targeted

surveillance and enforcement activities; and the introduction of

strategies for the future, including investment in new

surveillance technology, the upgrading of intelligence driven

planning systems, and the development of improved public

education strategies..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B6: GBR

178

EVALUATIONS OF MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN

THE TROPICAL REEF SYSTEMS: INSTITUTIONAL

AND OBJECTIVE UNCERTAINTIES FOR THE

IMPLEMENTATION OF ACTIVE

ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT.

Mapstone B. D.* C. R. Davies & A. D. M. Smith. Effects of

Line Fishing Project, CRC Reef Research Centre, James

Cook University, Townsville Qld. 4811. Australia. Email:

bruce.mapstone@jcu.edu.au

Management of marine living resources generally has been

reactive, with strategies being developed in reaction to

evidence of problems with resources under exploitation.

Management of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) began as an

exception in this respect, with the GBR Marine Park declared

largely because of threats of exploitation rather than evidence

of over-exploitation. The early establishment of a system of

spatially replicated management zones in a marine protected

area provided a unique opportunity to explore alternative

management strategies experimentally and pro-actively. Thus,

the GBR Marine Park provided perhaps the world’s greatest

opportunity for active adaptive management. Instability in the

institutional arrangements, uncertainty about specific

management objectives and inappropriately focused research,

however, may mean the opportunities from an innovative

history are lost. The (pro) active evaluation of management

strategies will require clarity about objectives,

acknowledgment of key uncertainties in existing knowledge,

institutional certainty and political independence, and a shift

in research focus from the components of the system to the

response of the system to use. We discuss the importance of

these implementation conditions and the prospects for their

achievement in the light of recent work on management of reef

fisheries and new initiatives in the management of the GBR

Marine Park.

USING IMPACT MONITORING PROGRAMS TO

MINIMISE ENVIRONMENTAL RISK DURING MAJOR

DEVELOPMENTS.

Marshall, Paul*, Alison Green & Jamie Oliver. *Great

Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, PO Box 1379,

Townsville, Qld. 4811. Australia. Email:

p.marshal@gbrmpa.gov.au

Major developments within the Great Barrier Reef Marine

Park require the permission of the Great Barrier Reef Marine

Park Authority. Permits, if granted, are subject to strict

conditions including a requirement for an Impact Monitoring

Program (IMP). An important component of the IMP is the

Reactive Monitoring Program (RMP), which is designed to

enable impacts to be predicted or detected as they occur, and

thus facilitate reactive management of development activities.

RMP results are compared to predefined thresholds designed

to indicate when the level of risk and likely damage has

become unacceptable. Breaches of thresholds trigger well-defined

management responses which may include an order to

stop work until the problem is rectified. Where there is

incomplete knowledge of the risk relationship between

threatening activities and environmental consequences, the

RMP can be designed as a cascading set of sub-programs that

trigger more intense monitoring as the level of risk increases.

This design can also incorporate an adaptive approach,

whereby the monitoring strategy and trigger levels are refined

in response to information obtained during the program. We

present a case study illustrating a cascading, adaptive approach

to RMP design and implementation. An important benefit of

our approach has been that the cost and magnitude of the

monitoring program are commensurate with the environmental

performance of the development.

ARE ACANTHASTER PLANCI LARVAE FOOD

LIMITED IN THE GREAT BARRIER REEF WATERS?

Okaji, K *. T Ayukai. J Lucas. IMG Inc. Sanno 1-2-25,

Nishinari, Osaka, 557-0001 JAPAN, Email:

ken_okaji@pop06.odn.ne.jp

Evaluating factors affecting survivorship during early life

stages of the crown-of-thorns starfish, Acanthaster planci (L.),

is essential to understand the mechanisms of population

outbreaks. The objective of this study was to determine

whether food availability is a crucial factor controlling the

growth, development and survival of the larvae of A. planci in

the Great Barrier Reef Waters. This was undertaken by rearing

larvae in freshly collected seawater that was coarse filtered,

and in the same seawater treated by further filtration or food

enrichment. Larvae were also reared in nutrient-enriched

seawater (NES), where the concentration of natural

phytoplankton was elevated by adding nutrient solution and

incubating for a few days. Larval development rate and

survival were nil or significantly lower in 2 µm filtered and the

coarse-filtered seawater than in the same seawater enriched

with cultured microalgae, dissolved free amino acids (DFAA),

or in NES. When larvae were reared in NES having different

fixed concentrations of phytoplankton (chlorophyll a), a

change from low larval survival to optimal survival through

rapid development occurred between 0.5 and 0.8 µg L -1 . This

range is slightly higher than typical chlorophyll a levels found

in the field, suggesting that larvae are usually food limited in

the Great Barrier Reef waters.

PROVIDING A SCIENTIFIC BASIS FOR MANAGING

THE GREAT BARRIER REEF MARINE PARK AND

WORLD HERITAGE AREA.

Oliver, Jamie* & Alison Green. Great Barrier Reef Marine

Park Authority, PO Box 1379, Townsville. Qld 4810.

Australia. Email: jamieo@gbrmpa.gov.au

Having the best information available for decision-makers is

essential to high quality scientifically based management of

coral reefs. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority has

a system to ensure that this is the case by clearly identifying

research priorities, coordinating high priority research, and

developing processes for ensuring that the results are presented

in a manner that can be used effectively by managers.

Recently, GBRMPA underwent a process in which its research

priorities were identified. The results are now being used to

coordinate relevant research with research providers. The

Representative Areas Program provides an excellent example

of how scientific information can be used effectively by

managers. Scientists have participated in a bioregionalisation

process, and are currently providing information on the social,

cultural and economic values of the area. This information is

being processed using GIS technology, which will provide the

basis for designing a new system for protecting representative

areas in the Marine Park and World Heritage Area..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B6: GBR

179

FISH SPAWNING AGGREGATION PROTECTION IN

THE GREAT BARRIER REEF MARINE PARK.

Russell, Martin *. *Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

Authority, PO Box 1379 Townsville, Qld 4810. Australia.

Email: russell@gbrmpa.gov.au

T he incr eased abundance of spawni ng cor al r eef f i sh i n

l ocal i sed areas at pr edict able ti mes m akes fi sh spawning

aggregat ion sit es (F S AS ) par ti cul ar l y vul nerable t o

overexpl oi t at ion and di st urbance by fi shi ng, t ouri sm and

r esear ch acti vi t ies. F i shing on F SAS has r esult ed in sever e st ock

deplet ion of fi sh ar ound t he worl d, and t here is concer n t hat

com mer ci al and r ecreati onal fi shers ar e t ar get ing F SAS i n the

Great Barr i er Reef Mari ne Park (GBRMP) . T ouri sm act ivit i es i n

t he GBRMP occur i n areas wher e several F SAS are known t o

occur , and ther e i s concer n that physi cal dam age t o cor als caused

by anchori ng and divers, and f i sh f eeding and the presence of

diver s can af fect the f or m at ion of aggregat ions and t he norm al

spawni ng behavi our of f ish at t hese si tes. Som e research

act ivi ti es al so have the pot ent ial f or i m pact s sim i lar t o those

caused by f ishi ng and t our ism. The Great Barr i er Reef Mari ne

P ar k Aut hor it y ( GBRMP A) i s att empti ng to mi ti gat e t he i m pact s

of these acti vi t ies, to ensure the m ai nt enance of F SAS and t he

aggregat ing f ish t hat depend on t hem . The GBRMPA is

working with Queensland fisheries managers to minimise

target fishing on spawning aggregations of reef fish through

proposed seasonal closures; GBRMPA officers and field staff

are being trained to identify and assess FSAS; a reef-wide re-zoning

exercise is considering FSAS; the locations of mooring,

pontoon and anchoring sites are being considered to protect

FSAS from tourist activities; and research permit assessments

consider the potential impacts of research on FSAS.

MAKING IT HAPPEN – PLANNING AND

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT MANAGEMENT ON THE

GREAT BARRIER REEF.

Skeat, Andrew *, John Baldwin, Martin Robinson & Adam

Smith. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, PO Box

1379, Townsville, Qld 4810. Australia. Email:

a.skeat@gbrmpa.gov.au

The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park is a multiple use reserve

of some 350,000km 2 . Activity is controlled by legislation,

plans and permits. Plans are of three types. Zoning Plans cover

the entire Marine Park and are the primary control on use.

Management Plans apply to smaller areas or to species

requiring special protection. Management plans not only

provide additional protection for the environment, but also

separate conflicting use. Site plans are prepared for areas of

only several hectares when natural and cultural values need to

be protected at a fine scale. Environmental impact assessment

is generally carried out before permits are issued. Major

projects, involving significant infrastructure or disturbance to

the environment, undergo rigorous assessment and associated

monitoring. Routine permits such as tourism activities are

assessed more quickly against criteria defined in legislation.

This management system is applauded for its rigour. It also

attracts criticism because of its complexity and high cost.

Changes are being made to reduce the time taken to make

permit decisions.

MONITORING THE REGIONAL STATUS OF CORAL

REEFS IN THE GREAT BARRIER REEF WORLD

HERITAGE AREA.

Sweatman, Hugh*. Australian Institute of Marine Science,

PMB 3 Townsville MC, Qld 4810, Australia. Email:

h.sweatman@aims.gov.au

The Australian Institute of Marine Science’s (AIMS) Long-term

Monitoring Program (LTMP) provides information on the

status of coral reef areas across most of the length and breadth

of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR). This provides significant

material for the “State of the GBR World Heritage Area”

reports and hence contributes to statutory reporting obligations

to the World Heritage Committee. Forty-eight “core” reefs are

surveyed annually. Reef fishes and benthic organisms are both

surveyed in permanently marked sites in one habitat of these

reefs: the NE reef slopes. Manta tow surveys of the perimeters

of core survey reefs and a number of other reefs assess the

numbers of crown-of-thorns starfish and estimate reef-wide

cover of live coral. The program is working to automate

analysis and reporting so as to publish findings rapidly via the

internet. As well as reporting trends in the abundance of reef

organisms on individual reefs and by region, surveys of

assemblages on so broad a geographic scale have contributed

to the identification of representative areas within the marine

park. The scale of the sampling program gave a quantitative

basis for assessing the impact of the coral bleaching in 1998,

countering perceptions that the GBR had been devastated.

Website: www.aims.gov.au/reef-monitoring

MEASURING HOW GREAT IS GREAT: STATE OF

THE ENVIRONMENT REPORTING FOR THE GREAT

BARRIER REEF WORLD HERITAGE AREA.

Wachenfeld, David* & Jamie Oliver. *GBRMPA, PO Box

1379, Townsville, Qld 4810, Australia. Email:

davidwa@gbrmpa.gov.au

In 1998 the report ‘State of the Great Barrier Reef World

Heritage Area 1998’ was released. This is the first ever

synthesis of information on the state of the environment,

human pressures on the environment and management

responses to those pressures for the whole of the Great Barrier

Reef World Heritage Area. The report feeds into Australia’s

process for reporting to UNESCO on World Heritage Areas.

The overall picture is that, while some elements of the GBR

are subject to intensive human pressures, the ecosystem as a

whole is in good health. Out of the 12 categories used for

reporting, all have had extensive surveys conducted for at least

part of the environmental attribute on at least one occasion.

However, significant areas of uncertainty regarding basic

distribution and abundance remain for many groups of

organisms, including macroalgae, inter-reefal and lagoonal

benthos, sea snakes and inshore dolphins. Currently, the

GBRMPA is developing a set of environmental indicators to

be used in future State of the Reef reporting..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B6: GBR

180

SELECTING REPRESENTATIVE AREAS OF THE

GREAT BARRIER REEF WORLD HERITAGE AREA

(GBRWHA).

Ward, Trevor*, Hugh Possingham, Adam Lewis and

Suzanne Slegers

*University of Western Australia, and Great Barrier Reef

Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA), PO Box 1379

Townsville Mail Centre, Qld, 4810, Australia. Email:

tward@geog.uwa.edu.au

The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority is developing

procedures and software to identify representative biological

features of the GBRWHA, and assemble these into a set of

candidate areas (CAs) for high protection. Scientists involved

in this collaborative work are from the GBRMPA, University

of Adelaide, University of Western Australia, James Cook

University, the Reefs CRC, CSIRO Division of Marine

Research, Environment Australia and the Queensland

Department of Environment and Heritage. Biological data on

reef fish, hard corals, soft corals, seagrasses, and invertebrates

have been spatially modelled to define reefal and inter-reefal

bioregions as surrogates for biological diversity. The WHA is

divided into a set of 50,568 hexagonal 10 km 2 planning units

(PUs) for assembly into CAs. MarXan, an optimising program,

selects PUs for CAs according to specific rules including: (a) a

minimum size; (b) replication and spatial distribution within a

bioregion; (c) selection of whole reefs; (d) include specified

number/areas of each biological feature type; (f) include

special places; and (g) take into account adjacent land/sea uses

and existing zoning. MarXan uses an objective function to

assemble groups of PUs that meet the selection rules with

minimal ‘cost’ (e.g., long boundary length or value for

competing uses). The project is the first use of detailed spatial

criteria in advanced optimisation procedures to identify

representative areas for marine conservation purposes..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B7: Policy

Session B7: The Interface of Science, Management and Policy

181

DEMYSTIFYING THE SCIENCE POLICY PROCESS:

HOW CAN SCIENTISTS CONTRIBUTE TO THE

PROCESS?

Best, B.A.* *U.S. Agency for International Development,

Global Environment Center, 1300 Pennsylvania Ave. NW,

Washington, D.C. 20523-3800, USA. Email:

Bbest@USAID.gov

Coral reefs are threatened by a range of human activities. To

address these threats, sound science-based decisions are often

needed at the local, national, regional and international levels.

How can scientists and professional societies contribute to the

policy process at these various levels, and in what capacities?

How is science applied in the development of policy

frameworks? To be most useful for managers and decision-makers,

scientific information should be made available in a

timely manner and be appropriately presented so as to be

easily understood by the general public. Such information can

help shape priorities and direct actions and funding. Drawing

upon several issues, I will discuss how scientists and

professional societies can contribute to the policy process as

related to coral reef policy development and implementation.

The discussion will also target specific areas where more

scientific and socio-economic information is needed to assist

the policy process.

MARINE PROTECTED AREAS AUSTRALIA – A

NATIONAL AND LOCAL PERSPECTIVE

Beech, Graeme* – *Environment Australia, Email:

graeme.beech@ea.gov.au

Australia’s Oceans policy commits the Federal Government

to developing Australia’s oceans sustainably through regional

marine planning. As part of the Oceans policy, Australian

government departments are also working together to develop

a national representative system of marine protected areas

(NRSMPA) throughout the entire marine estate (16 million

km 2 ). Environment Australia has responded to the NRSMPA

with the identification and declaration of 5 new MPAs over the

last 3 years. These MPAs will have performance assessment

programs supporting the plans of management. Cartier Island

Marine Reserve, one of the most recently declared Reserves, in

combination with nearby Ashmore Reef National Nature

Reserve, protects a biologically rich area. The primary purpose

of the Cartier and Ashmore Reserves is to protect their unique

and vulnerable coral reef and island communities including

CHAMBA / JAMBA birds, endemic coral and reptile species,

and turtle and dugong populations. Cartier and Ashmore are

located in the Indian Ocean on Australia’s North West Shelf

where traditional Indonesian fishers have visited and harvested

the reefs of the region for many years. Subsequent depletion

of the target species and their dependents is one of the major

pressures that impacts on the biodiversity values of these

strategic Reserves. The Plan of Management determines

strategies necessary to protect the values of the Reserves and

are subject to Performance Assessment criteria. These

strategies are being developed in close consultation with

interested stakeholders, in particular the Indonesian interest

groups due to their longstanding association with the area.

With limited resources, effective management in the long term

is dependent on the productive involvement and support of

stakeholders.

IMPLICATIONS OF CATCHMENT MANAGEMENT

FOR CORAL REEFS IN A PERIOD OF GLOBAL

CLIMATE CHANGE

Done, TJ.

*

, King, B, McAllister, F.

*

Australian Institute of

Marine Science, PMB #3, Townsville MC. Qld., Australia.

Email Address: t.done@aims.gov.au

Improved management of land and water to reverse

deleterious effects of land runoff on coral reefs will come at a

cost that will have to be justified to those asked to pay for the

improvements. It will take place during a period in which

rainfall and other climate variable are projected to change. In

terms of improved coral reefs, over what area would the

change in catchment management be effective, and would they

be enhanced or negated by changes in rainfall? What are the

indicators of success? Here, we focus only on water quantity,

not quality. We applied a computer simulation model and a

risk assessment approach to better quantify the extent and

nature of influence of river plumes on marine habitats in the

Great Barrier Reef under present climate and catchment

management and water allocation regimes. Maps of return

periods based on analysis of simulations of all floods of the

Burdekin River (Queensland's largest) for the period 1966-

1995 - (see AIMS website) show the return period for

exposure to Burdekin River water at a range of dilutions and

durations for any point in the central Great Barrier Reef waters

ranged from < 1 to > 30 years. Catchment management and

climate change would both tend change both these return

periods and the annual probabilities of exposure. From the

perspective of the coral reef ecosystem, too frequent exposure

to runoff precludes reefs, less frequent exposure to runoff

allows longer intervals for recovery and development of

functional, scenic and biodiverse reefscapes.

CORDIO: A COLLABORATIVE RESEARCH

PROGRAM INVESTIGATING THE EFFECTS OF

CORAL REEF DEGRADATION IN THE INDIAN

OCEAN.

Lindén, Olof* *CORDIO, Dept. Marine Sciences, Kalmar

University, 391 29 Kalmar, Sweden. Email:

olof.linden@cordio.org

CORDIO is a research program created to respond to the

degradation of coral reefs throughout the Indian Ocean,

particularly the extensive bleaching and mortality of corals that

occurred in 1998. Projects funded through CORDIO focus on

determining a) the bio-physical impacts of coral reef

degradation as a result of bleaching and other disturbances,

and the long term prospects for recovery, b) the socio-economic

impacts of coral mortality and options for mitigating

these through management and development of alternative

livelihoods, and c) the prospects for restoration and

rehabilitation of reefs to accelerate ecological and socio-economic

recovery. Results from the CORDIO Program is

presented in several other reports at this symposium. CORDIO

is implemented in 12 countries around the western and central

Indian Ocean by scientists from 15 national institutions. Some

activities are co-ordinated and implemented as regional

projects, e.g. the socio-economic studies and the investigations

of coral larval distribution and settlement, while others are

conducted as national projects. All research is co-ordinated

through regional centres in Mombasa, Reunion and Colombo..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B7: Policy

182

CREATION OF A NEW INTERNATIONAL MEASURE

TO PROHIBIT ANCHORING ON CORAL REEFS BY

LARGE SHIPS.

Johnson, Lindy S.* and Schmahl, George P.. *Office of

International Law, NOAA, Room 7837, 14 th and

Constitution Avenues, NW, Washington D.C. 20230 USA.

Email: Lindy.S.Johnson@NOAA.GOV

An international measure has been proposed to protect coral

reefs from impacts of anchoring by large vessels within the

Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary (NMS), a

marine protected area in the northwest Gulf of Mexico.

Anchoring by large ships on coral reefs can destroy and

degrade significant portions of these fragile and valuable

habitats by crushing or dislodging coral heads and

destabilizing the reef substrate. The United States has

submitted two proposals to the International Maritime

Organization (IMO), a Specialized Agency of the United

Nations that addresses international shipping issues, to address

this problem. The first proposal would create a new measure

under international law for “no anchoring” areas, by amending

an instrument called the General Provisions on Ships’

Routeing. The second proposal would establish three such no

anchoring areas for the unique coral reefs of the Flower

Garden Banks NMS. These proposals will be considered in

July 2000 by the IMO Sub-committee on Safety of Navigation

(NAV) and then, if approved by NAV, will be forwarded for

final adoption by the IMO Maritime Safety Committee in

December. If adopted, these U.S. proposals will establish a

tool that other countries can use to protect valuable coral

ecosystems from anchor impacts, as well as protecting the

coral resources of the Flower Garden Banks NMS.

THE INTERNATIONAL TROPICAL MARINE

ECOSYSTEMS MANAGEMENT SYMPOSIUM

(ITMEMS): MANAGEMENT QUESTIONS FOR

SCIENCE.

Kenchington, Richard *, Baldwin, John. *RAC Marine

Pty Ltd, PO Box 588, JAMISON, ACT 2614, Australia.

Email: kenchington@yahoo.com

This paper presents an analysis of the information needs

identified by The International Tropical Marine Ecosystems

Management Symposium (ITMEMS) participants in

Townsville in November 1998. ITMEMS was held as part of

the International Coral Reef Initiative to consider the priorities

of managers for the maintenance and restoration of coral reefs.

The underlying requests of science are those of understanding

of how reefs and related ecosystems function and interact and

how human uses and impacts affect the natural resilience of

reef communities. The most immediate needs are for studies

which help to explain phenomena which occur over large areas

and long time scales. The other information needs of

managers relate to the linkages of social, economic and

environmental considerations. Some of the practicalities of

managing multidisciplinary reef programs are discussed.

PARTNERSHIPS IN MANAGING ECOLOGICALLY

SENSITIVE AND TECHNICALLY DEMANDING

PROGRAMS.

McCloskey, Gary W.*. *U.S. Army Program Manager for

Chemical Demilitarization. JACADS-PMCSD, ATTN:

SFAE-CD-CO-J(JI), P.O. Box 156, APO, AP 96558-0008.

Email: gary.mccloskey@pmcsd.johnston.af.mil

Johnston Atoll, located approximately 800 miles southwest

of Hawaii, is home to many seabird, shorebird and marine

species, including an extensive coral reef, and is a designated

national wildlife refuge. It is also home to the Johnston Atoll

Chemical Agent Disposal System (JACADS) — a U.S. Army

incineration facility built to dispose of chemical weapons.

Operation of JACADS in an ecologically-sensitive

environment has drawn scrutiny by citizens’ groups and the

general public. Management of JACADS with environmental

sensitivity includes use of the best available technology and

establishment and maintenance of baselines for land and reef

species surrounding Johnston Atoll through partnerships with

environmental scientists and related government agencies.

Initial efforts failed, however, to recognize animosity due to

past nuclear testing and establish community partnerships in

decisions surrounding chemical weapons disposal operations

in the region. For the last three years, the Army’s chemical

weapons disposal program has been managed as a true

partnership among all of its diverse constituents. A highest

priority, management has met with success in preserving its

relationships to safeguard and invest in the environment

throughout the life cycle of the project, and building

relationships that in addition to fostering public support for the

program, provide a positive cost benefit to industry and

resource trustees.

THE INADEQUACY OF CURRENT LEGISLATION TO

PROTECT SCLERACTINIAN CORAL COMMUNITIES

IN HONG KONG, CHINA.

McCorry, Denise*. *The Swire Institute of Marine Science

and Department of Ecology and Biodiversity, The

University of Hong Kong, Cape d’Aguilar, Shek O, Hong

Kong. Email: dmmccorr@hkusua.hku.hk

Hong Kong’s mainland and surrounding islands support

high-latitude, shallow, fringing coral communities. These

communities are considered to be depauperate, non-reef

forming assemblages composed of widespread, common Indo-Pacific

faviid species in association with a small number of

species with a more restricted high-latitudinal range, e.g.,

Acropora solitaryensis. These communities receive intense

anthropogenic impacts due to dense urban populations and

massive associated development. High levels of domestic and

industrial effluent, reclamation and dredging and destructive

fishing practices have contributed to the extirpation and

demise of local corals and communities. Results from a

recently completed baseline study of 31 sites indicated that 26

% of coral communities surveyed were dead or severely

degraded. The ability of current legislation to protect the

remaining well-established coral communities is examined

with particular reference to Hoi Ha Wan Marine Park,

established in 1996. Recommendations for amendments to the

existing legislation are made with the aim of increasing the

long-term survival of local scleractinian coral communities..9ICRS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT B7: Policy

183

IFRECOR : A FRENCH GOVERNMENT INITIATIVE

FOR THE PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF ITS

CORAL REEFS.

Pichon, M.*; Gabrié, C. *E.P.H.E., Université de

Perpignan, 66860 Perpignan, France. Email: pichon@univ-perp.

fr

Through its overseas territories, France has coral reefs in the

three major oceans : Martinique and Guadeloupe in the

Atlantic Ocean, Mayotte, La Réunion and Scattered Islands in

the Indian Ocean, New Caledonia, Wallis and Futuna, and

French Polynesia in the Pacific Ocean. The total surface area

covered by these reefs and associated lagoons is close to

55,000 km 2 representing approximately 10% of the surface

area covered by coral reefs worldwide In March 1999, the

French government launched the "French Initiative on Coral

Reefs" (IFRECOR). This national scheme covers all measures

and actions taken for a better management and protection of

what is now regarded as a piece of the French natural heritage.

To implement this Initiative, the government has set up a

National Committee, operating under the umbrella of the

Minister for the Environment and the Minister for Overseas

Territories. The committee includes members of the different

categories interested and/or involved in the management and

protection of coral reefs. The National Committee is supported

by 7 local committees (one for each of the overseas territories

concerned) which bring together the local players in the field

of reef management. A National Strategy for coral reef

protection and management was adopted in December 1999.

The National Strategy specifically addresses the following

issues : (1) planning, (2) protection against pollution and

disturbances, (3) research and monitoring, (4) information,

education and training, (5) improvement of the legal and

regulatory framework and (6) strengthening of inter-territory,

regional and international cooperation. The National Strategy

is implemented through a 5-year action plan.

ARE WE TACKLING THE MAIN ISSUES

CONSTRAINING INTEGRATED COASTAL

MANAGEMENT IN CORAL REEF AREAS?

Westmacott, Susie* *University of Newcastle upon Tyne.

Address: 33 Old Priory Close, Hamble, SO31 4QP, UK.

Email: s.westmacott@ncl.ac.uk

Coral reefs are a fragile but valuable resource attracting a

high level of use and attention. The increasing pressure put on

our coastal zones, particularly in these tropical areas means

that increasingly integrated coastal management (ICM) is

being called upon. ICM is defined as the “ideal” situation

where institutions, defined as agencies, stakeholders and

organisations involved or affected by the management of the

coastal zone, work in an integrated manner to manage the

multiple uses. The goal of ICM is to achieve the conservation

and sustained multiple use of the coastal zone. ICM is an

ambitious task requiring institutional stability, institutional

capacity, legislative capacity, political and public will and

participation as well as involvement of scientists in the

management process. A recent survey of tropical coastal areas

has identified the main impediments affecting the ability to

implement ICM in these areas. The results show the main

impediments are not the lack of finance and trained personnel

but the lack of grass roots involvement in decision making,

sufficient legislation and the political will to be involved in

sustainable development initiatives and balance decisions

between economic and environmental objectives. The

challenge now is how to overcome these impediments and

prioritise the order in which we approach them. Continuing

research explores the development of various management

tools to help overcome these impediments..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C1: Social and Economic

Session C1: Bringing Social Sciences and Economic Issues into Coral Reef

Management

184

WHALE WATCHING IN BAIS CITY, NEGROS

ORIENTAL, PHILIPPINES: AN ECOTOURISM

ENTERPRISE.

Abrenica B.T.*and Calumpong, H.P. *Silliman University

Marine Laboratory, Dumaguete City 6200, Philippines.

Email: mlsucrm@mozcom.com

Whale watching is part of the ecotourism industry that

creates revenue and jobs by satisfying the demands of tourists

to experience and observe marine mammals in the wild. It is

considered a valuable non-consumptive and sustainable

alternative source of income to fishers who are directly or

indirectly taking them. Bais City in Negros Oriental,

Philippines through its Local Government Unit, has pioneered

and popularized dolphin and whale watching since 1993, after

which the city got its famous trade name, "City of Whales and

Dolphins". A one year monitoring study was conducted from

April 1999-March 2000 to obtain information on marine

mammal population, revenue from tourism and peak tourist

season. The peak months for tourists were April to June,

associated with the summer season and calm weather

conditions. Highest number of visitors & trips were in May

(1,126 visitors and 57 trips), with Filipinos comprising the

majority (3,541 or 89%) who mainly go for recreational

purposes (81%). Of the seven cetacean species sighted by

tourists, spinners (Stenella longirostris) were the most

common being sighted in all months, with highest sightings in

May (19±2.2 ind/hr) and lowest in December (4±1.9 ind/hr).

Dwarf-sperm whales and bottlenose dolphins were least seen.

A total net income of PhP 504, 000 (US$ 12,600) for one year

was generated, of which 53.4 % or (PhP 269, 151) went to the

government and the rest went to the private sector.

DIVERS’ WILLINGNESS TO PAY TO VISIT MARINE

SANCTUARIES: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY.

Arin, Tijen *; Kramer, Randall A. *World Bank, H5-341,

1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, DC 20433, USA. Email:

tarin@worldbank.org

User fees that divers would pay to enter marine sanctuaries

constitute a significant potential revenue source to finance

coral reef conservation. An exploratory contingent valuation

study was carried out among foreign and local tourists in three

major dive destinations in the Philippines to examine diver

demand for visits to protected coral reef areas. Results

indicate most divers would be willing to pay an entrance fee to

marine sanctuaries where fishing, one of the major threats to

coral reefs, is prohibited. An econometric model was

estimated analyzing the socioeconomic and travel related

factors that affect divers' willingness to pay. Results indicate

that substantial amounts of revenues may be collected to

support coral reef conservation. Most tourists interviewed

preferred NGOs as the most trustworthy organizations to

collect and manage entrance fees.

BALANCING PERCEPTION INFORMATION WITH

SCIENCE-BASED PARTICIPATORY MONITORING,

EVALUATION AND RESPONSE-FEEDBACK SYSTEM

(MERFS).

Bacudo I.V. * , Ma. Maida S. Aguinaldo, Porfirio M. Aliño,

Miledel Christine C. Quibilan and Hazel O. Arceo. * DENR-National

Integrated Protected Areas Programme, Ninoy

Aquino Parks and Wildlife Nature Center, North Ave.

Diliman, Quezon City 1156, PHILIPPINES, 1101, Email:

saryaya@yahoo.com

Broad surveys based on anecdotal reports obtained from the

Coral Reef Information Network of the Philippines (PhilReefs)

partners provided a synoptic picture of the nationwide extent

of coral bleaching. Fishers, local communities and tourists

commonly attributed the bleaching impact to human activities

such as destructive fishing methods and to non-scientific

probable causes. Nonetheless, stakeholders felt the impact of

the phenomena through the decrease in fish catch and tourist

entries, or low visitor satisfaction. It is important to measure

communities’ and tourists’ level of perception to coral

bleaching, and enhance their consciousness with scientific

knowledge, in order to deliver more appropriate community-based

intervention strategies. Through focused group

discussions, and workshop consultations with affected

stakeholders, perceptions on coral bleaching were measured.

This ensured that the establishment of participatory

Monitoring, Evaluation, and Response-Feedback System

(MERFS) as a resource management tool in partnership with

affected stakeholders.

LISTENING TO COMMUNITIES: A COMPARATIVE

SURVEY OF COASTAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

IN THE PACIFIC ISLANDS.

Bettencourt, S.*; Gillett, Robert; and Muller, Jeffrey.

*The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street, NW, Washington,

D.C. 20433, U.S.A., Email: Sbettencourt@worldbank.org

In 1998/99, the World Bank sponsored a survey of 31 coastal

communities in Fiji, Palau, Samoa, Solomon Islands, and

Tonga. The survey found an overwhelming perception among

community groups that coastal resources were declining.

Coral reefs and lagoons were the ecosystems perceived to have

declined the most over the past decade. Communities

perceived pollution as the fastest rising threat to coastal

resources, while destructive practices were perceived as having

declined the most. National management rules that were

perceived as relevant and that were subsequently adopted as

local rules were perceived to have significantly better

compliance than either purely national or purely community

rules. Finally, the communities perceived that alternative

income generation programs which relied on aquaculture, tuna

fisheries or deep slope fisheries had generally not succeeded in

alleviating fishing pressure on coastal resources. The findings

of this study can be used to formulate better systems of co-management

between coastal communities and their external

partners.".9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C1: Social and Economic

185

CORAL CONSERVATION IN PEARL CULTURE

ZONES.

Black, M*. *CRMP/Proyek Pesisir, Jakarta, Indonesia.

Email: Guava@cbn.net.id

In Lampung Bay, Sumatra, pearl culture, shrimp culture and

capture fisheries exist concurrently, and their synergistic

influence affects the entire ecology of the coastal zone.

Investigation quantifying the environmental impact of pearl

culture on surrounding coral reefs has previously never been

undertaken in SE Asia. Research in Lampung Bay included a

benthic coral cover survey (86 line intercept transects) done

over a three month period during 1999. The survey was

conducted at near-shore pearl culture facilities, comparing the

condition of the coral reefs. The main pattern observed was

that reefs inside and adjacent to (within 0.5 km of the

boundary) the pearl culture farms have healthier corals than

those located outside of the pearl farm areas. Reefs inside and

adjacent to the pearl farms had 18% more live hard coral cover

than reefs outside these areas. Additionally, reefs inside the

pearl farms had about 12% less dead coral cover and 10% less

coral rubble. These findings suggests that the pearl culture

farms, and the presence of their guarded perimeter, protect the

nearby reefs from direct degradation from common factors

such as blast fishing, anchor damage, and coral mining. The

findings of the study indicate that pearl farms have dual

functions: as pearl oyster culture production areas and as de

facto coral reef conservation zones. Coastal management

strategies seldom seek partnerships between governing

institutions and private business. Possible co-management

arrangements between aquaculture business and government

agencies are discussed in the context of Indonesia.

COMMUNITY PERCEPTION OF COASTAL

RESOURCES IN LAMPUNG, SUMATRA.

Black, Mark*. *CRMP/Proyek Pesisir, Jakarta,

Indonesia. Email: Guava@cbn.net.id

The impact of human activity on coastal resources is a well-known

issue for coastal resource management programs. In

indonesia these issues are of particular importance. The

17,000 islands of the archipelago contain a significant portion

of the world’s coral reef that directly provides food for about

40 million coastal dwellers. A socioeconomic survey was

conducted from march-april 1999, among 338 residents from

four coastal villages in lampung bay, sumatra. The survey

focused on villagers’ attitudes about coastal resource use,

blast-fishing and their perceptions of pearl culture facilities.

Results from the survey suggest that people from the villages

view coral reefs as a vast resource. The respondents tend to

value coral for building material, rather than fish habitat.

Their attitude about blast-fishing is paradoxical: they know

that bombs hurt coral reefs and that it is illegal; however, they

feel that it is a socially acceptable method of fishing. Tradition,

short-term gain and, perhaps declining fish catches using other

fishing methods, appear to be important factors in the decision

to practice blast-fishing. With the current need for effective

coastal management strategies for coral reef conservation,

partnerships between governing institutions and private

business and other stakeholder demand more attention. Co-management

arrangements between aquaculture business and

government are discussed in the context of indonesia.

TRADE-OFF ANALYSIS FOR CORAL REEF

MANAGEMENT.

Brown, Katrina * , Neil Adger, Emma Tompkins, Peter

Bacon, David Shim, and Kathy Young. School of

Development Studies, University of East Anglia, Norwich,

NR4 7TJ, U.K. Email address: k.brown@uea.ac.uk

This paper outlines an approach to coral reef management

that incorporates multiple objectives for coral reef resources

within a decision-making framework. The approach uses a

framework based on multi-criteria analysis but involves

stakeholders at all stages to enhance decision-making

processes. We call this approach trade-off analysis. This

holistic approach is appropriate for multiple use, complex

systems such as coral reef ecosystems, where many different

users are apparently in conflict and where linkages and

feedbacks between different aspects of the ecosystem and

economy exist. The paper applies trade-off analysis to the case

of Buccoo Reef Marine Park in Tobago. Stakeholder analysis

is undertaken, and social, economic and ecological criteria are

identified. The impacts of four different development scenarios

are evaluated for these criteria. using: economic analysis,

contingent valuation method surveys, qualitative analysis of

semi-structured interviews and key informant interviews, and

rapid ecological survey assessments. Stakeholders are asked to

weight different criteria and then the outcomes of different

stakeholder weightings in the multi-criteria analysis are used to

explore different management options. The case study offers

an empirical application of participatory integrated assessment,

and provides wider lessons for coastal resource management,

namely that participation of heterogeneous stakeholders in the

governance of natural resources requires inclusiveness,

information sharing and the validation of local knowledge and

experience.

REGULATING ECOTOURISM IN APO ISLAND,

NEGROS ORIENTAL, PHILIPPINES

Cadiz, P.L.* and Calumpong, H.P. *Marine Laboratory,

Silliman University, Dumaguete City 6200, Philippines.

Email: mlsucrm@mozcom.com

Apo Island Marine Reserve in Central Philippines was

established in 1986 as a fisheries intervention using a

community-based approach. Its success resulted not only in

increased fish standing biomass and harvest but also in the

preservation of its coral reefs making it a major success.

However, the unregulated number of tourists diving and

snorkeling in the sanctuary has raised concerns among

members of the community and the PAMB (Protected Area

Management Board) of the damage it has caused to the corals.

Hence, this study was conducted to monitor tourism in Apo

Island with the objective of aiding the PAMB in regulating it.

April was the peak month for tourism (2,301 visitors) and

September the low month (737 visitors). Average number of

visitors daily ranged from 28 to 59. Majority of visitors were

Filipinos (39.68%) followed by Japanese (26.67%), Germans

(11.74%), Americans (5.25%) and others (16.66%). Revenues

as user fees from visitors before PAMB implementation was

only PhP 4,633 monthly (US$ 116) whereas, monthly revenue

after the PAMB implementation was PhP 149,635 (US$

3,741). Twenty-five per cent went to the National Integrated

Protected Area Fund (IPAF) and 75% went to the local IPAF.

Results of coral damage monitored during this period are

presented in a separate paper..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C1: Social and Economic

186

THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE INVALUABLE

INDONESIAN CORAL REEFS

Cesar H.S.J.* *Institute of Environmental Studies, Free

University Amsterdam, Boelelaan 1115, 1081 HV

Amsterdam,The Netherlands. Email: hcesar@ivm.vu.nl

Coral reef ecosystems provide many services and goods to

coastal populations, especially in developing countries like

Indonesia. A variety of anthropogenic practices threatens reef

health and therefore jeopardizes the benefits flowing from

these services and goods. These threats range from local

pollution, sedimentation, destructive fishing practices and

coral mining to global issues like coral bleaching. Economic

valuation can help to shed light to the importance of the

services and goods by ‘getting some of the numbers on the

table’. This paper presents estimates of the economic value of

Indonesian coral reefs, based on original work as well as a

literature review of past studies. Also, the paper presents a cost

benefit analysis for marine parks in Indonesia focusing on

Taka Bone Rate and the Spice Islands and the net economic

costs of destructive fishing practices. For instance, the costs of

blast fishing appears to be four times higher than the net profits

of such fishermen. For Indonesia as a whole, the cost of

inaction with respect to enforcing the existing blast fishing

regulations alone over the last decades is estimated at a hefty

US$ 3.8 billion. Finally, the paper presents a stakeholder

analysis for unsustainable reef practices, followed by a

discussion of management strategies of how to cope with these

threats.

AN EVALUATION OF THE SHORT-TERM SOCIO-ECONOMIC

IMPACTS OF MARINE RESERVES ON

USER GROUPS IN KEY WEST, FL.

Dobrzynski, T. and Nicholson, Betsy *. *Duke University

Marine Lab, 135 Duke Marine Lab Road, Beaufort, NC

28516 USA. Email: een@duke.edu

Traditional marine resource management has failed;

evidenced by resource overexploitation, water quality declines,

and habitat degradation. Marine reserves, well-defined marine

areas where consumptive uses are prohibited, have the

potential to reverse current declines in the marine ecosystems,

however the lack of understanding for their social and

economic impacts has impeded their establishment in U.S.

waters. We conducted a survey research project using

relatively open-ended interview guides to assess the short-term

social and economic impacts of recently established marine

reserves on dive/snorkel operators, commercial fishers, and

charter fishing operators in the Key West region of the Florida

Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS). Our findings

indicate that reserves have had low economic impact and high

social / behavioral impact on marine user groups surveyed.

Additionally, while user groups reported minimal ecological

changes outside reserves, they reported definite ecological

benefits inside reserves. Finally, while all user groups exhibit

support for the concept of reserves, they all exhibit lower

levels of support for the process used by the FKNMS to

develop and implement marine reserves. Recommendations

for resources managers include better communication of

reserve objectives to user groups, further investigation of user

group impacts on habitat, and a balance of scientific, political,

and socioeconomic factors in marine reserve design,

implementation, and monitoring to ensure their success.

A SOCIAL ASSESSMENT OF QUEENSLAND’S

COMMERCIAL FISHING INDUSTRY.

Fenton, M.* and Marshall, Nadine. *Cooperative Research

Centre for Reef Research, James Cook University,

Townsville 4811, Australia. Email :

ebcmark@ozemail.com.au

There are currently approximately 5,500 commercial fishers

living and working in coastal communities in Queensland,

Australia. It is important that Reef Managers understand the

direct and indirect socio-economic impacts of changes in

fisheries management regimes at specific locations within the

marine park. A baseline social assessment of Queensland’s

commercial fishing industry has been undertaken, including

the harvest fishery and tourism charter fishery. One of the

objectives of this research was to predict the socio-economic

impacts of implementing the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

Authority’s (GBRMPA) Representative Areas Program on the

communities that are dependent on fishing resources in

Queensland. Town Resource Cluster (TRC) Analysis was used

to develop quantitative spatial models that define clusters of

communities as consisting of mutually interdependent towns.

Spatial linkages were established between the marine resource

and the TRCs in which fishing businesses were located. Spatial

linkages were also established between the fishing town and

other towns and communities within the region. Through TRC

analysis the location and type of social impacts associated with

changes in fisheries management regimes could be identified,

allowing the inclusion of social data and information in the

determination of representative areas.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ARTISANAL FISHERIES

AND TOURISM IN BRAZILIAN COASTAL REEFS.

Ferreira, B.P.* and Maida. M. *Dep. Oceanografia,

Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil.

Email: beatrice@free.elogica.com.br

Along the Northeastern Brazilian coast, the economy of

small rural towns is based on subsistence fisheries on reefs and

mangroves, small scale offshore commercial fishing and

seasonal work during the peak tourism season, when

population of small towns can increase five times fold. In

1998, the Coastal Reef Project started to assess fisheries and

follow tourism flux through the nearshore waters and reefs of

the Coral Coast MPA. Artisanal fisheries in this region is

intense, targeting a large variety of reef fish, crustaceans and

other species. A cost/benefit analise of the artisanal and

commercial fleets indicated that the commercial fisheries had a

larger annual production, employed less people but earned less

money per fisherman than the artisanal fisheries. Ownership

structure, sharing system, poorly dimensioned loans,

overfishing and marketing system explained the observed

pattern. Declining fisheries make tourism development the

most promising alternative employment opportunity. Results

from seasonal variation of effort and CPUE show a tendency

to a transition from a fisheries-based to a tourism-based

economy. However, because tourism flux is highly seasonal,

fishing still represents a fundamental source of food and

income..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C1: Social and Economic

187

MULTICRITERIA ANALYSIS FOR DECISION

SUPPORT AS AN USEFUL TOOL TO IMPROVE THE

MANAGEMENT OF THE NATIONAL PARK CORALES

DEL ROSARIO AND SAN BERNARDO, COLOMBIA.

Galvis N.H.*, *Corporación Propuesta Ambiental, Santafé

de Bogotá, Colombia. Email: galvis@itc.nl

The National Park Corales del Rosario and San Bernardo has

focused its management in a mainly ecological marine

approach. The park was created in 1978 and in 1996, the

protected area was increased to include the coral reefs of the

Archipielago of San Bernardo. Despite of the declaration of

protected area, ecological monitoring has shown an increasing

degradation trend in the coral reefs. Participatory decision

making is an alternative to diminish the anthropogenic impact.

Weighting techniques allow us to evaluate the effectiveness of

management based on the measurement of ecological and

socioeconomic indicators. Sustainable management

emphasises in the cumulative values given by the different

stakeholders.

CAPTURING CORAL REEF BENEFIT VALUES –

FINANCING MARINE ENVIRONMENT

CONSERVATION IN MONTEGO BAY, JAMAICA.

Gustavson, Kent * and Huber, Richard M. *Gustavson

Ecological Resource Consulting, PO Box 115, Gabriola,

BC, V0R 1X0, Canada. Email: gustecol@netcom.ca

By capturing a portion of the economic value of the benefits

derived from the local marine environment, the Montego Bay

Marine Park (Montego Bay, Jamaica) will be able to finance

management activities to protect and restore its coral reefs.

Given the current inadequate investment in the resource, rent

capture can be effective in aligning social costs with private

costs to improve economic decision-making and provide

sustained revenues for management authorities. Rent capture

and market based instruments (MBIs) are reviewed as they

apply to the socio-economic and institutional context of

Montego Bay, with specific attention paid to the distribution of

the costs among users, the change in incentives that may result,

and the anticipated size of the revenues. The results of separate

local use and contingent valuation studies provide guidance

regarding the extent of producer and consumer surplus. The

recommended instrument is an earmarked hotel room fee of

US$1 per bed-night, to lead to an annual revenue of

approximately US$1.5 million. Key in the recommendations is

the provision of information to hotel guests regarding

management activities and the benefits of the coral reefs. An

independent administration of the program by the Montego

Bay Marine Park, in cooperation with the hoteliers, is

necessary to ensure accessible and sustained funding.

HUMAN MIGRATION AND RESOURCE USE IN

SULAWESI FISHING COMMUNITIES.

Kramer, Randall A.*; and Simanjuntak, Sahat M.H.

*Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University,

Durham, NC 27708 USA. Email: kramer@duke.edu

This study examines the relationship between human

population changes and the use of coastal resources in several

communities in North Sulawesi, Indonesia. This area has

some of Indonesia’s richest marine biodiversity and a number

of important coastal resources that support the likelihood of a

large number of fishing communities. Property rights for these

resources are generally non-existent, so there is open access

for harvesters. Direct interview surveys were conducted in

July 1999 with 601 households whose primary occupation was

fishing. Results indicate that fishing remains an importance

economic activity in the area and there are some important

differences between migrants and those of local origin. The

economic importance of fishing is indicated by the fact that

60% of the fishermen made daily fishing trips. One quarter of

the fishermen were migrants. Migrants were more dependent

on fishing income than locals, and migrants were less likely to

own their own boats. Both groups reported noticeable declines

in catches over the past five years, with a higher percentage of

migrants reporting such declines. Relatively few fishermen

reported conflicts with other villages’ fishermen, but many

reported encounters with dynamite fishing.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT FOR CORAL REEF

MANAGEMENT: DOES IT MATTER WHO YOU ASK?

O’Brien, Michael L.*, *NOAA Damage Assessment

Center, Station 10220, SSMC4,1305 East-West Highway,

Silver Spring, Maryland, USA, 20910. Tel.: (301)-713-3038

ext. 183, Email: Michael.O’Brien@NOAA.gov

As coral reef management programs around the world

become more sophisticated, emphasis is shifting from

exclusive consideration of biophysical processes alone towards

broader perspectives. There is a move to integrate the values of

people who live near, work with, and come to enjoy these

resources. Numerous socio-economic studies have been

conducted to study the consumptive and non-consumptive

activities which link particular users to specific resources.

Frequently, these studies target easily-defined groups of

people, such as local residents, subsistence or commercial

fishermen, dive tourists, etc.. The choice as to whose values

should be included in such studies is not, however, always

straight-forward. Often it may appear as if the more easily-defined

the chosen study population, the greater the number of

individuals whose values go unaddressed and therefore

unaccounted for. Conversely, the more encompassing the study

population definition, the more general the study must become

and the greater the validity concerns. When defining whose

values are to be considered, socio-economic assessments for

natural resources must follow the thin line between being too

specific about the user groups (and thereby not counting valid

“holders of value”) and being too global (and thereby running

the risk of an invalid, overly-general result.) The purpose of

this paper is to discuss issues related to the choice of the

relevant user groups for socio-economic assessments of coral

reefs. Special emphasis will be placed on the role of

“respondent familiarity” with coral reefs as a central limiting

factor for their valid integration in contingent valuation and

conjoint analysis studies of recreational use. Both practical and

theoretical issues will be highlighted in a case-study approach..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C1: Social and Economic

188

ASSESSMENT OF SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS

INFLUENCING THE SUCCESS OF MARINE

SANCTUARIES IN THE PHILIPPINES.

Pollnac, Richard B.*; Crawford, Brian R.; and Gorospe,

Maharlina L.G. *Coastal Resources Center, University of

Rhode Island, Narragansett, RI 02882-1197, U.S.A. Email:

rpo4903u@postoffice.uri.edu

Numerous papers have been written describing the

establishment and sustainability of community based marine

sanctuaries (CBMS) for coral reefs. A review of this literature

and results of focus group meetings with individuals

responsible for establishing CBMS in the Philippines resulted

in identification of variables allegedly impacting CBMS

success. These factors include sociocultural, economic and

political aspects of the involved communities, methods used to

establish the sanctuary, types and extent of community

education programs, as well as aspects of support provided by

external groups (NGOs, government agencies, universities,

etc.). The assessment involved collecting data from a sample

of 45 marine sanctuaries in the Visayas on this wide range of

variables, as well as measures indicating the level of success of

the sanctuaries. The paper discusses methods used for

collecting the socioeconomic data and presents a multivariate

analysis identifying variables responsible for success of marine

sanctuaries in the Philippines. The results will be of use to

marine sanctuary managers as they identify key factors for

success of existing and proposed marine sanctuary projects and

particularly for developing successful monitoring programs.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT FOR THE HONDA

BAY, PHILIPPINES, COASTAL RESOURCES CO-MANAGEMENT

PROJECT

Pomeroy, Robert S.* *World Resources Institute, 10 G

Street NE, Washington, DC 20002, USA. Email:

rpomeroy@wri.org

Honda Bay is located on the eastern side of mainland

Palawan within Puerto Princessa City. Honda Bay is large,

approximately 280 square kilometers, with 12 charted islands.

The islands are generally small and are emergent portions of

reef flats. These give substrate to the growth of its critical

ecosystems, coral reef, mangrove and seagrass, upon which

Honda Bay’s fisheries are dependent. There are 19 villages

surrounding Honda Bay with approximately 2500 households.

Eighty-five percent of the households are engaged in fishing as

a primary or secondary income source. In 1997, participatory

research was undertaken to collect and analyze baseline data

on the people, communities and natural resources of the Bay to

provide a technical and scientific basis for establishing a Bay-wide

co-management project. The research included a socio-economic

assessment of two villages, a legal and institutional

assessment for the whole Bay, and a resource and ecological

assessment of the whole Bay. The purpose of this paper is to

present the results of these baseline analyses and a discussion

of the methods used to collect the data. In addition, the

baseline data served as the foundation for a participatory

project design workshop involving the active participation of

local stakeholders. The paper will discuss the results of this

workshop which produced a current reality synthesis based on

the findings of the research, a vision for Honda Bay, and an

initial project proposal for a five-year fisheries co-management

project. The paper will conclude with a discussion of the

importance of conducting socio-economic assessments of coral

reef resources and their use in management and conservation.

A BIOECONOMIC MODEL OF A CORAL REEF

MARINE RESERVE – MOMBASA MARINE

NATIONAL PARK.

Rodwell, Lynda D.*; Barbier, Edward B.; Roberts,

Callum M.; and McClanahan, Tim R.. *Environment

Department, University of York, York, YO10 5DD, U.K.

Email: ldr102@york.ac.uk

The excessive and unsustainable exploitation of our coral

reefs has led to the promotion of marine reserves as a fisheries

management tool. Marine reserves – areas in which fishing is

restricted or prohibited - can offer opportunities for the

recovery of exploited stock and fishery enhancement. This

paper focuses on the contribution of tropical marine reserves to

fishery enhancement through the development of a

bioeconomic model of marine reserve-fishery linkages. The

consequences of reserve establishment on equilibrium biomass

and fishery catch levels in an open access coral reef fishery are

evaluated. In contrast to earlier models, this study highlights

the roles of both adult (and juvenile) migration and larval

dispersal between the reserve and fishing grounds by

employing a spawner-recruit model. Uniform larval dispersal,

uniform larval retention and complete larval retention

combined with zero, moderate and high adult migration

scenarios are analysed in turn. The numerical simulation is

based on Mombasa Marine National Park, Kenya – a fully-protected

coral reef marine reserve. The establishment of a

fully-protected marine reserve leads to an increase in total

biomass. In a moderate to heavily exploited fishery with at

least a moderate degree of either adult or larval movement

total fishery catch will also increase.

BLUE PRICING OF UNDERSEA TREASURES – USE

OF ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS RESEARCH

FOR CORAL REEF MANAGEMENT IN SOUTH EAST

ASIA.

Ruitenbeek, Jack*; and Cartier, Cynthia. *HJ Ruitenbeek

Resource Consulting Limited, RR2 – Site 52 – C21,

Gabriola Island, BC, Canada, V0R1X0. Email:

hjruiten@web.net

Coral reefs in SE Asia represent about 30% of the world’s

reefs, and they are currently undergoing unprecedented levels

of degradation. Institutional capacity to manage reefs through

appropriate policy measures is pervasively weak. Economic

valuation of the damages wrought by institutional failures and

various direct stresses is of substantial policy interest. A

comprehensive literature survey of marine economic valuation

studies is used to inform research needs and opportunities in

the developing countries of SE Asia. We specifically outline

conditions and policy priorities in Cambodia, China (including

Taiwan), Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines,

Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam. We employ benefit transfer

methods of conventional environmental economics to calculate

a present value of US$1.5 trillion for SE Asia’s coral reefs.

The value encompasses direct tourism, recreation and fisheries

uses, as well as potential benefits from various functions and

indirect uses such as erosion control and pharmaceutical

development. The methodological and empirical shortcomings

inherent in such an analysis, however, underline a greater need

for original site-specific empirical studies that reflect local

system complexities and local policy needs. Environmental

economic analysis can assist in addressing local priorities

through: (i) increasing awareness of absolute and relative

economic values; and, (ii) providing valuation estimates that

can assist in coral reef management..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C1: Social and Economic

189

MODELING FINANCIAL LOSSES RESULTING FROM

CORAL REEF DEGRADATION.

Schuttenberg, Heidi*; and French, Deborah. *Coastal

Resources Center, URI, Narragansett, RI 02882, USA.

hzs@gso.uri.edu

Methods to link coral reef degradation with its consequent

financial losses are useful for coastal management activities

such as planning, public education, and assessment of

damages. The Natural Resource Damage Assessment Model

for Coastal and Marine Environments (NRDAM/CME) was

developed by Applied Science Associates under contract to the

U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration to

estimate monetary damages from oil and chemical spills. The

model was used to investigate the impacts of cyanide fishing

and chronic and acute oil pollution on coral reefs. Physical

and biological models calculate the mortality of fish and coral

from exposure to varying concentrations of these pollutants

using published toxicity data. Resulting financial losses are

calculated using criteria established by the U.S. Oil Pollution

Act (1990), and are based on 1) the cost of restoration, and 2)

the value of losses of natural resources and the services they

provide until restoration is complete. These interim losses are

based on commercial and recreational values for damaged

species and their lost progeny. Results of the study illustrate

different approaches for valuing financial losses from reef

destruction; highlight strengths, gaps, and issues with existing

coral reef valuation data sets; and demonstrate the usefulness

of this publicly available model as a framework to integrate

economics, science, law, and management of coral reefs.

AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF CORAL REEFS IN

THE ANDAMAN SEA OF THAILAND.

Seenprachawong, Udomsak*. *School of Economics,

Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University, Thailand.

Email: ecassudo@stou.ac.th

Powerful economic forces are driving the observed

destructive patterns of coral reef use, often rendering short-term

economic profits, sometimes very large to selected

individuals. Some of the most important values of coral reefs,

such as those of to future generations and intrinsic values,

cannot be quantified. The omission of these benefits in

conventional economic analysis means that coral reefs are

undervalued. This can result in unsustainable use of coral

reefs. This is of particular concern for coral reefs in areas such

as the Southern Seaboard Development Project area. The area

is well favored with pristine coral reefs. Because local

communities in the Anadman Sea are totally dependent on the

coral reefs, sustainable coral reefs management options

urgently need to be identified for the area. An economic

valuation of the benefits of coral reefs can provide information

in the design of coastal area management plans. In this study,

no attempt is made to calculate the total economic value of the

coral reefs. Phi Phi Islands will be selected to assess their

recreational values using the Individual Travel Cost Model

(ITCM). Data will be collected from a sample of 600 visitors

through on-site face to face interviews. Once the most suitable

demand curve functional form has been estimated, the

individual consumer surplus can be calculated. The individual

WTP resulting from the analysis will be multiplied by the total

number of visitors to Phi Phi Islands during the year. The

obtained results will be explained, interpreted, and compared

with those of other similar studies.

VALUING RECREATION AT MENJANGAN ISLAND,

WEST BALI NATIONAL PARK

Setiasih, Naneng*; and Tinch, Robert. *School of

Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia,

Norwich NR4 7TJ. Email: R.Tinch@UEA.ac.uk

Menjangan Island lies on West Bali National Park. It has

beautiful snorkelling and diving sites to be visited. However,

coral quality fell due to the Acanthaster plancii outbreak in

1996, and during 1993-1997, visitor numbers increased from

1768 per month in 1993 to 2056 in 1997. This could lead to a

further environmental degradation and disturb the recovery

rate of the reef. Thus, there is a need to consider an

environmental view in the managerial process. During 1997-

1999, ecological data of the reef was collected by using line

intersect transects at various depths from 3 to 25 metres, and

park managers were interviewed. Average living cover

percentage was 26.75%, classified as the poor condition. The

highest degradation was found at the northwestern edge of the

island. A SWOT analysis was run to set up a management

recommendation based on a location's aesthetic weighting as a

diving and snorkelling area. However aesthetic characteristics

are unpriced and their value can often be neglected in the

decision making process. Research is now underway to

address this problem using a combination of contingent

valuation and conjoint analysis. The study will measure

tourists' willingness to pay for mitigating tourism impacts by

valuing their preferences on the possible changes of certain

recreational attributes. The conjoint analysis involves three

attributes: tourist congestion, living cover percentage, and an

additional conservation fee.

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE IRANIAN CORAL

REEFS IN THE PERSIAN GULF

Shokri, Mohammad Reza* and Mohammad, Seyed;

Fatemi, Reza. *Iranian National Center for

Oceanography, #51, Bozorgmehr Ave, 14168, Tehran, Iran,

Email: mrshok@hotmail.com

Reef-related economical benefits in Iran stem mainly from

commercial fisheries of shellfish, ornamental fishes and

recreational activities. The annual landing of reef fishery is

estimated at 18000 tones of fish from the waters surrounding

the 18 coral reef islands, creating food, revenue and

considerable occupation for the local people living in these

areas or are dependent on these resources. Ornamental fishery

shows a significant reduction in number of catch in islands

such as Kish Island, where the destruction of habitats of these

fish has occurred, causing a financial loss of about US$ 40000

annually. The world famous pearl oyster fishery in the Persian

Gulf today, shows a sharp reduction today, because of the

habitat destruction and the overfishing, dropping from 4.5

million oysters in 1990 to 970000 in 1995. Reef-related

recreational activities are a major potential source of job and

income and are expanding rapidly in islands such as Kish and

Qeshm. This would definitely affects the coral health and

therefore needs an urgent attention regarding the Sustainable

Development of Reef Areas. This paper aims to provide an

overview on the economic values of the Iranian coral reefs

based on the existing data and also reviews and evaluates the

financial losses caused by reef destruction, as well as

indicating the hot spots which need immediate preventive and

reconstruction measures..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C1: Social and Economic

190

MAXIMISING OPPORTUNITIES FOR SUSTAINABLE

FINANCING OF CORAL REEFS BASED ON A TOTAL

ECONOMIC VALUE APPROACH.

Spurgeon, James* *GIBB Ltd, London Road, Reading,

RG6 1BL, UK. Email: jspurgeo@gibb.co.uk

Despite the potential for coral reefs to provide substantial

long-term economic and social benefits, their degradation

continues worldwide. Key to their sustainable utilization and

future survival are appropriate means of management and

protection both on and off-site. In recent years, a wide range of

financing mechanisms have been identified and implemented

to help fund the management of coral reef systems. These

include user fees, concessions, permits, environmental taxes,

trust funds, donations, privatization, damage compensation,

Government support and international assistance. This paper

explores how the concept of the “Total Economic Value” of

coral reefs could help maximize opportunities for the

sustainable financing of reef management. Central to this

approach are both comprehensive stakeholder analysis and

environmental valuation. Such techniques enable the

identification of all reef beneficiaries and the quantification of

benefits accruing from direct, indirect and passive uses of coral

resources. With this information at hand, there is considerable

scope for seeking new and enhanced sources of funds from

both direct beneficiaries and also from those organizations

with responsibilities towards the beneficiaries. In particular,

the encouraging global trend in “corporate social

responsibility” could yield significant additional finances. This

systematic and strategic approach to financing is discussed

using case studies from Florida, Mexico, Egypt and Tanzania.

PARTICIPATORY SOCIO-ECONOMIC

ASSESSMENTS AND THE REEF MANAGEMENT

PROCESS.

Townsley, Philip.* *NOAA/GCRMN Consultant, Via

Annio 12, 01100 Viterbo, Italy. e-mail :

ptownsley@libero.it

A socio-economic assessment has commonly been regarded

as a means of collecting additional information to assist reef

managers in formulating more appropriate plans for reef

management. However, the improvement of reef managers’

understanding of socio-economic issues is only one of the

potential uses of an assessment. The use of participatory

approaches during an assessment can help reef managers to

both collect the socio-economic information they need and

establish productive and pro-active relationships with reef

stakeholders. These can be extremely beneficial to the reef

management process in general, helping to build a common

understanding of management issues among stakeholders and

to identify commonly agreed management objectives. This in

turn can help greater commitment to reef management plans

that reflect these common objectives. But building a

“participatory management process” is complex and time-consuming.

The socio-economic assessment is only a first step

in this process and, before committing themselves to the

adoption of a participatory approach during the assessment,

reef managers need to carefully assess the social, economic,

political and institutional context in which they are operating

and the extent to which it can accommodate participatory

management. Some of the factors that can influence the

appropriateness of more participatory assessment approaches

are considered.

REEFVALUE - AN ECONOMICALLY ORIENTATED

GLOBAL CORAL REEF DATABASE FOR DECISION

MAKERS

Vogt, Helge Peter *; Kunzmann, Andreas; Richter,

Claudio. *Zentrum für Marine Tropenökologie (ZMT),

Fahrenheitstr. 1, D 28359 Bremen, Germany, Email:

HP_Vogt@compuserve.com

In many developing countries and small island nations, coral

reefs provide the main livelihood of coastal communities.

Healthy coral reefs may also attract tourists and international

reefs tourism already contributes considerably to many states’

budgets. However, the benefits of reefs for society are being

diminished due to human activities. In 1992, the European

Union identified a coral reef management strategy in

developing countries and subsequently funded reef related

programmes. Building on these previous achievements, the

ReefValue-project aims to add a key component which is

missing at present. The destruction of coral reefs is driven by

economic forces. However, the essential economic data

required for successful reef management are scarce and not

easily accessible in developing countries. The ReefValue-project

addresses this need, and provides reef managers and

decision makers with a globally available and user friendly

database, which covers quantitative economic values as a

prerequisite for sustainable reef management. The key features

of the database including data entry and retrieval using the

ReefValue website will be presented. An overview of the

global network of partner organisations, regional workshops

on reef economics and local reef valuations-projects will be

provided.

BENEFITS AND COSTS OF CORAL REEF AND

WETLAND MANAGEMENT, OLANGO ISLAND,

PHILIPPINES.

White, Alan T.*; Ross, Michael; Flores, Monette. *Tetra

Tech EM Inc., Coastal Resource Management Project 5 th

Floor, CIFC Tower, North Reclamation Area Cebu City,

Cebu, Philippines 6000. Email: awhite@mozcom.com

The Philippines has an estimated 27,000 km 2 of coral reef

with only about 5 percent of this area still in excellent

condition. Recent valuation studies indicate that reefs in the

whole country are contributing a conservative US$1.35 billion

to the national economy and that one km 2 of healthy Philippine

reef with some tourism potential produces annual net revenues

ranging from US$29,400 to US$113,000. A case study of

Olango Island, Cebu with 40 km 2 of poor quality coral reef is

analyzed together with its wetland habitat and mangrove

contribution. The current annual net revenue range from the

Olango Island reef is US$38,300 to 63,400 per km 2 or

US$1.53 to 2.54 million for the entire 40 km 2 reef area.

Another US$389,000 is added when wetlands are considered.

The revenues accrue primarily from on and off site

expenditures of diving tourists. Costs of managing Olango

Island coral reefs and wetland habitats for improved net

revenues (benefits) and conservation would amount to less

than US$100,000 per year. Cost and benefit analyses show

that there is a very strong justification on the part of local and

national government and private sector groups to invest in the

management of reefs such as Olango Island. Improved reef

quality and wetland stewardship on Olango could easily mean

a 60 percent (US$1.4 million) increase in annual net revenues

from reef and mangrove fisheries and tourism expenditures..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C2: Building Capacity

Session C2: Building Capacity for Tropical Marine Biodiversity Conservation:

191

STRENGTHENING MARINE CONSERVATION

CAPACITY IN THE WESTERN PACIFIC.

Atkinson, Scott R.*; Salm, Rod; Agardy, Tundi; Barber,

Charles; Colwell, Stephen; Hale, Lynne; Lauck, Liz; Pratt,

Vaughan; Linggi, Sylvia; Vergara, Sheila. *World

Wildlife Fund, 1250 24 th Street, Washington, D.C. 20010

ATKINSON@WWFUS.ORG

Throughout the western pacific, limitations in the number of

trained conservation practitioners have long confounded

efforts to effectively manage and conserve marine ecosystems.

While the character of capacity limitations and needs differs

from country to country, there is virtually unanimous

agreement within the conservation community that support for

building individual and institutional capacity is the region’s

single greatest need for marine conservation. Nine

international non-governmental organizations have come

together in an effort to better understand and address marine

conservation capacity issues in the western pacific including:

indonesia, the philippines, malaysia, papua new guinea,

solomon islands, palau, and the federated states of micronesia.

Recognizing the enormity of the task, the group designed a

collaborative strategic planning process which focuses on

understanding and addressing capacity needs of conservation

practitioners within a limited set of projects and programs.

Additionally, the group identified two focal countries,

indonesia and papua new guinea, where it is striving to

understand the full range of marine conservation capacity

experiences and needs. The strategic planning process will

culminate in august of 2000 with the development of

framework for cooperation that is intended to provide guidance

to participating ngos and partners on ways to enhance the

capacity of target projects and countries. This paper

summarizes key elements of this framework and the process by

which it was developed.

MARINE CONSERVATION IN ASIA AND THE

PACIFIC: EXPERIENCES AND LESSONS FROM THE

WORLD WIDE FUND FOR NATURE (WWF).

Atkinson, Scott R.*; Jessup, Timothy; Llewellyn,

Ghislaine; Mangubhai, Sangeeta; Mejia, Manuel; Putra,

Ketut; Romero, Mon; Samarasekara, Vidhisha; Trono,

Romeo. *WWF 1250 24 th Street Washington, D.C. 20037

Email: atkinson@wwfus.org

The World Wide Fund For Nature (WWF) is implementing

numerous marine conservation efforts throughout the nations

of Asia and the Pacific, including the Philippines, Indonesia,

Malaysia, Thailand, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Fiji,

and the Cook Islands. Projects run the gamut from

strengthening marine protected areas to establishing finance

mechanisms to support the recurring costs of conservation.

While the nature of our projects are varied, a common agenda

throughout is a commitment to work with stakeholders to

reverse the decline of marine systems while facilitating

conservation in the long-term. This commitment has led to

many innovative programs. For example, in the Philippines,

WWF has partnered with government agencies to launch an

enforcement campaign to immediately halt destruction of

critical marine systems. While such efforts may secure an area

in the short term, other more fundamental efforts are needed to

ensure that conservation will persist. These include capacity

strengthening of resource managers, education and outreach,

alternative livelihood schemes, policy intervention, and

sustainable finance schemes. Through pursuing these and

numerous other approaches, WWF has learned many lessons in

marine conservation.

IMPEDIMENTS TO COMMUNITY MANAGEMENT OF

CORAL REEFS: SANDY BAY-WEST END MARINE

RESERVE, BAY ISLANDS, HONDURAS.

Badilla Forest, Nelia*. *Dept. of Geography, University of

California-Berkeley 94720 USA , nforest@igc.org,

nelia@socrates.berkeley.edu

Sandy Bay-West End, located on the north coast of Roatán,

on the Bay Islands of Honduras, is the site of a spectacular and

biologically diverse coral reef ecosystem. This case study

describes the development of a management plan for the Sandy

Bay-West End Marine Reserve which is under the

management of a local NGO, the Bay Islands Conservation

Association (BICA). Unfortunately, most of the poor and

middle-income islanders feel estranged from BICA’s goals and

objectives. BICA has not made the effort to address the socio-economic

concerns of the Bay Islanders regarding the

allocation and use of coastal and marine resources. Also, the

fact that the families of the two highest officers are major

stakeholders in Roatán’s tourism industry is an immediate

conflict of interest, allowing one stakeholder group to

dominate through financial patronage and whose interests are

allowed to prevail. A review of a survey conducted by

Wildlife Conservation Society, indicates that BICA must begin

to make fundamental changes in its governance style and

arrangements (Forest 2000). Considering the mistrust of the

management entity, unilateral decision-making and poor

communications, it will take several years for BICA to gain the

trust of local residents and fully engage the stakeholders.

COMMUNITY-BASED COASTAL RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT IN THE PHILIPPINES.

Broad, G.* and Quiring, M. *Tambuyog Development

Center, 1164 Molave Street, Sorsogon, Philippines. Email:

tdc@k-net.edu

The Philippine archipelago comprises over 7,100 islands and

has a vast coastline of 18,000 km. Thus, the small-scale

municipal fisheries are responsible for supplying basic food

requirements to a large proportion of the population. A rapid

population increase over the past 30 years, combined with a

lack of alternative livelihoods, has led to intensive over-fishing

and destruction of inshore coral reef habitats. The outcome has

been increased poverty in coastal communities and a steady

decline in biodiversity. Tambuyog’s long-term program in

Bicol aims to encourage the development of empowered

communities with the capability and skills to manage their

marine resources sustainably. The program works through

People’s Organizations, combining local knowledge with

technical training and involving stakeholders at all stages of

the project. The result has been the establishment of two

community-managed marine reserves, training for community

SCUBA divers to monitor the reserves and a number of

alternative livelihood options. One community has proposed

the exciting concept of a seagrass sanctuary. These results

confirm that coastal communities possess the capability and

the will to manage their marine resources responsibly and

sustainably. We conclude that co-management can be a

powerful force for social development and the conservation of

biodiversity..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C2: Building Capacity

192

COMMUNITY-BASED GIANT CLAM RESTOCKING -HOPES

FOR BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

Calumpong H.P.*, A.B. Apao, J.R. Lucañas and J.S.

Estacion. Silliman University Marine Laboratory,

Dumaguete City 6200, Philippines.

email: nida_hpc@mozcom.com.

Efforts at restocking coral reefs with giant clam juveniles

have been done by the Silliman University Marine Laboratory

since 1997 using community -based approach. Only reefs

protected by local communities were restocked. So far, six

reefs have been restocked with 1,337 individuals of five

species: Tridacna gigas, T. squamosa, T. derasa, T. crocea and

Hippopus hippopus. Survival and growth in three reefs were

monitored during this period. Survival for T. gigas is 24.24%

and for H. hippopus is 2.5%. Growth rate for T. gigas is 0.75 ±

0.16 cm mo -1 and for H. hippopus is 0.21 ± 0.07cm mo -1 .

Tridacna squamosa, T. crocea and T. derasa clams did not

survive in these three sites.

THE BIOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL EFFECTS

INFLUENCING THE SUSTAINABILITY OF THE SAN

SALVADOR ISLAND (PHILIPPINES) MARINE

PROTECTED AREA.

Christie P.*. *School of Marine Affairs University of

Washington 3707 Brooklyn Ave NE Seattle, WA 98105-

6715 USA Email: patrickc@u.washington.edu

The San Salvador Island 127-hectare marine protect area off

of the west coast of Luzon, the Philippines, has been in

existence since 1989. The marine protected area was

established through a community-based project in the late

1980s that has evolved into a co-management effort mainly

involving the local community and government. Rationale for

these strategies and the sequential move from community-based

to co-management in this context will be offered. This

paper also documents these efforts and the recovery of the fish

populations and coral within the sanctuary. Visual surveys

document that fish density has increased from an average of

373 individuals per 500 m2 in 1989-91 to 1041 individuals per

500 m2 in 1998-99. Species richness has increased from 126

species belonging to 19 families in 1988 to 138 species

belonging to 28 families in 1998. Similarly, coral cover has

also recovered substantially, despite recent bleaching events,

from 23% living hard coral cover in 1988 to 57% in 1998.

Despite these positive results, internal divisions within the

community, threats from illegal fishers, and lack of diverse

community leadership threaten the continued management of

this valuable protected area that has served as an important

example of effective coral reef management. Potential

solutions will be highlighted.

BUILDING PHILIPPINE GOVERNMENT CAPACITY

FOR COASTAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT:

METHODS, PROGRESS AND TRENDS.

Courtney, Catherine A.* and Alan T. White *Tetra Tech

EM Inc. Coastal Resource Management Project 5 th Floor,

CIFC Tower, North Reclamation Area Cebu City, Cebu

6000, Philippines Email: Courtney@mozcom.com

Over the last 10 years, the Philippine government has been

experimenting with new systems of governance based on

decentralization, local autonomy and large-scale participation

of communities and civil society in democratic processes. The

responsibility for managing coral reefs and other coastal

resources was largely devolved to the over 830 coastal

municipalities and cities in the Philippines in 1991 under the

Local Government Code. Local government capacity to carry

out this mandate; however, has only recently begun to mature

as municipalities and cities have become aware of the

importance of coastal resources to communities and economic

development. This paper describes trends in local governance

and coastal resource management in the Philippines over the

last 10 years. Processes and methods to increase local

government capacity for coastal resource management are

described based on the experiences of the Coastal Resource

Management Project of the United States Agency for

International Development. Qualitative and quantitative

surveys were used to evaluate the current capacity of local

government to undertake coastal resource management.

Emerging co-management arrangements between local

government, national government and other sectors are

described in terms of supporting mechanisms, reinforcing

systems, and derailing forces.

SOCIAL AND LEGAL CONTEXTS OF ESTABLISHING

AND MONITORING COMMUNITY-BASED MARINE

RESERVES IN WESTERN SOLOMON ISLANDS.

Foale S.*, Casper Rebi and Seri Hite.*World Wide Fund

for Nature – South Pacific Programme, P.O. Box 21, Gizo,

Solomon Islands. wwf@solomon.com.sb

This paper illustrates some of the range and complexity of

social and legal contexts within which marine protected areas

are being developed in western solomon islands, by outlining

wwf’s, and others’ experiences with efforts to establish marine

protected areas in specific localities in this area. In the

solomon islands, around 87% of land is controlled by clan

groups under customary rules, which are generally upheld by

the constitution. The government owns most of the remainder.

While the seabed is traditionally regarded as an extension of

coastal land, legal support for customary marine tenure (cmt)

is not as clear-cut as for land. Wwf is attempting to facilitate

establishment of marine reserves in areas under three tenure

categories: government-owned, customary, and customary but

uninhabited. Opportunities and constraints in each case are

very different, but each case illustrates the importance of

adequately addressing the complex legal and socioeconomic

issues surrounding proposals for spatial and temporal closures,

strategies for enforcement, and monitoring resource

abundance, in each area. The primary challenge for all areas is

enforcement, while tenure disputes also often retard progress

in areas under customary control. Opportunities include using

tourism levees (for enforcement), and obtaining informed

compliance through awareness campaigns that combine local

and scientific knowledge..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C2: Building Capacity

193

“BUILDING CORAL REEF MANAGEMENT

CAPACITY: EXISTING LITERATURE, LESSONS

FROM THE CARIBBEAN, AND PROSPECTS FOR

INDONESIA”

Fougeres, Dorian* *Marine & Coastal Policy Fellow IUCN

– The World Conservation Union Washington Office 1630

Connecticut Ave., N.W. Third Floor Washington, D.C.

20009-1053 U.S.A.

Email: fougeres@iucnus.org

In recent years the term “capacity-building” has gained

popularity among international aid organizations (IAOs)

seeking to help countries manage their natural resources. In

particular, IAOs have advocated the term with regard to

nations and regions which cannot presently address their

environmental challenges, whether due to a lack of

management personnel or conflicting political jurisdictions or

other causes. Yet the term holds multiple connotations, from

gathering scientific information to training planners to

providing programmatic funding. Unless practitioners take

care, these various meanings can impede organizational efforts

to create and integrate capacity-building projects. In this paper

the existing literature is first surveyed to review and

systematize prevalent concepts of capacity-building. From here

the author moves on to focus specifically on the dynamics of

building coral reef management capacity in decentralized

contexts. He begins by exploring a series of capacity-building

projects in the Caribbean, a region with numerous national

jurisdictions and a significant history of reef management. In

examining successful and unsuccessful efforts here, he aims to

identify both challenges to, and opportunities for, improving

reef management in this area. Afterwards he considers

Indonesia’s present political shift toward decentralization, and

draws out the parallels and contrasts between this context and

the Caribbean. In closing, based on the lessons from the

Caribbean region, he recommends the next steps IAOs can

take to help Indonesia build its capacity for balancing the

conservation value and the economic importance of its reefs.

APPLICATION OF HAWAIIAN TRADITIONS TO

COMMUNITY-BASED FISHERY MANAGEMENT.

Friedlander, A.*, Poepoe, K., Helm, K., Kaai, J., Bartram,

P. Maragos, J. and Ili, S. *The Oceanic Institute,

Makapu‘u Point, Waimanalo, Hawai‘i 96795.

Afriedlander@oceanicinstitute.org.

Despite the opinion of many fishers that over-harvesting is

one of the major reasons for a long-term decline in inshore

marine resources in Hawai‘i, there is poor compliance with

state fishing laws and regulations. The community (Hui

Malama o Mo‘omomi) in the Ho‘olehua Hawaiian Homesteads

on the island of Moloka‘i is currently attempting to strengthen

community influence and accountability for the health and

long-term sustainability of their marine resources. The

traditional system in Hawai‘i emphasized social and cultural

controls on fishing with a code of conduct that was strictly

enforced. Harvest management was not based on a specific

amount of fish but on identifying the specific times and places

that fishing could occur so it would not disrupt basic processes

and habitats of important food resources. Local resource

monitors, in conjunction with visiting scientists, are creating a

predictive management tool based loosely on the Hawaiian

moon calendar (a traditional tool for organizing fishing and

planting).

ESTABLISHMENT OF NO-TAKE MARINE RESERVES

THROUGH COMMUNITY BASED MANAGEMENT IN

NABQ, SOUTH SINAI, AND INVESTIGATION OF

EFFECTS UPON COMMERCIALLY TARGETED

CORAL REEF FISH STOCKS AND CPUE.

Galal, N*, Afifi, A. & Ormond, R. F. G. *Nature

Conservation Sector, EEAA, Cairo, Egypt Gulf of Aqaba

Protectorates. South Sinai. Egypt. Email:

ngalal@datum.com.eg

Underwater Visual Census was used to compare the

abundance of piscivorous fish species within the Nabq

Protected Area before and after the establishment of five no-take

fisheries reserves in 1995. A comparison of mean

abundance of groupers (Serranidae), emperors (Lethrinidae)

and snappers (Lutjanidae) between 1995 and 1997 showed a

significant overall increase in fish abundance in two of the no-take

reserves, those at Ras Atantour and South Ghargana.

There was also a statistically significant increase in mean

length of the serranids, E. fasciatus and C. argus, and the

lethrinids, L. nebulosus and M. grandoculus across the no take

reserves. In 2000, these effects were also detected in four of

the no-take reserves. In line with this mean catch per unit

effort within the fished area was observed to increase over the

two years from 0.84 +/-0.19 S.E to 1.01 +/-0.24 S.E., though

the difference was not statistically significant. However, two

years later, in 2000, CPUE increased significantly.

Nevertheless, the establishment of no-take fisheries reserves

appear to date have benefited the fishery. The benefits of no-take

reserves are discussed, and social aspects of involving

local fishermen in the co-management of fisheries resources

are described.

COMMUNITY-BASED MANAGEMENT AND CORAL

REEF MONITORING OF HELEN ATOLL, PALAU.

Guilbeaux M.*; Atkinson, Scott; Ridgley, Mark.

*Community Conservation Network; 2440 Campus Rd.,

#561; Honolulu, HI 96822, USA. Email:

guilbeau@hawaii.edu.

An atoll in Palau's Southwest Islands, Helen Reef is the

epitome both of challenges to implementing effective coral

reef management and of potential losses if not succeeding. In

the region with the world’s highest levels of marine biological

diversity, and having one of the most diverse and intact reef

systems in the tropical Western Pacific, Helen's integrity is

being jeopardized by resource over-exploitation and a

management system hamstrung by scant resources, no

permanent settlement on its single, tiny island, limited formal

educational, erosion of traditional marine-resource knowledge,

divergent views on the need for and ways to achieve

conservation, cultural conflicts, and a location on the periphery

of Palau and two days' voyage from its capital. While such

conditions ensure that centralized governance will remain

deficient in the best of cases, it is far from certain that the

much-heralded alternative of community-based management

can succeed in this context either. This paper describes an

ongoing initiative to assist local communities to design and

develop a long-term community-based management (CBM)

system for Helen Reef. A major goal of the endeavor is to

integrate natural science and management science with CBM

to mitigate the impediments to effective resource management.

One example of such integration was a major 10-day

monitoring expedition conducted in April-May 2000, an

activity guided heavily by CBM concerns..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C2: Building Capacity

194

INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT AND

CORAL REEF CONSERVATION.

Hale, L.Z.*, B. Crawford, H. Schuttenberg, Ian Dutton, M.

Amaral, P. Rubinoff. *Coastal Resources Center,

University of Rhode Island. Narragansett, RI, USA.

Email: lzhale@gso.uri.edu

Integrated coastal management (ICM) is one of four pillars

of the International Coral Reef Initiative’s Plan of Action.

ICM programs around the world have attempted to address

issues related to coral reef use and conservation in a number of

ways, including community-based coral reef sanctuaries,

community ICM plans, special area management plans,

different types of marine protected areas, and national policy

initiatives. In North Sulawesi, Indonesia, and Xcalak, Mexico,

community-based sanctuaries are helping both to conserve

areas of reef as well as to catalyze ICM plans that address the

fuller suite of land-based and marine activities and uses that

ultimately determine coral reef condition. In Tanzania, a

newly adopted national coastal management policy provides a

facilitative framework and resources, as well as high level

political support to both local level ICM action plan

development and the creation of a marine protected areas

system. These cases are illustrative of coastal management

efforts occurring in many nations. They demonstrate how to

link local and national management, how to make participation

and co-management a reality in nations that lack democratic

traditions, and how to build capacity and promote learning and

replication both within and across nations.

CORAL REEF MONITORING FOR COMMUNITY-BASED

ECOTOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN TOGEAN

ISLANDS, CENTRAL SULAWESI, INDONESIA

Hutabarat, C. *; Supriatna, dan Jatna; *Yayasan Bina Sains

Hayati Indonesia. Email: jatna@cbn.net.id

The Togean Islands, a Marine Tourism Park, occupy a land

area of approximately 70,000 ha and nearly 200,000 ha of sea

in Sulawesi’s Gulf of Tomini. The remote archipelago is

globally significant for being part of the “coral triangle”, the

area of highest coral diversity, roughly bordered by the

Philippines, Indonesia and Oceania/Melanesia. The marine

environments include seagrass beds, mangroves, and a large

diversity of coral reef habitats (atoll, fringing, barrier, and

patch) in relatively close proximity. Approximately 30,000

people representing diverse ethnic backgrounds and livelihood

patterns inhabit 37 villages on the 7 major islands of the

Togeans Island. The revenue from ecotourism activities has

been recognized as importance roles in communities in the

islands and contributed to Central Sulawesi’s economy growth.

Ecotourism program involving community has been started for

approximately 5 years and starting from 400 (1995) and more

than 4000 tourists (1999). Coral reef monitoring at diving

sites by community and Earthwatch volunteers have been

started since 1997. Feed back mechanism from monitoring

results was used to maintenance and improve the monitoring

techniques and sites. Community meeting was created

regularly and action plans to deter coral reef encroachers

were suggested by community and home stay owners.

TARGETING ROOT CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENTAL

DEGREDATION AND PLANNING FOR

SUSTAINABILITY: WWF’S ACTION NETWORK

APPROACHES APPLIED TO CORAL REEF

CONSERVATION

Llewellyn G., Putra, K.; Dwisasanti, N. *WWF Indonesia,

Wallacea Bioregion, 179 Jl. Hayam Wuruk, Denpasar

80235 Bali, Indonesia Email: mcmast@idola.net.id

Over the past two decades, conservation organizations have

not succeeded in reversing the general trend of global

environmental degradation. The range of threats and the vast

areas at risk are causing many conservation groups to rethink

their strategic approaches in order to become more effective.

WWF’s Action Network advocates selecting interventions that

maximise conservation gains over a large region and which

focus on actors or institutions who represent the root cause of

environmental problems. Both communities and habitats often

emerge as the victims of decisions made by governments,

banks and the private sector, and facilitating more

conservation-friendly activities by the latter is now seen as

being key for better practices in natural resource management.

Equal emphasis is placed on forming partnerships, where long-term

benefits, whether economic, social or image-wise,

provide incentives for others to adopt the model. This

combination of voluntary adoption and involvement of key

players is seen as the crucial means of ensuring sustainability

beyond the funding cycle of the project. WWF Indonesia’s

Wallacea bioregion is piloting such an approach in its

“Partners for Parks” coral reefs campaign, in an attempt to

ensure enforcement and better management in National Marine

Parks. The initial pilot sites are Bali Barat and Bunaken with

partnerships and advocacy efforts initially targeting private

sector and government partners.

ESTABLISHING COMMUNITY-BASED MARINE

RESERVES IN THE FIJI ISLANDS – LESSONS FROM

THE FIELD.

Mangubhai, Sangeeta * and Rupeni, Etika. *World Wide

Fund for Nature – South Pacific Program, Private Mail

Bag, GPO, Suva, Fiji Islands.

smangubhai@wwfpacific.org.fj

The fiji islands, like many other south pacific countries, have

their coastal and foreshore waters and resources shared under

dual ownership, where the state owns the land beneath the sea

and the indigenous fijian communities own the right to fish in

customary marine grounds for subsistence. The failure of

conventional and nationally legislated marine reserves to

protect the intrinsic cultural, economic and biological value of

marine ecosystems in fiji has heightened efforts to actively

involve resource owner communities in the management of

marine reserves. This has led to a renewed surge of

discussions and scattered efforts to strengthen and incorporate

traditional management regimes, particularly in isolated

islands where under-funded and under-staffed sectoral

authorities cannot adequately police marine-based activities.

Wwf has been working with waisomo villagers, other

interested communities, educational institutions, government

and non-government organisations, in the island group of

kadavu, to establish fiji’s first community-based marine

reserve within the great astrolabe reef ecosystem. This paper

provides an overview of the process involved, the challenges

faced and the lessons learned by wwf in designing and

establishing marine reserves within resident landowners

customary marine areas, and provide insight on the key

elements to promote replicability and long-term sustainability

of these reserves in fiji..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C2: Building Capacity

195

COMMUNITY BASED CORAL REEF MANAGEMENT

IN THE PADAIDO ISLANDS, WEST PAPUA,

INDONESIA.

Marien, Jeffrey, Ismuranty, Christien; Marlesy, Cliff;

Henning, Jan Steffen*. *KEHATI-The Indonesian

Biodiversity Foundation, Jakarta, Indonesia. Email:

jsteffen@cbn.net.id

The padaido islands in the province of west papua,

indonesia, consist of about 30 islands of which 10 are

permanently inhabited. Based on several marine resource

surveys, a 183.000 ha area including most of the padaido

islands was declared a marine tourism park in 1997. Following

up on a community based eco-tourism development project in

three selected villages by the biodiversity conservation

network (bcn), the indonesian biodiversity foundation kehati

supports since 1998 local communities and the local ngo

rumsram in their attempts to develop a community based

marine resource management approach. To overcome

imminent threats by blast fishing and over exploitation of reef

resources, most of the 18 villages formed conservation groups

and participated in resource and traditional law inventories and

in the mapping of local reef condition, finally aiming on the

development of village based sanctuaries. Experiences

regarding strengths and weaknesses of the cbm approach in the

18 villages, as well as external problems and threats are

analyzed and conclusions are drawn regarding the applicability

of the chosen approach in other areas.

PAYING FOR MARINE CONSERVATION THROUGH

SUSTAINABLE FINANCING: THE TUBBATAHA

EXPERIENCE.

Mejia, Manuel N.*, Subade, Rodelio., Scott Atkinson,

Barry Spergel. WWF Philippines. 23-A Maalindog St. UP

Village, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines. Email:

mmejia@mozcom.com

In the middle of the Sulu Sea lies Tubbataha Reef National

Marine Park. Because of its globally significant biodiversity,

UNESCO declared Tubbataha a World Natural Heritage Site

in 1993. Due to lack of staff and financial support, however,

enforcement capacity was low and areas of Tubbataha were

ravaged by illegal activities. To address and eliminate these

threats, Tubbataha is now under year-round patrols and a

comprehensive management plan. However, once donor

funding ends, how will conservation be paid for? One

sustainable financing option that is being pursued by the

Tubbataha Protected Area Management Board is the levying of

a conservation fee to visitors. Experience from other marine

protected areas shows that divers are willing to pay relatively

high fees, provided that the fees are used solely for the

conservation of marine life. Results from a willingness to pay

survey conducted in 1999 supported the idea of a conservation

fee in Tubbataha. The park fees raised will be used to cover

park operating and maintenance costs, while a portion will be

put into a fishing community’s trust fund and a Park trust fund,

which will later be used to attract donor funding. This paper

would like to share the caveats, pitfalls and lessons learned in

the implementation of the Tubbataha conservation fee.

Conservation projects worldwide invariably collapse once

donor funding stops. Sustainable financing through a park

user fee or conservation fee is one way to add value to

protected areas. These park revenues fees will also help

ensure that conservation is lasting.

ECOREGION-BASED APPROACH TO THE

CONSERVATION OF A LARGE MARINE

ECOSYSTEM: THE SULU-SULAWESI SEAS

Miclat, Evangeline F.B.*; Llewellyn, Ghislaine;

Samarasekara Vidisha, and Atkinson, Scott. *World

Wildlife Fund-Philippines, 23-A Maalindog St., U.P.

Village, Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines. Email:

emiclat@wwf-phil.org.ph

The Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME) is located in

the global center of marine biodiversity and bordered by

Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines. Numerous forces

including destructive fishing, over exploitation, and coastal

development threaten the marine resources of the ecoregion.

Overlapping boundaries; shared ecosystem dynamics and

resources; and transboundary environmental issues warrant an

ecoregion wide approach to conservation and management in

this important area. The WWF and partners have launched an

Ecoregion-based conservation (ERBC) initiative in the SSME.

The ultimate goal of the marine ERBC approach is the

maintenance and restoration of marine systems such that

ecological integrity, biodiversity, and natural ecosystem

dynamics persist in the long-term. A targeted ERBC planning

process is currently assessing biological, socioeconomic,

political, and institutional factors. An SSME Biodiveristy

Conservation Action Plan is under development through

collaboration with stakeholders. The SSME is still at an early

stage in the ERBC planning process. However, there are

experiences and lessons worth sharing and WWF would value

feedback on this approach. This paper presents initiatives and

strategies being undertaken through the collaboration of WWF

offices and partners, which either support ERBC planning or

contribute to the biodiversity conservation in the SSME.

DIVERS’ WILLINGNESS TO PARTICIPATE IN THE

CROWN-OF- THORNS STARFISH CONTROL IN

CORAL REEFS OF OKINAWA.

Nakaya, S*. and Yamazato, S. *Research Institute for

Subtropics, 1, Asahi-machi, Naha, Okinawa, Japan. Email:

seijin@ii-okinawa.ne.jp

Outbreaks of crown-of-thorns starfish have repeatedly

occurred on coral reefs of Okinawa, Japan, since the 1960s.

Although more than 10 million starfish have been hand-collected,

the control efforts were unsuccessful in saving the

corals from predation. We found dense populations of starfish

(800 starfish/ha) on a few reefs, where corals survived the

1998 severe bleaching and which are, therefore, of great

importance as sources of coral larvae and as major attracting

diving sites. Former experiences suggest that only a small area

of coral reef could be preserved by skilled divers through

careful repeated control efforts. We administered a

questionnaire to 333 diving shops, marine leisure outlets and

fishing cooperatives to identify the characteristics of

professional divers who are willing to participate in control

programs. Questions including the year of diving experience,

frequency of diving, former participation and willingness to

participate in control and/or monitoring of the starfish were

asked to test a hypothesis suggested by the specialization

concept: the more experienced a diver is, the more the diver

becomes concerned about conservation of reefs. Results of a

logistic regression showed that the hypothesis was not

supported and that divers from tourism sector were more

willing to participate in control/monitoring programs than

those from the fisheries sector. Involving of willing divers

may help organize effective system to control and monitor the

starfish..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C2: Building Capacity

196

A NETWORK OF COMMUNITY-MANAGED MARINE

RESERVES: AN ALTERNATIVE TO PERMANENT NO-TAKE

ZONES?

Parks, John E. *, Pomeroy, Robert S. and Salafsky, Nick.

*World Resources Institute, 10 G Street NE, Washington

DC, 20002 USA. Email: jparks@wri.org.

It is estimated that over 70% of coral reefs in the western

pacific are at risk of degradation from human activities

including destructive fishing, overexploitation, and coastal

development. To address such threats, the use of large,

permanent no-take zones within coastal ecosystems is

increasingly being cited by conservation practitioners as a

panacea. At the same time, there is recognition that the

assumed sustainability utility behind such measures has yet to

be adequately documented, and that these zones often require a

degree of managerial and financial resources that may not be

available or appropriate everywhere coastal habitats are at risk.

As a result, there is increased interest in the exploration of

low-cost, low-technology alternatives to supplement more

formal, permanent no-take areas. One such potential

alternative is the use of networks of smaller reserves that can

be temporarily designated and community-managed. An

evaluative study of a few western pacific case examples

suggests that while such networks may not provide the

assumed protective benefits arising from larger, permanent

areas, in some instances they can provide short-term benefits

in regard to fisheries replenishment and biodiversity

maintenance value. A conclusion arising from this evaluation

is that the underlying assumptions behind such alternatives

need to be more systematically tested across a larger portfolio

of western pacific sites. As a consequence, a learning portfolio

methodology is proposed that uses science to determine the

conditions under which such alternatives operate most

effectively.

VOLUNTEER MONITORING IN HAWAII, A SUCCESS

STORY

Peck, Sara.* *University of Hawaii Sea Grant Extension

Service PO Box 489 Kailua- Kona Hawaii USA 95745.

Email: peck@hawaii.edu

Successful volunteer programs result when management

biologists, university researchers and educators, in

collaboration with volunteers, develop protocols laypersons are

willing to master. The goal of this project was to develop a

coral reef monitoring program for West Hawaii using

volunteers to gather data for human impact and fish population

studies, and to record changes over time. Essential

requirements were that data collected be useful to managers,

the program be cost-effective, and cause minimal impact to the

resource. Volunteer protocol formats were developed which

can be adapted to other geographic regions: A Human Impact

(SCUBA and Snorkel) Survey, a Tide Pool Survey, plus

random and reef belt transect survey techniques. Impelling

advantages to volunteer participation lie in the potential for

long term, frequent observation and strong community support

for conservation management. This project was launched in

tandem with the establishment of a regional fishery

management area unique to Hawaii. State resource managers

and university researchers designed an ongoing monitoring

program to which volunteer data may provide a supplement.

Preliminary survey results show trends that conform to similar

surveys undertaken by scientific researchers. Lessons learned

with this project will provide insights for both volunteer

project managers and resource trustees.

THE MARINE CONSERVATION PROJECT FOR SAN

SALVADOR ISLAND: A CASE STUDY OF FISHERIES

CO-MANAGEMENT IN THE PHILIPPINES

Pomeroy, Robert S. * and Brenda M. Katon. World

Resources Institute, 10 G Street NE, Washington, DC

20002 USA. Email: rpomeroy@wri.org

The case of San Salvador Island, Philippines illustrates how

community based coastal resource management can serve as a

route to sustainable, equitable and efficient coastal resource

and coral reef management and as a route to co-management.

The purpose of this paper is to generate insights into

responsibility sharing for management over time and the

mutually supportive roles of resource users and stakeholders,

external agents, and government at various stages in the

management process. The paper will present results of one of

the few quantitative analyses of the biological, social and

economic performance of a coastal resource co-management

and coral reef conservation project. The Marine Conservation

Project for San Salvador, which was implemented from 1989

to 1993, highlights how the fisher community and the local

government jointly regenerated fishery and coral reef resources

through a marine reserve and sanctuary. The redefinition of

property rights and rules in 1989, along with vigorous law

enforcement activities, complemented resource management

efforts. Several conclusions are presented which provide

insights on the characteristics of successful fisheries co-management

arrangements, along with the underlying

explanatory variables. These include recognition of resource

management problems, specification and enforcement of user

rights, provision of legal and policy support, participation of

partners and sense of ownership of co-management

arrangements, and clarity of objectives.

CONFLICT OF COASTAL MANAGEMENT IN NORTH

SULAWESI.

Sapta Putra* and Cottrell, Alison. *Ditjen Bangda –

MOHA, School of Tropical Environment Studies and

Geography – James Cook University, Townsville Australia.

Email: Sapta.Putra@jcu.edu.au

The rapid development of agriculture, reclamation, urban

expansion, tourism resorts and the special economic

development zone (Kapet) in the North Sulawesi, which has

mostly occurred on the coast, was achieved primarily at the

expense of the environment. Several gold mining and other

mineral mining operation over the last four years have

contributed tailing mud and sedimentation to the marine water.

The degradation of the coastal resources are partly caused by

the ambiguity of property rights, and associated problem such

as competing resource use, overlapping of planning and

conflict of management between interest groups. Despite the

ambiguity of property rights and the nature of commons, the

ambiguity of the jurisdiction has resulted in coastal resource

management becoming a gray area of management.

Jurisdiction is subject to the interpretation of the stakeholders.

Every concerned agency will claim that the coastal resource is

under its jurisdiction, once it becomes important to the agency

and a significant amount of money is involved in the coastal

resource business, such as license fee, tax and commission.

But the agency will deny any association once the resource has

been degraded and is no longer important. Coastal resource is

neither common nor public property. This poorly defines

property regime leads to conflict of coastal management, and

jeopardize the sustainable of coastal resources in North

Sulawesi Province..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C2: Building Capacity

197

PUTTING THE “ACTION” INTO THE U.S. NATIONAL

ACTION PLAN TO CONSERVE CORAL REEFS – THE

ROLE OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS

(NGOS)

Raney, Dave,* *Pacific NGO Representative to the U.S.

Coral Reef Task Force, 1621 Mikahala Way, Honolulu,

Hawaii 96816, USA. Email: d_raney@aloha.net

On March 2, 2000, the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force adopted

the National Action Plan (the Plan) to Conserve Coral Reefs,

setting a goal of protecting twenty percent of U.S. reefs as no-take

marine protected areas by the year 2010. Effective

implementation of the Plan will depend on adequate funding

by Congress, the will of federal agencies to comply with

policies prohibiting adverse impacts on coral reef ecosystems,

the cooperation of state and territorial resource management

agencies, and the support of the general public. This paper

discusses implementation of the National Action Plan to

Conserve Coral Reefs as a case study exploring the roles of

NGOs in the political processes controlling successful

implementation of the Plan. Little resistance to the Plan’s

mapping, assessment, and monitoring projects is expected, but

opposition has emerged to plans for establishing new no-take

marine protected areas and other proposed actions threatening

to change the status quo. Jurisdictional disputes over the

powers of the two lead agencies of the Task Force to regulate

fishing resources stalled key legislation needed to fund

implementation of the Plan. The strategy, tactics and

experiences of NGOs in responding to these and other

challenges will be presented and discussed.

INTEGRATING VOLUNTEER MONITORING WITH

CORAL REEF RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN

HAWAI`I.

Raney, Dave * and Gulko, David A. *Sierra Club, 1621

Mikahala Way, Honolulu, Hawaii 96816, USA. Email:

d_raney@aloha.net

To be of ultimate value, coral reef monitoring must be linked

to management actions. Volunteers can play an important role

in augmenting available resources of management agencies.

This paper documents cooperative efforts underway between

volunteer groups and the Hawai`i Division of Aquatic

Resources to integrate efforts for coral reef ecosystem

management. Expected products of these efforts include a

manual for use by volunteer groups seeking to implement coral

reef assessment or monitoring programs such as Reef Check.

The manual will include protocols to be followed for diver

safety and protection of the marine resources potentially

impacted by volunteer activities. It will also provide guidance

for selection of sites to be assessed or monitored, identification

of site-specific stressors and relevant parameters for

monitoring, and a suite of monitoring protocols appropriate for

volunteers. Linkages between volunteer monitoring activities

and management actions, such as procedures for identification,

documentation, and reporting of illegal mooring activities by a

third party, also will be developed. Depending upon the nature

of potential stressors, data gathered by volunteers may include

more than the customary measurements obtained from reef

transects, such as data on the number of recreational divers

using a site within a specified time. Successful integration of

volunteer monitoring activities with management agency

actions in Hawai`i appears possible and mutually beneficial.

HOW MUCH DAMAGE DO DIVERS/SNORKELERS

DO TO CORALS?

Reboton, C.* and H.P. Calumpong. *Marine Laboratory,

Silliman University, Dumaguete City 6200, Philippines.

Email: mlsucrm@mozcom.com

Monthly monitoring of corals in Apo I. Protected Landscape

and Seascape was conducted since April 1999 to determine the

amount of damage caused by divers/snorkelers. This is to aid

the Apo Island Protected Area Management Board in

determining the number of divers/snorkelers that the 11-

hectare marine sanctuary can support. Accumulated fin

damage to living hard coral from April 1999 to January 2000

was 10.73%. Total number of divers/snorkelers in the

sanctuary during the same period was 7,312.

PROSPECTS OF COMMUNITY BASED

CERTIFICATION OF BLUE CRAB FISHERY IN

NEGROS OCCIDENTAL, PHILIPPINES.

Romero, Filemon G. *, Katrina Jayme , Ria Apostol and

Julia Novy.WWF-Philippines, 23 Maalindog St. U.P.

Village Diliman Q.C. Philippines. Email: mromero@wwf-phil.

org.ph

Certification using market forces as an instrument to promote

sustainable fishing for blue crabs (mainly Portunus pelagicus)

is being tested in three selected coastal communities in Negros

Occidental, central Philippines. Assessment and survey

studies were conducted to determine the community and

fisheries profile, existing management, pricing and market

structures. An in-depth assessment on the health of the blue

crab fishery and its environmental impacts served as input to

the development of a management plan. This process helped

determine the potential of this fishery to be certified based on

the principles and criteria of the Marine Stewardship Council.

Identified problems and issues were the following: insufficient

information on the size of blue crab population, conflicts on

resource use, destructive fishing practices, weak fishermen's

organizations, insufficient local legislation, and ineffective law

enforcement. However, some enabling factors like the

willingness of the fisherfolk and local government officials to

buy into the process, environment friendly gears used by

fishers, support of processors, and the presence of legal

institutions and management structures provide encouraging

prospects for certification..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C2: Building Capacity

198

COMMUNITY-BASED STRATEGIES FOR THE

SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF MARINE

PROTECTED AREA.

Salmo, S.G. III*, Juinio-Meñez, Ma. Antonette R.; and

Aliño, Porfirio M. *Marine Fisheries Resources

Management Project, Marine Science Institute, University

of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City 1101 Philippines.

Email: jon@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

The community-based strategies in the implementation of a

marine protected area (MPA) in Bolinao, Pangasinan

(northwestern Luzon, Philippines) is presented. The factors

necessary to sustain the successful implementation of a

community-managed MPA involved heightening of

environmental awareness, training, information campaigns and

legal/institutional and financial assistance. The empowerment

of a people’s organization (PO) played an important role in

sustaining the management of the MPA. Among the activities

conducted by the PO are sponsoring information campaigns,

forging multi-sectoral collaboration, lobbying and networking

to advocate institutional assistance and patrolling of the MPA.

The PO are also conducting regular monitoring of the MPA

(e.g. benthic lifeform, fish visual census, fish catch). Results of

recent monitoring compared to the baseline data reveal

improved % coral cover and increased fish biomass. Overall,

the community-based strategies in the management of the

MPA has proven to be very resilient indicating a high

possibility of sustaining its successes despite some obstacles

and shortcomings. Thus, this case study will draw on the

lessons from the experience of a community-managed MPA.

THE GROUP DISCUSSION AS A FRAMEWORK FOR

INCORPORATING STAKEHOLDER PARTICPATION

IN MARINE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: THE CASE

OF PULAU TIOMAN, MALAYSIA

Samarasekara, Vidhisha N*. *Head Marine Unit WWF

Malaysia - 49 Jalan SS23/15 Taman Sea, 47301 Petaling

Jaya MALAYSIA. Email: svidhisha@wwfnet.org

This paper describes the use of the group discussion as a

methodology designed to enhance decision making in marine

and coastal resources management. This approach aims to

develop a decision-making tool which enables different

stakeholder perspectives and values to be incorporated in

marine resources management. This approach has been used in

Pulau Tioman Marine Park a very popular tourist destination

located off the southern tip of Peninsular Malaysia, on the

southeast state of Pahang. The main attraction of the Marine

Park to tourists is it coral reefs, which cater mostly for

snorkellers, although some diving activity does occur in the

area. The Marine Park has seen a tremendous increase in

visitor numbers over the years. As such the reefs are under

increasing pressure from tourism development and related

activities. The resources in this marine park are crucial in

terms of their economic and recreational linkages and pre-liminary

use of this methodology has revealed that different

perceptions and values of different actors creates an

opportunity for decision making and management based on

consensus rather than conflict. The paper argues that such an

approach is likely to lead to sustainable resource management

in a variety of contexts.

EFFORTS OF ISLAND WOMEN IN REEF

MANAGEMENT: THE CASE OF CABACONGAN

WOMEN’S ASSOCIATION, CABILAO ISLAND,

BOHOL AND CAW-OY WOMEN’S ORGANIZATION,

OLANGO ISLAND, CEBU, PHILIPPINES

Sotto, F.*, Laron, C. and T.Heeger. *University of San

Carlos -Marine Biology Section- Cebu City 6000, Cebu,

Philippines

In the island communities of the Philippines, women

performed a range of activities related to fishing. Traditionally,

they have been caring for and harvesting resources in coral

reefs such as molluscs, crustaceans and seaweeds. Activities

of the two women’s organizations in the islands of Cabilao and

Olango, Philippines related to protection and management of

reef resources have been documented. Conscious of the fact

that their reef resources are dwindling largely due to illegal

fishing and overharvesting, the Cabacongan Women’s

Organization with 35 members took action in guarding their

12-ha marine sanctuary in support of their fisher husbands.

While the Caw-oy Women’s Organization of 40 members are

involved in coral farming activities specifically the tying of

coral fragments on the limestone substrates two times a week

With this efforts and consciousness, women are major players

and active participants in managing and developing the reef

and its resources.

USING SERVICE LEARNING TO CREATE

PARTNERSHIPS BETWEEN EDUCATION AND

CONSERVATION.

Stanton, Frank G.*. *Leeward Community College, 96-

045 Ala Ike, Pearl City, Hawaii, 96782, Usa. Email:

fstanton@hawaii.edu

Service Learning is a program that promotes community

service as part of the educational process with the intent of

building stronger ties between campuses and community

groups. When incorporated into biology courses, it provides

an excellent way to reinforce biological concepts with practical

experience that benefits the community. Theoretical

discussions about biodiversity conservation in the classroom

are made real by having students participate in conservation

projects that reinforce learning and promote student

participation the community. I have used Service Learning as

part of lecture courses to reinforce learning and to promote

participation in a local coastal restoration program. This has

resulted in students returning with family and friends to

continue involvement after the course is over. A related

laboratory course has become a long term monitoring program

that has allowed the students access to facilities normally not

open to the public. In return the cooperating community and

government organizations that are responsible for managing

biodiversity receive the help of trained “volunteers” that are

supervised while the data is collected and analyzed. The

laboratory course provides the training and the continuity in

the monitoring program benefiting both the students and the

conservation efforts. Service Learning is a very flexible

program that can be used in many creative ways to promote

cooperation between schools, government and civic

organizations, and to promote awareness of biodiversity issues

through education and participation..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C2: Building Capacity

199

COMMUNITY-BASED MANAGEMENT, HAWAIIAN

STYLE.

Stepath, Carl M.*, *James Cook University, Tropical

Environmental Studies and Geography, Townsville, Qld

4811, Australia. Email: Carl.Stepath@jcu.edu.au

Many island people depend on the ocean for subsistence, and

marine protected areas are an integral part of maintaining local

fisheries for future generations. The Hui o Maka'ainana and

Save Our Seas organizations have facilitated this program to

provide a model for the protection, management, and

stewardship of Hawaiian Watersheds. In Hawaii, the Ahupua'a

is a unique catchment concept, as it includes the coral reef.

This traditional Hawaiian management technique was adopted

in this project. The aim is to use modified traditional Hawaiian

beliefs and community input, in a contemporary management

setting. This allows communities, government agencies,

scientists and academics to empower people to manage marine

resources at a community level. Education about ecological

systems, monitoring, working with scientists and assisting

governmental resource agencies accomplishes this goal. The

idea was to establish a community group to conserve and

manage the coral reef area, and transfer knowledge and skills

to locals through training about marine resources. Another

significant result is the creation of fish breeding areas, reserve

areas for ecologically sound fishing, an increase in fish

diversity, and documentation about the current fisheries

situation for the future. This Ahupua'a program is providing

communities the opportunity to manage their marine resource

through ideas of their own in conjunction with the Hawaii

State park system.

AWARENESS AND COMMUNITY CORAL REEF

MONITORING.

Stepath, Carl M.* *James Cook University, Tropical

Environmental Studies & Geography, Townsville, Qld

4811, Australia. Email: Carl.Stepath@jcu.edu.au

Coral reef monitoring is critical for resource management;

and increasingly volunteers are participating in data collection.

Many questions have been raised about the advantages and

reliability of using volunteers. Save Our Seas, an NGO,

conducted a community monitoring program, on the island of

Kauai, which provided valuable information about the

contribution of volunteer programs in educating and raising

awareness about coral reef issues. Collecting coral reef

monitoring data actually increased local awareness, improved

students' attitudes towards coral resources and educated them

in science and coral reef ecology. If these advantages of

working with volunteers are utilized, it will help in monitoring

fieldwork, data could concurrently be improved, community

based resource management promoted, while providing much

needed assistance on the local reefs for information. At this

time, no other studies that measure the amount of awareness

generated by monitoring could be identified, so this is an

important baseline. Recommendations included increasing

communication between scientific, managerial, and local

communities, and promoting community based monitoring.

THE CONSENSUS AMONG STAKEHOLDERS ON

MARINE RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN TOGEAN

ISLANDS, CENTRAL SULAWESI, INDONESIA.

Sundjaya*, Conservation International Indonesia

Program, Jl. Taman Margasatwa No. 61, Jakarta Selatan,

Indonesia. Email: sunjaya@conservation.or.id

Togean Islands on Gulf of Tomini, Central Sulawesi, has the

high unique biodiversity, both in terrestrial and marine area.

Local people depend on nature resources use in reaching their

needs through the traditional farming and fishing. They have

less accessibility to nature resource in order to increase their

quality of life, while some outside investors, with vary

interests, are exploiting nature resource in Togean. Therefor,

conflict of interests on use are occurred, mainly between local

people and private sectors that backed up by local government.

The destructive fishing is the shortcut way in marginalization

on marine resource use. The Consortium of the Integrated

Development of Togean Islands, that established by Yabshi

and Conservation International, has been working to develop

the multi-purpose nature resource management that built by

consensus between local community and other stakeholders

based on equality and conservation principals. The equity is

the impossible thing as long as local people have no equal

position in bargaining process with other stakeholders. Forum

Masyarakat Togean (Forum of the People of Togeans) is the

one of component, that facilitated by Consortium, where the

local people able to voice their aspiration to desicion making

process on nature resource management. Forum is directed to

become the conservation infrastructure that merge the power

of all social groups at village level, such as: Lembaga Adat,

fihers, peasants, women, local enterpreneurs, etc. At the future,

Forum will strengthen local community to face

decentralization isue and prepare people to participate in

nature resource management sustainably.

COMMUNITY REFUGIA MANAGEMENT IN FIJI.

Tawake Alifereti* and Bill Aalbersberg. *The University

of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. Email:

Aalbersberg@usp.ac.fj.

Marine biodiversity is increasingly under threat in the South

Pacific. Through a Biodiversity Conservation Network (BCN)

project people from the Verata district in Fiji have developed

skills to help address these threats. Using participatory

techniques communities determined threats and developed an

integrated marine resource management plan. Overharvesting

was identified as a key threat and the designation of “tabu” or

refuge areas as the management technique to counter the

threat. Community members were also trained to perform

participatory aquatic resource transects (PART) to judge the

effectiveness of the use of “tabu” sites. Two keystone

species, mud lobsters (Thallasia anomala) and “kaikoso”

clams (Anadara sp.) were monitored. In the longest time

series to date (18 months) there has been a 600% increase in

“kaikoso” population in the refuge area and a 200% increase in

the harvested areas indicating the success of these

interventions. Consequently, new refuge areas have been set

up in other Verata villages and monitored by the community.

Efforts are also underway to replicate the “Verata model” in

other areas in Fiji. This will help determine conditions under

which the declaration and monitoring of community-managed

fishery refugia can be an effective tool in marine biodiversity

conservation..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C2: Building Capacity

200

SOLOMON ISLANDS DEVELOPMENT TRUST –

COMMUNITY RUN TAMBU SITE AND CORAL

GARDENS IN MALAITA PROVINCE, SOLOMON

ISLANDS.

Waleani, Donald, Hora, Lucy.* *Solomon Islands

Development Trust P.O. Box 147 Honiara, Solomon

Islands Email: sidtcid@solomon.com.sb

Mala’afe Coral Project is a family managed project. The

owner of the island has announced the project during the

Christmas period, 1999. The tambu site, which means an area

that is out of bounds for a period of time, will last for about

one year. The reason for the study is to plant the corals and

preserve the area so that it will be the home for different types

of fish species. This is a change from how it was before,

demonstrating the fact that the customary practice of tambu

sites, or protected areas, can be a useful tool in conservation

efforts today. As for conclusion, the owner of the island which

has been made tambu just wants to show an example for others

in the community to see the result of preserving the natural

resources and encourage them to do the same.

INTERPRETIVE EDUCATION AS A CORAL REEF

CONSERVATION TOOL AT HANAUMA BAY NATURE

PRESERVE, HAWAII, USA.

Wanger, Jolie R.* *University of Hawaii at Manoa,

Department of Geography, SSB 445, 2424 Maile Way,

Honolulu, HI 96822, USA, Email: wanger@hawaii.edu

As visitation of marine protected areas, specifically of coral

reefs, increases throughout the world resource managers are

seeking ways of managing the behavior of people within these

areas as one aspect of conservation. One of the techniques

widely utilized is interpretive education such as visitor centers,

signs, and interpretive talks by trained educators. However, it

is unclear to what degree such programs are effective as

management and conservation tools. In addition, many believe

that what is learned through such educational exposure may be

absorbed and taken home, contributing to a more global

understanding of the coral reef environment. This study

evaluates the degree of effectiveness of the Hanauma Bay

Education Program at Hanauma Bay Nature Preserve, Oahu,

Hawaii in increasing awareness of the coral reef environment

and appropriate behavior while visiting Hanauma Bay and

coral reefs throughout the world. Visitor surveys, staff and

volunteer surveys and interviews were conducted,

supplemented by direct observation and quantification of

visitor behavior (walking on reef, feeding fish, etc.) Results

were analyzed to assess the level of awareness among visitors

regarding park rules, appropriate behavior, and safety, and, to

assess the level of general knowledge relating to the coral reef

environment. Preliminary conclusions indicate that education

efforts appear to contribute to increased awareness of rules and

appropriate behavior within the preserve.

ESTABLISHING A STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK FOR

CORAL REEF MANAGEMENT IN LAMPUNG,

INDONESIA.

Wiryawan, Budy * , Bengen, Dietrich G. and Dutton, Ian

M.. *Center for Coastal and Marine Resources Studies,

IPB, Proyek Pesisir, Jl. Sutan Syahrir No. 4, Bandar

Lampung, Indonesia, 35231. Email crmp-lpg@indo.net.id

Lampung province, contains a diverse range of coastal and

marine ecosystems, including extensive fringing reefs. When

Proyek Pesisir, part of the USAID-BAPPENAS Indonesian

Natural Resources Management program, first commenced

work in the Lampung in early 1998, very little was known

about the coastal resources of the Province. Equally

significantly, given the large number of marine resource-dependent

industries along Lampung’s 1,100-kilometer

coastline, no formal management system was in place. As a

consequence, there is widespread resource degradation,

mounting conflict between resource users and no framework in

place to coordinate coastal development activities. Working

closely with local government and non-government

organizations, including the University of Lampung, the first

step in the integrated coastal management process involved

development of an Atlas of coastal resources of Lampung and

the second step development of a provincial level Coastal

Strategic Plan. This paper describes the process for

development of the Coastal Atlas and Strategic Plan and

outlines the roles both play in coral reef management. By

linking the Atlas and Strategic Plan, a comprehensive planning

process has been initiated which will ultimately enable

provincial stakeholders to address key local issues.

“DE-MYSTIFYING THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT

FACILITY”: A REVIEW OF LESSONS LEARNED IN

PROJECT DESIGN AND IMPLMENTATION FOR

G.E.F. CORAL REEF BIODIVERSITY

CONSERVATION PROJECTS IN ERITREA, EGYPT,

SAMOA, SOLOMON ISLANDS, TANZANIA AND

VIETNAM.

Wilson, A. Meriwether* and Kelleher, Graeme.

*Department of Geology, Edinburgh University, West

Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JW, United Kingdom.

Email: Meriwether.Wilson@ed.ac.uk

The global environment facility (gef), established in the early

1990s, is now the world’s largest single funding source for

biodiversity conservation and is at present the funding

instrument for implementing the convention on biological

diversity (cbd). Both the gef and the cbd increasingly support

measures to monitor, conserve and restore coral reef

ecosystems in ‘developing countries’, with a strong emphasis

on in-situ conservation of reef-associated habitats and species

through the establishment of marine protected areas (mpas).

While gef funding is grant-based it is also a fundamental

leverage tool for additional funding through both government

and private sector sources to support coral reef related research

and conservation. Gef is therefore highly competitive and

rigorous in its application of acceptable project criteria and

requires ongoing review of effectiveness. This paper

summarises the findings from an initial review of six gef

supported projects which illustrate various stages of

implementation during the past 10 years, and collectively

address a spectrum of coral reef conservation and marine

protected area challenges across the pacific, asia, east africa

and the middle east..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C2: Building Capacity

201

BREAKING THE CYCLE OF RESOURCE OVER-USE

AND REEF DEGRADATION: A CASE STUDY FROM

SABAH, MALAYSIA.

Wood, Elizabeth*, Mahmud Mansor, Saini Suliansa and

Ajirin Angkaji

*Marine Conservation Society, 9 Gloucester Road, Ross-on-

Wye, Herefordshire HR9 5BU. UK. Email:

ewood@globalnet.co.uk

The importance of the Bodgaya group of islands off

Semporna on the east coast of Sabah, Malaysia has been

recognised for decades. So too has the need for measures to

conserve biodiversity, manage the over-exploited resources

and prevent further degradation of the reefs as a result of fish

blasting and other disturbances. The first proposal to establish

a marine park was made in 1977 and a second in 1992, but

these were rejected mainly because local people feared a loss

of fishing rights, lands and livelihoods. In 1998 a new

programme was launched, involving a strong alliance between

NGOs (Marine Conservation Society and World Wide Fund

for Nature Malaysia) and Sabah Parks, and involving many

other institutions within Sabah, together with local

communities. The goal of the Semporna Islands Project is to

promote the concept and potential benefits of establishing a

marine protected area at the site, and to produce a management

plan. This paper explains the strategies adopted to turn a ‘no’

vote into a ‘yes’ vote, to establish a shift from over-use to

sustainable use, to promote reef recovery and to ensure

conservation of biodiversity.

INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT IN THE

PHILIPPINES: THE PLANNING PROCESS FOR BAIS

BAY, NEGROS ORIENTAL

Yambao, Alexis C.* and Bayer, Thomas G. *Coastal

Resource Management Project, 5 th Floor CIFC Towers, J.

Luna Corner Humabon Streets, Cebu City 6000,

Philippines, Email: crmhot@mozcom.com

The philippines consists of over 7,000 islands, most of which

have extensive coral reefs or coral-related communities. This

paper documents the on-going integrated coastal management

process occurring in three adjacent municipalities along the

bais bay in the province of negros oriental. A summary of

environmental and socioeconomic impacts along the bay will

be presented, as well as the resulting issues and prioritized

issues. Community participation and cooperation of all

institutions involved in coastal resource management are

regarded as the key elements of planned sustainable integrated

coastal management in this area. This paper outlines the

strategic planning process within the overall framework of

coastal management as a government service. The objectives,

programs and achievements, in addition to the fruitful

networking of the participating institutions, will be presented.

The lessons learned from this experience will be summarized,

including: integrated forms of management involving various

stakeholders, and addressing numerous intertwined issues, will

save the philippine coral reefs and other coastal resources..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C3: Communication

Session C3: Communicating Reef Science

202

COMMUNITY EDUCATION: JOINING FORCES TO

PRESERVE CORAL REEFS AND A WAY OF LIFE.

Anspacher, G. *, S. McCafferty, G. Davis and R.

Richmond. University of Guam Marine Lab, UOG Station,

Mangilao, GU 96923 USA Email: gila@efn.org

The conservation of the world’s coral reefs depends upon

direct involvement of all players, from scientists to the general

public. In order for conservation to be actualized, tropical

island communities need to be informed and concerned. To

accomplish this, scientific information needs to be made

available in these communities in a usable and accessible form.

One approach being taken in the Mariana Islands is a

collaborative effort among educational institutions, resource

managers, the tourism industry and the stakeholders to provide

information for the general public, with a focus on young

people, on the biology, ecology and conservation of coral

reefs. This effort has spawned a variety of projects that center

upon direct community participation in meeting the goals of

coral reef education and preservation. These projects include

an educational video and a CD-ROM aimed at high school

students, as well as an educational outreach and restoration

project aimed at both the local community and tourists,

focusing on a new marine preserve that is an economically

valuable resource. The process of developing these projects

with direct community participation is the focus. While

specific components may not be completely successful, the

participation and associated education ensures the process will

be a success. The collaboration and participation of scientists,

educators, resource managers and the general public in

community education projects will make it possible to achieve

conservation goals.

SCIENTISTS ARE FROM VENUS, JOURNALISTS ARE

FROM MARS

Baron N.* Nancy Baron, c/o Jessica Brown SeaWeb 1731

Connecticut Ave., NW, Suite 400 Washington, DC 20009

Telephone: (202) 483-9570 Email: c/o Jessica Brown,

jbrown@seaweb.org

Drawing on her previous experience as a journalist

specializing in marine issues, award winning science writer

Nancy Baron (SeaWeb's Ocean Science Director) will share

perspectives "from the other side," and provide tips on how to

bridge the gap. This session will arm you with some simple

tools for your next interview by covering the following: What

do media want? How to prepare for an interview. Do's and

don'ts. "Managing " your message, and " what you can and

can't expect from the media."

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATIONS

TECHNOLOGIES, A VEHICLE IN MANAGING

SOUTH EAST ASIA’S OCEANS AND COASTS

Bonto, J.M.A.* *World Wildlife Fund-Philippines, 23

Maalindog St., U.P. Village, Diliman, Quezon City 1101,

Philippines. Email: jbonto@wwf-phil.org.ph

The absence of relevant, timely, and easily accessible marine

resources information prompted the World Wildlife Fund

Philippines to develop a computer-based system that could be

used for policy analysis and information base to support the

planning and management of the South East Asia’s oceans and

coasts. Better known as the South East Asia Marine Resources

Information System, SEAMARIS uses state-of-the-art

computer geographic and modeling systems to create an

interactive, user-friendly means by which decision makers can

gain an understanding of the potential impacts of specific

policies on marine resources. It is also aimed at improving the

current system of collection and delivery of marine resources

information and correlating this information to assist in

evaluating the constraints and opportunities in the management

of coastal and marine areas. This is made possible by dramatic

developments in information technology, geographic

information system software, multimedia technology, and the

Internet. Initial work of SEAMARIS focused on the Sulu and

Sulawesi Seas covering the areas of Southern Philippines,

Malaysia, and Indonesia. Upon completion, SEAMARIS will

provide: 1) A cost efficient method of processing large

quantities of marine and coastal information in an interactive

mode and Geographic Information System format. 2) Large

scale map overlays for a clearer understanding among policy

makers of the transnational, interdependent character of the sea

environment and the resources and activities it harbors and

supports. 3) Marine awareness and education enhancement and

support program.

REPORTING MONITORING RESULTS WHILE THEY

ARE STILL NEWS.

Coleman.G.* *Australian Institute of Marine Science.

PMB 3, Townsville, 4810. Australia. Email:

g.coleman@aims.gov.au

Collecting data is just one step in the operation of an

effective monitoring program. The results of monitoring are

most useful, and sometimes only useful, if they are analysed

and presented to users quickly. Monitoring programs usually

collect the same types of information repeatedly which allows

reports to follow a standard format. This presentation uses the

Australian Institute of Marine Science Long Term Monitoring

Program on the Great Barrier Reef as an example. The

structure of reports is evolving, but there is as much continuity

as possible. At the same time, we are flexible enough that we

can say something which does not fit our structure. First, data

entry routines include automatic error traps and statistical

routines that check for improbable values. Then simple plots

based on raw data are combined with observers’ initial

impression and published on the internet within one week of a

field trip. More complete analyses of results are produced

annually. Batch processes use standard queries to select data

from the database, run standard analyses and produce summary

plots. The content of much of our reporting, including text, is

stored in a database so that it can be reformatted automatically

for printing, for presentation on the Web or other formats as

needs arise..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C3: Communication

203

THE INTERNATIONAL CORAL REEF

INFORMATION NETWORK (ICRIN): NEW METHODS

AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR CORAL REEF

SCIENTISTS TO REACH IMPORTANT SEGMENTS OF

THE PUBLIC.

Colwell S.* *Executive Director, The Coral Reef Alliance

(CORAL), 2014 Shattuck Avenue, Berkeley, California,

94704 USA,

Email: scolwell@coral.org

Many significant studies and reports on coral reefs do not

reach an audience beyond the scientific community. A

primary goal of International Coral Reef Information Network

(ICRIN) is to find new ways to reach government and industry

leaders, conservation groups, funding organizations and other

influential segments of the public with important scientific

information about coral reefs. ICRIN’s public awareness

activities will reach hundreds of millions of people in the next

four years by using a wide array of communications methods

including television and radio broadcasts, press briefings,

websites, and multi-lingual brochures, videos and educational

materials for schools and communities. ICRIN will provide

coral reef scientists with an unprecedented opportunity to

reach significant audiences – including conservation

organizations, government agencies, foundations and other

potential sources of funding. ICRIN is sponsored by the

International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) – which is composed

of member nations from around the world, multilateral

organizations such as the United Nations Environmental

Programme and the World Bank, the International Society for

Reef Studies (ISRS) and other non-governmental

organizations. ICRIN will work in concert with the outreach

and education programs of the United States Coral Reef Task

Force and the International Coral Reef Action Network

(ICRAN).

WHAT THE PUBLIC KNOWS, WHAT WE THOUGHT

THEY KNEW, AND WHAT NEXT ON CORALS.

Heckman M.B.* *Waikiki Aquarium/ University Of

Hawai’i - Manoa

2777 Kalakaua Avenue Honolulu, HI 96815 USA Email:

mheckman@hawaii.edu

The Waikiki Aquarium is a small conservation-oriented

aquarium with a strong history of coral research. Recently, a

new exhibit entitled “Corals Are Alive” was created to help

educate the public about coral biology. The exhibit included

hands on, video and live coral components. A formal

evaluation of the exhibit examined visitor knowledge of coral

biology before and after the exhibit, impacts of a regular visit

versus a visit with a live interpretive show, and a video

evaluation of flow pattern, wait time and element preference.

Results showed statistically significant improvement in

understanding of coral biology from a visit to the exhibit,

supported the use of a live interpreter, and gave useful

information on areas of public familiarity (and unfamiliarity)

with coral biology. Research on the exhibit continues.

Although small and limited in funds, the Waikiki Aquarium

has found that simple research methods can help in the

accurate and effective communication of reef science.

THE CORAL COROLLARY: THE LIMITS OF

SCIENCE-BASED GOVERNANCE IN CORAL REEF

MANAGEMENT.

Hempel, Lamont C.. University of Redlands, California,

92373-0999, USA. Email: hempel@uor.edu

The world’s coral reef ecosystems are experiencing

increased stress from a combination of rising CO2 levels at the

ocean’s surface, temperature increases, sea level rise, coastal

development, associated human population pressures, and

rising per capita consumption of reef-related organisms and

materials. The increasing rate and magnitude of coral

bleaching events has triggered alarm among some marine

scientists and resource managers. The predictable response

has been to develop or expand coral monitoring programs,

policy initiatives, scientific task forces, and public outreach

and education programs. Although science-driven policy and

management response strategies are clearly called for,

insufficient attention has been directed at the social, political,

and cultural barriers to science-led responses. This paper

draws lessons about target group behavior from the literature

on international environmental policy and resource

management. These lessons that can be applied in the design

and implementation of coral reef protection strategies. In

particular, the author examines the social construction of target

groups, the political conversion of marine science into policy

aimed at those groups, and the role of the arts and electronic

media in assisting marine policy makers in changing target

group behavior through the use of visual symbols and novel

techniques of cross-cultural communication.

BUILDING FOR THE FUTURE – PROMOTING

ACTIVE INVOLVEMENT OF YOUTH IN CORAL

REEF ECOSYSTEM PROTECTION.

Zicus Sandra A.. Dept. of Geography, University of Hawaii

at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA. E-mail address:

zicus@hawaii.edu

Coral reefs around the world are in danger. According to

data compiled by the World Resources Institute, 58% of the

world’s coral reefs are potentially threatened by human

activities. In Southeast Asia, center of world marine

biodiversity, more than 80% are at risk. Experience in many

countries has shown that community-based coastal resource

management projects, and the establishment of marine

protected areas, can be effective tools to use for coral reef

ecosystem protection. However, there is often little emphasis

on the role of youth in these community development and

resource management efforts. Social science research and

experiences from around the world indicate that active youth

participation in community projects fosters a long-term sense

of responsibility towards the natural environment. To date,

little analysis has been done of the actual effectiveness of

existing youth curricula and programs. Ongoing research into

youth-oriented coral reef projects in Hawaii, the Philippines,

and Indonesia is investigating the key socio-cultural, political,

economic, and pedagogical factors crucial to the long-term

success of these youth initiatives..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C4: Marine Ornamentals

Session C4: A Sustainable Trade in Marine Ornamentals: Linking Reef Science

Conservation and Use

204

INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN CITES-LISTED CORALS

AND LIVE ROCK.

Bruckner, A.W. * and Daves, N.K. *NOAA/National Marine

Fisheries Service, 1315 East West Highway, Silver Spring,

Maryland, United States. Email: andy.bruckner@noaa.gov

Stony corals and reef substrate (live rock) enter the

international trade as aquarium organisms, curios, jewelry, and

for medical purposes. All stony corals and live rock are listed

on Appendix II of the CITES and can be traded commercially

provided that the exporting country finds that the take does not

constitute a significant risk to the species, or its role in the

ecosystem. Although the total trade in coral reef fishes and

most other ornamental organisms is unknown, CITES provides

a means to monitor the trade in stony corals through annual

reports submitted by exporting and importing countries. The

volume of coral skeletons in trade has remained fairly constant

since 1993, while the trade in live coral and live rock has

increased annually at a rate of 12-30%. In 1997 over 775,000

kilograms and 1.6 million items of coral were traded, with

most from Indonesia and Fiji and over 80% imported by the

United States. The most common genera of live coral in trade

are Euphyllia, Goniopora, Catalaphyllia, Acropora,

Trachyphyllia and Plerogyra respectively; with the exception

of Acropora, these taxa are slow-growing, and may be locally

uncommon or are vulnerable to overexploitation due to their

life history. Branching corals such as Acropora and

Pocillopora are predominantly traded as curios; although these

species are abundant, and exhibit faster rates of growth and

greater recruitment success, they are traded at a larger size, and

are more susceptible to mortality from physical damage,

predation and bleaching.

ADDRESSING INFORMATION NEEDS IN THE

MARINE AQUARIUM INDUSTRY.

Green, E.P * . and Holthus, P. *World Conservation

Monitoring Centre, 219 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge,

CB3 0DL, United Kingdom. Email: ed.green@wcmc.org.uk

Economic exploitation of ornamental marine resources by

the countries of North America, Europe and the Far East has

had serious impacts on coral reefs. This has fuelled some

sensational journalism, and driven the trade in coral reef

organisms far up the political agenda. However the aquarium

trade also provides employment for very many people in the

source countries, people who live in communities with few

alternative sources of income. Some simple estimates of the

magnitude and taxonomic composition of the trade exist (15-

20 million fish per year may be traded over approximately

1000 species) but the future management of the marine

ornamental industry should be based on sound quantitative

data. The Marine Ornamentals Information System meets this

need through an industry-wide self-monitoring system closely

linked to product certification: wholesale importers and

exporters of marine ornamental species have contributed their

sales records to a central database. This has permitted a

preliminary survey of the species in trade and will form the

basis of the first quantitative analyses of the trade in the

organisms not listed under the Convention on International

Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES). It

will eventually possible to assess the wider impacts of the

trade by combining sales data and biological information (the

life stage at which individual species are traded, known life

cycle parameters, longevity in aquariums, biogeographical

range, collection methods and conservation status, etc.).

CAPTURE AND CULTURE OF POSTLARVAL CORAL

REEF FISHES IN SOLOMON ISLANDS

Hair, C.A.*; Bell, J.D.; Doherty, P.J.; Lam, M. ICLARM

Coastal Aquaculture Centre. PO Box 438 Honiara,

Solomon Islands. Email: chair@iclarm.org.sb

Coral reef fishes are caught and sold live for the aquarium

and live reef fish food (LRFT) trades. Both fisheries have

contributed to overfishing in some areas (especially with

respect to the LRFT) and to habitat degradation due to

destructive fishing techniques such as cyanide fishing. An

ICLARM project in Solomon Islands is examining the

feasibility of supplying these markets by harvesting postlarval

coral reef fishes and rearing them in captivity, thus developing

a new artisanal fishery. Light traps and crest nets have been

used to capture fish for culture. We present six months of

data, from November 1999 to April 2000, comparing the two

methods for harvesting species of value. At least 35 families

were taken by both collection techniques but several other

families were caught predominantly by only one method and a

greater species diversity was sampled by light traps. Both light

traps and crest nets produced juveniles fit for culture; more

than 60 species belonging to 20 families were grown out

successfully after capture. Most of the cultured fish were of

value to the aquarium trade and only low numbers were

suitable for the LRFT. The cultured fish were well received by

local aquarium fish exporters.

CORAL PROPAGATION IN SOUTH AFRICA.

Jordan I.E. * and M. H. Schleyer. *Oceanographic

Research Institute, P.O. Box 10712, Marine Parade,

Durban 4056, South Africa. Email: seaworld@dbn.lia.net

The marine aquarium industry has expanded greatly during

the past decade. A major disadvantage in this industry is that

most animals in aquaria are collected in the wild. Live corals

are prized by aquarists and are commonly chiseled off reefs

that are already degraded by pollution or excessive tourism.

Poaching is fairly common, even though restrictions are

becoming more stringent. In addition, many specimens die

from transport stress or placement in unsuitable aquaria. We

believe that the future of a sustainable supply of corals for the

aquarium trade lies in their artificial propagation with the

provision of information on their maintenance when they are

sold. This project was initiated to supply the market with a

reliable source of suitable aquarium species, focusing on the

culture of South African corals. An open seawater tank system

consisting of thirteen 800 l, free-standing, semi-transparent

tanks was constructed for this purpose. Coral specimens were

collected at Sodwana Bay and transported to the holding

facility. The corals were left for a period of two months to

allow them to acclimatise. Several cutting and attachment

experiments were conducted. The twelve most suitable hard

corals were selected for culture from the 36 species tested.

Current flow, feeding and light were manipulated to obtain the

optimum growth conditions. Results will be presented on

various attachment techniques, including electrolysis; the most

suitable current regimes; the best artificial feeds; and the most

appropriate light regime for each species. These will be

discussed in terms of subculture growth rates monitored using

the buoyant weight technique..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C4: Marine Ornamentals

205

A REVIEW OF THE TROPICAL LIVE FISH

INDUSTRY OF THE MALDIVES.

Saleem, Mariyam R.* and Ibrahim Naeem *Marine

Research Centre, Ministry of Fisheries Agriculture and

Marine Resources, Male, Republic of Maldives. Email:

marine@fishagri.gov.mv

The aquarium fishery of the Maldives started around 1979

and is predominantly export oriented. Previously the fishery

was concentrated around Malé atoll but recently has spread to

atolls further out such as the northern most atoll of Haa Alifu.

Aquarium fish collection is allowed in all areas except the

“housereefs” of tourist resorts and the protected dive sites.

About 114 species of live tropical fish are exported of which

20 species makes up about 75% of the export. At present there

are 4 licensed exporters compared with 17 in 1996. However,

two of the four companies dominate the trade. The largest

market is in Sri Lanka followed closely by the European

market (mainly U.K and Germany). In 1999, more than

160,000 fish were exported earning about 3.5 million Rufiya

(~ US$300,000). There was a sharp decline in the export of

live tropical fish in 1998 and 1999 exporting about half the

quantity of that of 1996 and 1997. This trend is presumably

due to the lower number of licensed exporters involved in the

trade after 1997. The Ministry of Fisheries set a blanket quota

of 100,000 fish for 1988 and 1989 but it this was not properly

implemented. These quotas were revised in 1996 and appear to

be working more effectively. The live tropical fish trade

includes species that are very rare in the Maldives as well as

some quasi-endemic species and this collection is depleting

many favored species in the country. This is a concern for the

biodiversity of the Maldives and hence is an important issue to

be investigated. This study reviews the status of the tropical

live fish industry of the Maldives and discusses the

management and monitoring issues of the fishery.

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES THAT EXIST

IN THE PACIFIC ISLANDS WITHIN THE MARINE

AQUARIUM INDUSTRY.

Walt Smith*, *Walt Smith International Ltd. P.O. Box

4466 Lautoka, Fiji Islands. Email: wsi@is.com.fj

Opportunities exist for Fiji and other small developing South

Pacific countries to participate in the advanced marine

aquarium markets around the world. This situation presents

benefits for all parties involved, at a minimum, measurable

impact on the collection sites. In all recent studies that focused

on our industry it has been pointed out that careful and

systematic collection of aquarium fish, live coral and live rock

has left minute negative impact on the environment. The

studies also pointed out that this industry provided far better

than average income for those who lived in remote areas where

there is little chance of gainful employment. The country can

benefit in many ways from an industry such as this if basic

environmental guidelines are strictly followed. The challenge

we must face as responsible exporters is to educate our

collectors in sustainable reef management. Sustainable harvest

is a reality when you consider the extensive geological areas

available for collection. While the conscientious and

increasingly sophisticated end-user continues to insist on

sustainably collected marine organisms, the exporting

countries in the South Pacific have an opportunity to maximize

their potential in this market. In addition to selective and

manageable harvest there is huge parallel potential for

developing countries to become involved in setting up and

training locals to grow and harvest certain species of hard and

soft coral thus enabling them to sell their products to the

existing market through the established exporters.

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE GLOBAL

TRADE IN MARINE ORNAMENTAL SPECIES AND IN

FISHERY MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

Wood, Elizabeth* *Marine Conservation Society, 9

Gloucester Road, Ross-on-Wye, Herefordshire HR9 5BU.

UK. Email: ewood@globalnet.co.uk

Over forty countries have a marine aquarium fishery based

on coral reef species, and at least 20 million fish are captured

annually to supply the market. As many as 1,000 species of

fish from 50 families are used in the trade worldwide, but

generally each supplying country has fewer than 10 species

that form the bulk of exports. Invertebrates are an important

component of the trade, being worth about 20% of the total

export value. This paper summarises the results of an

investigation in which the following were compared on a

country-by-country and/or regional basis a) size of fisheries

and volume of trade, b) research and monitoring programmes

c) conservation issues, d) management schemes and e)

regulations. The discussion considers which methods are

proving most effective in ensuring sustainable use of resources

and highlights the importance of the Marine Aquarium Council

Certification Scheme which promotes best practice within the

industry.

A SYNOPSIS OF THE LIVE REEF FISH TRADE IN

THE PACIFIC.

Yeeting B*and Labrosse. Secretariat of the Pacific

Community (SPC), B.P.D5, 98848 Noumea, New

Caledonia. Email: BeingY@spc.int

The live reef fish trade for food fish and aquarium fish is

increasingly becoming important in the pacific as live reef fish

operators extend their operations into the insular Pacific. The

two parts of the trade although quite different in terms of target

species and markets, still have a lot of common features in

their development and management. Both are seen as

important value adding activities to the marine resources with

potential for increasing cash benefits to local Pacific Island

fishing communities. The live reef fish trade however if not

managed and regulated appropriately can be destructive to the

marine resources as was experienced in Indonesia and the

Philippines as well as in some of the Pacific countries who

started their live reef fish trade without seeking advice. The

Secretariat of the Pacific Community and various other

organizations are collectively trying to stop this. The present

paper is a synopsis of the work conducted so far in the pacific

countries aimed at developing a sustainable live reef fish trade.

The situations in the different countries in terms of species,

stocks and biomass are described and compared. The current

problems in the development and management of the industry

are identified and appropriate guidelines and recommendations

to address them are given..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C5: Fisheries

Session C5: Coral Reef Fisheries

206

CATCH, EFFORT, AND YIELD FOR A CORAL REEF

FISHERY AT KANEOHE BAY, HAWAII.

Everson, Alan R.* National Marine Fisheries Service,

Pacific Islands Area Office, 1601 Kapiolani Blvd., Suite

1110, Honolulu, HI 96814. Email

Alan.Everson@NOAA.Gov

Combinati ons of two standard cr eel survey techniques wer e

used to esti mate seasonal and annual catch and ef for t for Kaneohe

Bay. I n addit ion, yield per uni t area was esti mated based upon the

survey data. A secondar y goal of the study was t o chr oni cl e user

percept ions of the resource. Ef fort and cat ch data were collect ed

bi -weekly (weekend and weekday) on al ternate weeks usi ng a

combinati on of rovi ng cr eel ( for effort ) and access (catch) survey

techniques. Data were coll ected f rom December 1990 through

Febr uar y 1993. T he st udy was part of t he Main Hawai ian I sl ands

Mari ne Resources Investi gat ion. E xpanded catch and ef for t

esti mat es were calculated f or al l maj or fi shing m ethods observed

in Kaneohe Bay. Pole and l ine f ishing accounted for t he most

acti ve (m easur ed in angl er- hours) seasonal and annual eff or t.

Spear-f isher s had t he hi ghest acti ve CP UEs, whi le pole and line

CP UE s wer e among the l owest . Spear f isher s also accounted for

the highest seasonal and annual expanded cat ch estim at es of

acti ve methods. Up to 89% of the seasonal spear cat ch consist ed

of octopus. Passi ve (net s, tr aps) cat ch and eff or t was calculated as

a daily aver age. T otal (al l act ive and passive m ethods com bined)

catches f or 1991 and 1992 wer e 52.2 and 79.8 t respect ively.

Total producti on ranged from 0.92 - 1.4 t km -2 yr -1 dur ing t he

st udy per iod. The sam pl ing program enabled com parison of

changes i n seasonal and annual cat ch and eff ort f or most of the

fi shing m ethods observed in Kaneohe Bay. Accur at e cat ch and

yi el d est imates are lacking f or Hawai ian cor al reef fi sheri es.

ABUNDANCE AND SIZE OF FISHES AS INDICATIVE

OF FISHING IMPACT AT THE ABROLHOS REEF

COMPLEX - BRAZIL

Ferreira, C.E.L.* & Gonçalves, J.E.A. *Instituto de

Estudos do Mar Almirante Paulo Moreira (IEAPM), Dept.

de Oceanografia, Rua Kioto 253, Arraial do Cabo, RJ,

Cep:28930 000. Email: kadu@ax.apc.org

The Abrolhos reef complex (60,000 Km 2 ) includes the

southernmost coral reefs in the Atlantic Ocean. They exhibit

several different morphologies, besides the whole region is

economically viable for fisheries and ecotourism. Parts of the

region including offshore and coastal reefs have been protected

since 1983 as national park. A monitoring program including

two coastal, impacted reefs and two offshore, protected reefs,

were initiated in 1997. Replicated visual census (strip

transects) were used to compare abundance and size of

herbivorous (scarids, acanthurids and damselfishes) and top

predator (serranids, lutjanids and carangids) fishes. Among top

predators, only carangids showed density values not

significantly higher at protected reefs. Among herbivorous

fishes, scarids and acanthurids were more abundant at

protected reefs, despite values were not significantly different,

while damselfishes showed significant higher densities (p <

0.001) at protected reefs. Size of top predator fishes, except

lutjanids, were significantly higher (p < 0.01) at protected

reefs. Scarids and acanthurids were also larger in protected

than impacted reefs, while for damselfishes the size was not

considered. In a broad analysis, protected reefs seems to

sustain higher abundance and larger fishes than impacted reefs.

These data consists in the first approach to understand the

actual conservation status of different reefs from Abrolhos

region.

REEFS OF AN UNINHABITED CARIBBEAN ISLAND:

I. FISH COMMUNITIES AND MANAGEMENT.

Gerstner C.L..*. *John G. Shedd Aquarium, Chicago, IL

USA. Email: cgerstner@sheddaquarium.org

Navassa is an uninhabited island in the Jamaica Passage, 40

miles west of Haiti and 70 miles northeast of Jamaica. The 1.9

square mile US protectorate has recently been designated as

part of the Caribbean Island National Wildlife Refuge. Visual

surveys of reef fishes were conducted using replicated 30x2m

belt transects in five sites around the northwestern and

southwestern areas of the island, with depths ranging from 11-

23m. Navassa reefs possess a remarkably high mean density

of fishes for the Caribbean, with sites ranging from 96.7 (9.4)

to 139.8 (16.5) fishes/60m 2 [Mean (SE)]. Grouper and

parrotfishes were relatively abundant, exhibiting overall mean

densities of 1.6 (0.2) and 6.5 (0.5) fishes/60m 2 , respectively.

Snapper mean density was comparatively lower (0.9 (0.3)),

however 92.1% of snapper sampled possessed lengths greater

than 40cm. Grouper and parrotfish sizes were also

comparatively larger with 14.7% of grouper and 22.5% of

parrotfish sampled greater than 40 cm. Rough estimates of

fishing effort by artesanal fishers from Haiti consisted of 1-4

small boats per day, with 3-5 men per boat. Fishers primarily

used handlines over the reef, but placed traps further offshore

in deeper water. They also appeared to be non-selective with

either the species or the size of their catch. Thus given the

non-selectivity and minimal level of fishing effort, plus the

high level of fish density and size, reef fish communities of

Navassa appear relatively “unexploited”. Therefore Navassa

reefs may provide a unique baseline for Caribbean reef fish

populations, and may document the sole impact of fishing in

the absence of other anthropogenic stressors. However,

preventing an escalation in the level of effort may be

challenging, given the international-level management that will

be required.

UNCERTAINTY, CONFLICT, AND THE DESIGN OF

FISHERY MANAGEMENT AREAS: MEASURING

CPUE AND FISHING PREFERENCES.

Grober-Dunsmore, Rikki *, Frederick J., Ridgley, Mark.

*University of Hawaii, Dept. of Geography, 2424 Maile

Way, Honolulu, HI 96822. Email:

rikki@akule.soest.hawaii.edu

Catch per unit effort is frequently used as a proxy for fish

abundance and to assess the state of a fishery and fisheries

research typically provides this crucial information. Too many

times the process of designing and implementing reserves is

thwarted because people feel they need to collect “more”

information before they can make a decision. In reality,

decisions may need to occur sooner than ecological data can be

collected. Using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), a

method for assessing catch per unit effort is presented that

incorporates gear selectivity, fishing intensity, and habitat

characteristics. The approach shows how scientific data

(complete or incomplete data sets), local knowledge of the

fishery, and/or other expert judgement can complement one

another to improve predictions of CPUE, and how this in turn

can be integrated into the optimization model described in a

companion paper. Multicriterion assessment methods are used

to measure intangibles, such as the behavior of different gear

types, habitat quality, and preferred fishing locations. In a

similar manner, we use the AHP with fishermen, organized

into groups by their preferred gear type, to assess their fishing

preferences by habitat and zone (location). Results from the

two methods can be combined to predict the efficacy of

different no-take zones..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C5: Fisheries

207

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF CORAL REEF

FISHERIES? – THE CASE OF ERITREA.

Hatcher B.G.* Canadian Fishery Consultants Ltd. 1489

Hollis Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, B3J 2R7.

Email: Bhatcher@canfish.com

Few reef fisheries may be deemed to be in need of

development in the common use of the term “Fisheries

Development” (i.e. increased fishing power and effort

efficiency). Many reef fisheries are in need of developmental

change towards exploitation practices and management

policies which foster ecologically sustainable use of marine

resources. In the case of Eritrea: thirty years of war destroyed

the human capacity and physical infrastructure for fishing the

extensive reefs of the nation’s 1200km of coast and 600km 2 of

the Dehalak Archipelago. A result is that the reefs of this

hotspot of marine biodiversity and endemism in the SW Red

Sea have been virtually unexploited for four decades.

Reestablishment of viable fisheries is an economic and social

necessity for the reconstruction of the young African nation.

Over $25.M has been lent and given by International Financial

Institutions to fund the rebuilding of the fishery, essentially

from scratch. Recently, almost $5.M has been allocated from

the GEF for the conservation management of Eritrea’s coastal,

marine and island biodiversity. This nexus of development

and conservation represents a rare opportunity for Eritreans to

develop their fisheries using ecosystem and precautionary

principles. The emphasis for reef resources is to foster the

artisanal fishery and limit the growth of the industrial sector.

Infrastructure is being dispersed widely in small centres, and

the level of investment is being pre-determined on the basis of

multiple social and natural science criteria rather than simply

on estimates of maximum sustainable yields.

CORAL REEF FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE

UNITED STATES: FIRST STEPS TOWARD AN

ECOSYSTEM APPROACH.

Hourigan, Thomas F*. *NOAA/National Marine Fisheries

Service, 1315 East West Highway, Silver Spring,

Maryland, United States. Email: Tom.Hourigan@noaa.gov

The United States includes an exceptional diversity of coral

reef habitats, as well as great cultural diversity and wide

range of commercial, recreational and artisanal fisheries

activities. U.S. reefs are home to over half of all federally

managed fisheries species for all or part of their life-cycle.

The health of the ecosystems and the value of these fisheries is

threatened by overfishing; habitat impacts of fishing

operations; bycatch; and other indirect impacts associated with

fisheries, such as anchor damage and grounding of fishing

vessels on reefs. The U.S. Coral Reef Task Force has identified

a number of steps to address these fisheries impacts. These

range from traditional approaches such as enhanced

enforcement and stricter limits on allowable fishing gear, to

addressing the collection of aquarium species and fisheries

impacts on deeper reefs and banks. Most promising, however,

is the commitment to map reef habitats and prioritize areas for

protection in networks of no-take marine reserves. The Task

Force has set a goal of protecting a balanced suite of

representative coral reefs and associated habitats comprising at

least 20% of all U.S. reefs and associated habitat types by

2010. The expansion of no-take marine reserves has begun at

both the Federal and state/territorial level. Together, these

steps hold the promise of maintaining the integrity of

ecological processes within communities and the ecological

links among habitats – a prerequisite to an ecosystem approach

to fisheries management.

TRADITIONAL FISHING TECHNIQUES OF BAJAU

PEOPLE , TOGEAN ISLANDS, CENTRAL SULAWESI

(INDONESIA)

Hutabarat, Christoverius* *Yayasan Bina Sains Hayati

Indonesia (YABSHI), Depok, Indonesia. Email:

tropbiod@pacific.net.id

Togean Islands, lies in Tomini Bay is an archipelago with

more less 35 small and big islands comprises several ethnic

groups, of which the Bajau mostly depends on marine

resources. They usually live on barren coral but distantly far

from freshwater sources. Since the reefs are often far from

Bajau village they usually erect resting huts (sabua) on the

coral (sappa). They use their traditional boat (leppa) for

travelling as well as seeking various marine biota for their

subsistence and selling. Regularly they run activities called

bapongka where they are in groups make a travel out of the

desa (village) in weeks for collecting marine resources

especially sea cucumber. In desa Kabalutan, while looking for

marine biota, they use some traditional techniques or methods :

line hook (missi, bapatape, ngarinta, etu, nonda); fishing net

(ngarua); spear fishing (nyingke, mana/bapanah); using light;

fish traps (bubu); as well as using hands. This study aimed for

documenting the Bajau the traditional techniques as well as

traditional knowledge of marine resources using. While, at the

other side conservation efforts as well as sustainable use of

marine resources in Togean Islands could be simultaneously

encouraged since so called modern techniques (i.e. bombing

and poisoning) that obviously giving bad impact to the reefs

are becoming widely used.

STRUCTURE AND SOCIOECONOMY OF ARTISANAL

CORAL REEF FISHERY IN A PHILIPPINE COASTAL

COMMUNITY.

Kochzius, M.*. *Centre for Tropical Marine Ecology

(ZMT), University of Bremen, Fahrenheitstrasse 1, 28359

Bremen, Germany. Email: kochzius@uni-bremen.de

In Southeast Asia many small scale fishermen depend on

shallow water habitats like coral reefs and seagrass meadows

as their fishing grounds. A field study in the small coastal

community of Malatapay, southern tip of Negros Oriental,

Philippines, was conducted to evaluate the structure and socio-economic

importance of artisanal fishery and different fishing

gears in this area. The annual yield from the Bay of Malatapay

is estimated at 13.0 – 24.6 t/ha (7.5–14.4 t/ha without pelagic

species). This seems to be a good yield for Philippine coral

reefs, with a range of 1.0–37.0 t/ha/year, but this yield is only

possible with a very high fishing effort (time and manpower).

The most important fishing gears by catch were beach seine

(31.0%), bamboo trap (24.5%), hook & line (23.0%), spear

(8.6%), set gillnet (5.0%), fish pot (4.3%) and encircling

gillnet (3.6%). Respectively the most important fishing gears

by CPUE were fish pot (5.0 kg/trip), beach seine (4.7 kg/trip),

encircling gillnet (4.5kg/trip), set gillnet (2.9 kg/trip), bamboo

trap (1,8 kg/trip), hook & line (1,2 kg/trip) and harpoon (1.0

kg/trip). The mean annual income of families (n = 15) in 1995

was 40,000 Pesos (poverty line: 30,000 Pesos = 1,200 US $).

Only one third of the income comes from fishery, because

most of the fish is used for personal needs. The subsistance

nature of this fishery is also reflected by the low proportion of

fish which is sold from the catch (37%). These results

demonstrate the importance of coastal marine resources for the

livelihood of small-scale fishermen and their families..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C5: Fisheries

208

PROTECTION OF GROUPER SPAWNING

AGGREGATION SITES - BERMUDA'S EXPERIENCE

WITH THE RED HIND EPINEPHELUS GUTTATUS.

Luckhurst, Brian E.*. *Division of Fisheries, P.O. Box

CR52, Crawl CRBX, Bermuda. Email: bluckhurst@

bdagov.bm

Two spawning aggregation sites of the red hind Epinephelus

guttatus , at the opposite ends (SouthWest , NorthEast) of the

Bermuda reef platform, were afforded protection from fishing

through the seasonal summer closure of these two defined

areas in 1974. Periodic monitoring of these sites by hook and

line sampling indicated that the modal size of fish from these

sites increased significantly during the 1980s. A third

identified spawning aggregation site was included in the

seasonal closure regulations in 1989. Following the fish pot

ban of 1990, the reported landings of red hind declined

significantly from levels in the 1980s mainly as a result of a

decrease in catchability. A long term research tagging

program commenced in 1993 to assess site fidelity and

longevity as well as to monitor the dynamics of these two

aggregations. The results to date have demonstrated high

levels of site fidelity and well-developed navigational ability

by displaced fish. Modal sizes have not changed significantly

over the past seven years but abundance at the NE site has

declined. These results indicate that the geographical location

of both spawning aggregation sites has not changed over a

period of 25 years and that the seasonal closure of these sites

has probably contributed to the maintenance of the red hind

population in Bermuda.

MANAGEMENT PERFORMANCE FOR THE

SUSTAINABILITY OF FISHERIES RESOURCES

THROUGH SYSTEMS BASED ON CUSTOMARY

MARINE TENURE IN MELANESIA.

Mees, Christopher *, Anderson, James and Polunin,

Nicholas. *MRAG Ltd, 47 Prince’s Gate, London, SW7

2QA. Email: c.mees@ic.ac.uk

There has been considerable interest in the potential of

community-state partnerships as a means of attaining a more

effective management of widely dispersed, small-scale

artisanal fisheries. One approach may be to combine the best

components of a traditional, or customary, marine tenure

(CMT) system, with appropriate intervention and advice from

the state. It has been assumed that customary management

activities are beneficial, both to the community and in terms of

the sustainability of natural resources. This paper examines the

ecological sustainability achieved by of a number of extant

CMT regimes in Fiji and Vanuatu. The success of customary

management actions for fin-fish resources across a range of

fishing pressures at different sites was examined. In addressing

the question, ‘Has customary management been successful’,

the criteria used related to western notions of fisheries

management success. Little evidence for the success of

customary management against western objectives of the long

term benefits of resource sustainability could be demonstrated

from this study. Short term benefits, which meet specific

community objectives such as ‘ear-marking’ resources for

social events were, however, apparent. However, forms of

human-resource organisation (‘management’) exist which are

appropriate to western notions of resource management (e.g.

closed areas, effort and gear controls), and institutional

arrangements exist within fishing communities to implement

them. Thus, within a co-management framework with advice

from government fishery departments, it was considered that

customary ‘management’ activities could be adapted for the

purpose of achieving long term ecological benefits and

sustainability.

REEFS OF AN UNINHABITED CARIBBEAN ISLAND:

II. OPPORTUNITIES TO DISCERN FISHING IMPACT

ON BENTHIC COMMUNITIES

Miller, Margaret W.*. *NOAA-Fisheries, Southeast

Science Center, 75 Virginia Beach Dr. Miami, FL USA.

Email: margaret.w.miller@noaa.gov

Navassa Island is a tiny, uninhabited US protectorate located

between Jamaica and Haiti. The reefs of Navassa, though not

conforming to the classical Caribbean reef zonation paradigm,

have high live coral cover (at least in the examined depth range

of 11-23m) and a high degree of architectural complexity.

High abundance of small, newly recruiting corals and low

incidence of coral disease suggest that these reef communities

are “healthy”. Mean percent cover of live coral ranged from

20 (2.5) to 26.1 (7.2) [mean (SE)] for four sites surveyed along

the west coast. Other major community components (in terms

of space occupation) were sponges (range of 7-27% cover),

fleshy brown algae (range 10-24% cover), and crustose

coralline algae (range 5-16% cover). Lastly, the keystone

grazing urchin, Diadema antillarum, was moderately abundant

in all sites (2.9 (0.9) Diadema per 30m 2 belt transect). The

only human impact on Navassa reefs is a small artesanal

fishery by Haitians, but their impact on the reef community

seems, so far, minimal. It will be a great management

challenge to maintain fishing impacts at current levels. If

fishing pressures increase, it may be possible to resolve

“threshold” levels of artesanal fishing intensity at which

adverse impacts on the reef community become evident,

information that would be of utmost value to reef management

and conservation.

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FISHING EFFORT AND

SEA URCHIN ABUNDANCE IN TRADITIONAL FIJIAN

FISHING GROUNDS.

Mitchell, R.E. *, Dulvy, N.K. Polunin, N.V.C. *Marine

Studies Programme, University of the South Pacific, P.O.

Box 1168, Suva, Fiji. Email: mitchell_r@student.usp.ac.fj

The increase in abundance of sea urchins is a suggested

indirect effect of fishing, thought to be due to the removal of

predatory fishes. However, the hypothesis remains untested

across a range of fishing pressures in the absence of other

confounding factors. We tested this hypothesis at the pristine

Lau islands of Fiji. This region provides discrete fishing

grounds where effort can easily be quantified without

additional factors such as pollution or destructive fishing. At

each island the abundance of reef associated sea urchins were

censused within 50-70 randomly positioned 1m 2 quadrats

along a 50m outer reef section, at 3-8 replicate sites <7m deep.

As a measure of predator abundance, numbers and lengths of

fish species reported to consume urchins were visually

censused at the same sites within 6 circular areas of 7m radius.

The study focused upon low levels of fishing pressure (0 - 50

people per km reef front), as this is where greatest changes in

fish communities have previously been recorded. The

abundance of sea urchins initially declined with increasing

fishing intensity. However the highest abundance of sea

urchins occurred at the most heavily fished island, suggesting a

non-linear relationship..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C5: Fisheries

209

SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS IN RESOURCE

USE BY THE FISHING COMMUNITIES IN AND

AROUND KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, A MARINE

PROTECTED AREA IN CENTRAL INDONESIA.

Mous, Peter J. *, Muljadi, & Pet, Jos S.. *Indonesia

Coastal & Marine Program, The Nature Conservancy.

Jakarta Office, Jln Hang Tuah Raya 42, Jakarta 12120,

Indonesia Email: pmous@attglobal.net

Komodo National Park (1,800 km 2 ) is situated in Central

Indonesia, between Flores to the East and Sumbawa to the

West. The Park was established in 1980 to protect the Komodo

dragon Varanus komodoensis, but it also encompasses 1,200

km 2 of highly diverse marine habitats. The fishing

communities in and around the Park, numbering ca. 20,000

people, use a variety of fishing methods to exploit pelagic

resources such as squid, small clupeids, and demersal

resources such as lobster, groupers (Plectropomus spp. and

Epinephelus spp.), sea cucumber and abalone. Especially if

destructive fishing methods are used, the exploitation of

demersal resources threatens the marine biodiversity of the

Park. During 1997, 1998 and 1999, creel surveys were

conducted in the Park to study resource use by the fishing

communities to support the management of the Park. The creel

surveys revealed distinct spatial patterns in resource use, which

vary between fishing communities and between years. Based

on resource use patterns, and on the spatial distribution of

marine habitats in the Park, a zoning plan was proposed and

endorsed by the Indonesian Park authorities.

ARE LENGTH-BASED METHODS OF GROWTH

ASSESSMENT APPROPRIATE WHEN MANAGING

LONG-LIVED, SLOW GROWING SPECIES?

Pilling, Graham*; Kirkwood, Geoffrey; Mees,

Christopher; Barry, Catherine; Nicholson, Simon; Branch,

Trevor. *MRAG Ltd, 47 Prince’s Gate, London, SW7

2QA. Email: gpilling@ic.ac.uk

Length-based methods are commonly used by developing

country fisheries institutions to assess growth in tropical reef

fish species. However, the life history of many fish species

renders the outputs of such methods uncertain. Age-based

growth assessments are considered to be more robust for long-lived,

slow growing species, and they have been used for an

increasing number of fish species. Using Monte-Carlo

simulations, this study examines the accuracy of both length-and

age-based growth parameter estimates for the emperor

Lethrinus mahsena, an important commercial demersal fish

species in the Indian Ocean. The ‘knock-on’ effect of using

these respective growth parameter estimates in subsequent

length-based stock assessment methods is examined. Finally,

the impact on management actions based on these stock

assessments is evaluated though management strategy

simulations. Overall, age-based methods resulted in the most

accurate and precise growth parameter estimates.

Management performance was better when age-based rather

than length-based growth parameter estimates were used, but

in neither case was it particularly good. This may have

resulted from the use of length-based methods in the later

stages of the stock assessment process. Further improvements

in management performance may be gained by increasing the

age-based component of tropical fish stock assessments.

UNCERTAINTY, CONFLICT, AND THE DESIGN OF

FISHERY MANAGEMENT AREAS: AN

OPTIMIZATION MODEL.

Ridgley Mark* Frederick J., and Rikki Grober-Dunsmore,

*Department of Geography, University of Hawaii, 2424

Maile Way, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA; Email:

ridgley@hawaii.edu.

The design, siting, and selection of fishing management

areas (FMAs) is bedeviled by conflict (e.g., between fishers

and conservationists) and uncertainty (e.g., stock assessment,

CPUE, preferred fishing grounds and practices). Two other

papers in this three-paper sequence describe and illustrate

ways to quantify CPUE, fisher preferences, and fish movement

and its uncertainty. Here we present a multiperiod,

multiobjective optimization model the solution of which

specifies fishing activities, by gear type and intensity level, to

allow or disallow in any of a set of preestablished spatial

zones. The core of the model is a zone-specific mass-balance

equation that relates the stock in zone i at the start of time

period t to the stock in the same zone at the start of the next

period by accounting for natural mortality, recruitment, fish

harvest, and stochastic fish movement between zones. The

model can accommodate any number of conflicting objectives

the concern of which are apt to address fishing (e.g., preferred

locations, gear types, intensity and catch levels) and stock

sustainability (total, by zone, and/or by time period).

Uncertainty is addressed though stochastic programming, the

inputs for which are determined through Markov and Monte

Carlo analyses (described in the first paper), with model

outputs specifying stock levels in probabilistic terms. An

example is presented for illustration.

SPATIAL STRUCTURE OF COMMERCIAL REEF

FISH COMMUNITIES IN THE SOUTHWEST LAGOON

OF NEW CALEDONIA

Sarramegna S. LERVEM, *University of New Caledonia,

B.P. 4477, 98847 Nouméa New Caledonia. Email:

sarrameg@univ-nc.nc

The spatial distribution of commercial reef fishes from five

reefs of the southwest lagoon of New Caledonia was studied

following a distance to coast gradient. The survey was

performed using underwater point coint visual census. Firstly,

three reef fish communities were identified using

correspondance analysis. The first assemblage occured on reef

flats (11.9 specie point -1 , 0.61 fish m -2 , 138.5 g m -2 ). This

assemblage was caracterised by Lethrinus harak, Acanthurus

triostegus and Siganus spinus. The second fish assemblage

occured on reef slopes (23.0 species point -1 , 0.96 fish m -2 ,

468.8 g m -2 ). Piscivores (Epinephelidae), carnivores

(Lutjanidae) and corallivores (Scaridae) dominated this

community. The third assemblage was found on lagoon soft

bottoms (11.7 species point -1 , 0.70 fish m -2 , 174.1 g m -2 ). This

community was dominated by benthic carnivores (Haemulidae,

Lethrinidae, Mullidae) and herbivores (Siganidae). The reef

slope and the lagoon soft bottom assemblages were distributed

along a coast to barrier reef gadient of density. At least, marine

reserves had impacts on species richness and biomass of main

fished species. In New Caledonia the major factor structuring

the commuties is the caracteristics of the biotope (percentage

of coral cover, habitat complexity). Secondly, the distance to

the coast modify these assemblages and at least the status of

protection had effects on target species..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C5: Fisheries

210

THE SEA CUCUMBER FISHERY OF SAIPAN,

NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS.

Trianni. M* *Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana

Islands Division of Fish and Wildlife. Email

mstdfw@itecnmi.com

A sea cucumber fishery targeting the surf redfish,

Actinopyga mauritiana and the blackteatfish, Holothuria

nobilis, occurred on the island of Saipan in the Commonwealth

of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) during 1996 and

1997. A pre-harvest stock assessment was not conducted and

the fishery was managed based on catch-effort statistics. The

fishery was temporarily halted in early 1997 due to declining

CPUE. A subsequent analysis of catch-effort statistics was

conducted using three depletion models; the Leslie, DeLury,

and an unbiased likelihood estimator derived from the Leslie,

termed the Akamine model. These models indicated that the

remaining population numbers in the fishery management units

were considerably harvested, with 78 % to 90 % of the initial

population sizes taken. The fishery was subsequently shut

down and a post-harvest survey conducted by the CNMI

Division of Fish and Wildlife supported the depletion model

analysis results. Results from the depletion models varied,

with the Leslie and DeLury failing to produce valid results for

all management units. The Akamine model was preferred for

any future depletion estimation analyses, although a pre-harvest

stock assessment along with the collection of harvest

statistics was concluded essential for coherent management.

O V E R F I S H I N G OF HOLOTHURIANS ON THE

GBR: THE EFFECTS ON POPULATION STRUCTURE

OF HOLOTHURIA NOBILIS, AND LIKELY SOURCES

OF NEW RECRUITMENT

Uthicke, Sven* and John A. H. Benzie *Australian

Institute of Marine Science, PMB No. 3, Townsville MC,

Qld. 4810, Australia. Email: S.Uthicke@aims.gov.au

Decreasing catch rates for H. nobilis on the GBR prompted

management agencies to close the fishery on this species in

October 1999. We surveyed densities and size structure of H.

nobilis at 20 reefs and investigated the genetic connectivity

between reefs using allozyme and mitochondrial DNA

(mtDNA) analyses. Densities of H. nobilis on four reefs

protected from fishing were about 4 times higher compared to

16 reefs open to fishing and the average weight of the animals

was significantly smaller on fished reefs. The study of 7

polymorphic enzymes revealed no significant population

differentiation between reefs separated by distances up to 1300

km. This may indicate a high potential for larval dispersal and

that larvae from populations or regions which were not fished

could re-colonise overfished reefs. However, conclusions

based on the allozyme data may be flawed because the

allozymes may not be in evolutionary equilibrium due to the

relatively young age of the reef. Preliminary studies using

higher resolution genetic markers (mtDNA sequences) have

indicated that population differentiation may exist even on

small geographic scales. Therefore, a recommendation on the

scale on which the beche-de-mer fishery on the GBR should be

managed can only be made after final analyses of the

mitochondrial markers.

A MULTI-DISCIPLINARY EVALUATION OF

ALTERNATIVE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES FOR

THE SEYCHELLES ARTISANAL FISHERY.

Wakeford, Robert C.*, Kirkwood, Geoffrey P. *RRAG,

Imperial College, London, SW7 1NA. U.K. Email:

r.wakeford@ic.ac.uk

The Seychelles artisanal fishery has two sectors: a large

number of small boats exploit the inshore fish resources, and a

smaller number of larger vessels target relatively lightly

exploited offshore resources. Continued high levels of fishing

effort inshore have given rise to concern over the status of the

fish resources there and the socio-economic welfare of inshore

fishers. Previous fiscal incentives in the form of soft loans

were intended to help fishers purchase larger vessels and

relocate fishing pressure further offshore, but to date these

have met with limited success. In this study, the status of the

inshore fish resources was re-evaluated, and constraints on

relocating fishing effort faced by different socio-economic

groups of fishers were examined. Field sampling, rapid rural

appraisal and formal socio-economic surveys were used to

collect quantitative biological, technical and economic

information for each fishery sector, as well as information on

the decision-making arrangements of different socio-economic

groups. This was used to develop a bio-socio-economic

simulation model of the artisanal fishery, which allowed the

likely outcomes of alternative management strategies to be

evaluated. Continuation of existing policy was predicted to

put further pressure on inshore resources. Access restrictions,

involving both vessel and fisher licence schemes, were found

to provide the greatest opportunity for sustainable biological

and economic recovery.

PREHISTORIC FISHERIES IN THE CARIBBEAN.

Wing SR* and ES Wing. Department of Marine Science,

PO Box 56, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.

Email: steve.wing@stonebow.otago.ac.nz

We studied faunal remains from archaeological sites on five

caribbean islands, each with an early (1300-1800 ybp) and late

(1300-500 ybp) occupation. On each of these islands; puerto

rico, st thomas, st. Martin, saba, and nevis the mean size of

reef fishes in the faunal remains declines from the early to the

late occupation. The large samples from sites on st. Thomas

and nevis allowed examination of the size distribution of

individual taxa. Samples of obligate reef fishes; scaridae,

acanthuridae, lutjanidae, and serranidae show large reductions

in size between the early and late occupations. Samples of

facultative reef fishes such as carangidae and clupeidae show

little change in size distribution. The percentage of estimated

reef fish biomass in the total faunal record sharply declines in

the samples from four of the islands, while on nevis there is a

slight increase. The mean trophic level of reef fishes declines

from the early to the late occupations on each island. Together

these patterns suggest that populations of reef fishes adjacent

to occupation sites on these islands were heavily exploited in

prehistoric times. Such exploitation resulted in shifts in size

structure and species composition among the reef fish fauna.

On some islands the decline in reef fish resources corresponds

with a shift towards greater exploitation of pelagic species..9ICRS SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES C5: Fisheries

211

LONG-RANGE RECRUITMENT OF THE SPINY

LOBSTER (PANULIRUS ARGUS) POPULATION IN

THE CORAL REEFS OF SOUTH FLORIDA, USA.

Yeung, Cynthia*. *Cooperative Institute for Marine and

Atmospheric Studies, Rosenstiel School of Marine and

Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, FL

33149, USA. Email: cyeung@rsmas.miami.edu

Marine species inhabiting coral reefs that possess an

extended planktonic larval stage may have the advantages of

colonizing a wider geographic range and insuring against local

population extinction. Few species could rival the phyllosoma

larvae of the spiny lobsters (Palinuridae) in their potential for

teleplanic dispersal, as their planktonic larval duration is

estimated to be between six months to one year. The spiny

lobster Panulirus argus is a major fishery species throughout

the Central Western Atlantic, including South Florida near the

downstream limit of its range. The offshore reef zone in South

Florida in which the adult population spawns is impinged by

the strong Florida Current. Faced with a mean downstream

flow speed of 100 cm -1 , it seems unlikely that the phyllosoma

larvae could remain within their approximately 200 km stretch

of natal habitat for the many months until they are ready to

settle. The South Florida population would then rely on a

supply of larvae from remote upstream populations,

transported via large-scale boundary currents, meso-scale

gyres and meanders, and local winds and tides. The

implications are that transport variability is a major control

factor in recruitment, and management of this key fishery

species requires coordination on a wide geo-political scale..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D1: GCRMN & ReefCheck

REHABILITATION

Session D1: Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network & ReefCheck.

212

CORAL REEF MONITORING IN REUNION ISLAND

USING IOC METHOD (WESTERN INDIAN OCEAN

ISLANDS STATES PROGRAM)

Chabanet, P.* ; Bigot, Lionel; Naim, Odile; Garnier, Rémi;

Tessier, Emmanuel ; Moyne-Picard, Marylène.

*Laboratoire d’écologie marine, Université de la Réunion,

97715 Saint Denis Messag Cedex 9, France. Email:

chabanet@univ-reunion.fr

Since 1998, part of reef assessment in Reunion follows a

standardised methodology applied in 4 others islands states :

Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius and Seychelles. This

monitoring fits into a regional (Regional Environment Program

of Indian Ocean Commission) and an international (Global

Coral Reef Monitoring Network) strategies. The overall

objectives of IOC/GCRMN network are to improve the

management and sustainable uses of coral reefs, and provide

individuals, organisations and governments with the capacity

to assess their coral reef resources, and collaborate within a

global network. In Reunion, the IOC/GCRMN network is

operating at the research level, that is a high resolution

assessment and monitoring over small scales. Scientists and

institutes currently participate to the monitoring reefs and pool

data into ARMDES database. In 1998, assessment of reef

using IOC/GCRMN method started with 2 sites (St-Gilles and

La Saline reefs). In 1999, 2 others sites were added (St-Leu

reef) and 3 others in 2000 (Etang-Salé and St-Pierre reefs). On

each site, 2 stations are assessed, one on the reef flat and the

other on the outer slope (around 10 m depth). Results of reef

assessment constitute an evolutionary and comparative data

base which is an important tool for the management of the

coastal zone.

SOUTHEAST ASIAN REEFS – STATUS UPDATE.

Chou L.M.*. *Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty

of Science, National University of Singapore, Blk. S2, 14

Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543. Email:

dbsclm@nus.edu.sg

Southeast Asian reefs continue to face development and

exploitation pressures in spite of greater awareness of their

ecological and economic importance. Reefs that were once

considered remote have not escaped the destructive aftermath

of poison or blast fishing. Common threats from human

activities are spreading throughout the region and there is no

apparent sign of reversal or reduction in the trend of increasing

reef degradation. There is evidence of expanding monitoring

efforts on reef health status in tandem with increasing numbers

of rehabilitation projects. Line-Intercept Transect data are

available for more reefs of which little was previously known.

Established reef-monitoring programmes now exist in many

countries. Reef Check surveys have increased steadily in the

region and monitoring by volunteers indicate little difference

in reef condition between marine parks and non-protected

reefs. This confirms earlier observations that few marine

protected areas are meeting management objectives.

Countering the pattern of reef-integrity loss are isolated

instances of management by local communities and coastal

resorts. Apart from the impact of human activities, many

Southeast Asian reefs were affected by severe bleaching events

in 1998 with recovery ranging widely from marginal to almost

complete. Stronger, more effective and perhaps innovative

management measures are necessary to facilitate the survival

of Southeast Asian reefs in the new millenia.

MONITORING AND STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN

SOUTHERN TROPICAL AMERICA.

Garzón-Ferreira, J. *, Cortés, J. Croquer, A. Guzmán, H.

Leão, Z. & Rodríguez-Ramírez, A. *Instituto de Invest.

Marinas y Costeras (INVEMAR), A.A. 1016, Santa Marta,

Colombia; Email: jgarzon@invemar.org.co

Under the framework of the Global Coral Reef Monitoring

Network (GCRMN), UNEP-CAR/RCU is supporting the

creation of a sub-regional GCRMN node for southern tropical

America, a region with common attributes, interests and

problems. This task was commissioned to INVEMAR, a

marine research institution which has participated within the

CARICOMP program since its origin and has been developing

a national reef monitoring system in Colombia (SIMAC)

during the last two years. Since the end of 1999 we started to

work on this project which has focussed on: (1) Analyzing

experience, capacity and needs for reef monitoring at each

country; (2) Undertaking coordinated reef monitoring activities

during 2000 throughout the sub-region; (3) Preparing reports

on current status of reefs in each country and in the sub-region.

Experienced reef researchers from 5 countries (Costa Rica,

Panamá, Colombia, Venezuela and Brazil) are now

cooperating and assessing monitoring capacity via a

questionnaire being completed by each participant. All

countries (except Brazil, which started in 1999) have

conducted permanent reef monitoring activities for at least the

past five years, but concentrated in the Caribbean and with a

small geographic coverage due principally to financial

limitations. Most reefs in the sub-region have suffered from

both anthropogenic and natural impacts. Detailed reports will

be presented, focussing on a description of the status, threats

and recent changes of coral communities from each country.

STATUS OF CARIBBEAN REEFS: INITIAL RESULTS

FROM THE ATLANTIC AND GULF RAPID REEF

ASSESSMENT (AGRRA) PROGRAM

Ginsburg, R.N*., Alcolado, P., Arias, E., Bruckner, A.,

Claro, R., Curran, A., Deschamps, A., Fonseca, A.,

Feingold, J., Garcia-Saez, C., Gilliam, D., Gittings, S., D.,

Glasspool, A., Horta-Puga, G., Klomp, K., Kramer, P.A.,

Kramer, P.R., A., Leao, Z., Lang, J., Manfrino, C.,

Nemeth, R., Pattengill-Semmens, C., Peckol, P., Posada, J.,

Riegl, B., Robinson, J., Sale, P., Steneck, R., Vargas, J.,

Villamizar, E.

*Rosenstiel School Of Marine And Atmospheric Science,

University Of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway,

Miami, Fl, 33149. Email:

RGINSBURG@RSMAS.MIAMI.EDU

Since june, 1998, over twenty large-scale AGRRA

assessments have been undertaken in the western atlantic

covering approximately 300 reef sites. At each site, non-permanent

10-m line transects were used to measure a suite of

standardized benthic parameters including coral cover, coral

mortality (recent and old), coral size (diameter and height),

coral condition, coral recruits, relative abundance of algae

(turf, crustose coralline, and macro), macroalgal height, and

Diadema antillarum abundances. In addition, the sizes and

abundances of selected fish families were assessed using non-permanent

30x2 m belt transects and overall fish diversity was

measured with a roving diver census. All data have been

compiled into a single ACCESS database using standardized

species codes and hierarchically defined location codes. These

data establish a baseline scale of caribbean-wide reef

condition and can be used to identify degraded, normal, or

luxuriant areas..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D1: GCRMN & ReefCheck

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THE STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE HAWAIIAN

ARCHIPELAGO.

Gulko, David A.*, Maragos, James E. Friedlander, Alan

M. Hunter, Cynthia L. *Division of Aquatic Resources,

Hawai'i Department of Land & Natural Resources, 1151

Punchbowl St. Rm. 330, Honolulu, HI 96813 U.S.A.

Email: david_a_gulko@exec.state.hi.us

Approximately 85% of all U. S. coral reef area occurs within

the Hawaiian Archipelago. The reefs that make up this region

stretch over 2,000 km and contain a majority of the reef types

seen throughout the Pacific. Coral reefs in Hawai'i are

characterized by their isolation from other Pacific reefs and

extremely high endemism across most phyla. The Archipelago

consists of two distinct regions: the Main Hawaiian Islands

(MHI), made up of populated, high, volcanic islands with non-structural

reef communities and fringing reefs directly abutting

the shorelines; and the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands

(NWHI), consisting of uninhabited atolls and banks. The MHI

are urbanized with extensive coastal development and

associated runoff effects. Overfishing (for food organisms and

marine ornamentals), alien species, marine tourism and

pollution impacts are of increasing concern. The NWHI coral

reefs are affected primarily by marine debris, and fishery

impacts from lobster and bottomfish fisheries. Concerns exist

over proposed ecotourism activities and new fisheries to be

managed under the Western Pacific Regional Fisheries

Management Council. Examples of recent management

initiatives to address coral reefs impacts include new forms of

MPAs related to marine ornamental collection and tourism

impacts, and assessment and long-term monitoring programs

involving active partnerships between academia, community

groups and management agencies.

REEF CHECK 2000 IN PALAU.

Kitalong, A*. *The Environment, Inc. Box 1696 Koror

Palau 96940. Email: kitalong@palaunet.com

Preliminary Reef Check data were collected from four sites:

Ngerchelong and Koror at one depth and Angaur at two depths

covering 320 m 2 . One bumphead parrotfish was seen in

Angaur. Grouper were counted in Ngerchelong and Angaur

(n = 5, mean = 0.31, STD = 0.68). Sweetlips were seen at all

sites (n = 7, mean = 0.43, STD =0.86). Butterfly fish were the

most abundant fish (n = 85, mean = 5.31, STD = 4.35) with the

highest counts in Angaur (n= 62). Giant clams (Tridacna

spp.) were the most abundant invertebrates found at all site (n

= 80, mean = 5.00, STD = 8.70). Three lobsters were found at

two depths in Angaur. No Diadema urchins, Triton shells,

edible sea cucumbers or crown of thorns starfish were seen at

the four Reef Check sites. In Angaur, at the 12-meter depth,

50% of the coral population and 40% per colony of coral were

bleached. Coral damage due to anchors was low and no

impacts from dynamite, fish nets or other impacts were found.

In Angaur, at a 5-meter depth, 50% of the coral population

and 30% per colony of coral were bleached. Coral damage

was due to bleaching but not to anchors, dynamite, trash or fish

nets. In Ngerchelong, coral damage by anchor damage was low

but coral damage due to bleaching was high. It was noted at

the Ngerchelong site that in 1998 a severe bleaching event

caused more than 95% mortality to the corals. In Koror, coral

damage due to bleaching was high. The percent of substrate

types for the Angaur, Ngerchelong and Koror sites were as

follows: 29% hard coral, 4% soft coral, 23% dead coral, 0.1%

fleshy seaweed, 2% sponge, 22% rock, 13% rubble and 6%

sand. No silts or clays were observed at the four sites.

RECON (REEF ECOSYSTEM CONDITION): A

PROGRAM FOR RAPID MONITORING OF THE REEF

BENTHOS BY VOLUNTEERS.

Lang J.C.*, Monk, L.A. and Sheavly, S.B.. *P.O. Box 539,

Ophelia, VA 22530, USA. Email: JandL@rivnet.net

Reefs that are in good condition are expected to have large,

healthy, stony corals, an abundance of crustose coralline algae,

and numerous fishes; however, their status at many sites is not

well known. The Center for Marine Conservation (CMC), with

support from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, is

teaming up with dive shops, clubs, resorts, and with

recreational SCUBA and snorkel divers, to help fill this data

gap. The goals of RECON (Reef Ecosystem Condition) are to

broaden the scope of available information on the condition of

stony corals, to alert local reef researchers and managers about

changing reef conditions, and to increase public understanding

about the threats to coral reef ecosystems. Hence, the data will

complement existing international (e.g., REEF, Reef Check,

Reef Keeper International) and regional (e.g., AGRRA,

CARICOMP, GCRMN) monitoring and assessment programs.

Volunteers will take a short training course from a CMC-certified

RECON instructor, who will also provide local

oversight and information about current conditions (e.g., mass

bleaching events, outbreaks of disease, recent storm damage).

Data will be sent to CMC for analysis and archiving (both in-house,

and with other organizations); results will be posted at

CMC’s website, and freely-available for use by reef scientists

and managers.

STATUS AND TRENDS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF

MICRONESIA.

MAREPAC. C/O Marine Laboratory, Univ. of Guam,

UOG Station, Mangilao, Guam 96923 USA.

Richmond@uog9.uog.edu

Micronesia consists of a series of islands that span an area

greater than that of the continental United States of America,

and includes the Republic of Palau, Guam, the Commonwealth

of the Northern Mariana Islands, the Federated States of

Micronesia (Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae), Nauru and a

portion of Kiribati. The coral reef fauna of the region is rich,

with over 350 species of scleractinian corals, 2,000 species of

mollusks and 1,000 species of reef fishes. Reef access and

tenure systems vary across the region, with some reefs open to

the general populace, while others are owned and managed at

the village level. Typhoons, El Niño-related warming events

(coral bleaching) and Acanthaster outbreaks are among natural

disturbances affecting Micronesian reefs. Sedimentation,

pollution, eutrophication, over harvesting, destructive fishing

practices and ship groundings are among the anthropogenic

disturbances of greatest concern. The management expertise

and traditional governance systems that exist within the region

have the potential for reversing the decline in reef health being

experienced by reefs. The dependence of the islands on coral

reef related resources makes effective management initiatives

critical to present and future generations of Micronesian

residents..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D1: GCRMN & ReefCheck

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ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF THE 1998 EL NIÑO ON

CORAL REEFS OF EASTERN AFRICA.

Obura*, D.O., Mohammed, S, Motta, H, Schleyer, M.

Coral Reef Degradation In The Indian Ocean (CORDIO),

Box 10135, Mombasa, Kenya; dobura@africaonline.co.ke.

East Africa, comprising Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique and

South Africa, was greatly affected by coral bleaching and

mortality as a result of the 1997-98 El Niño. Bleaching most

probably started in late February to early March in the south,

progressing northwards with the Inter-Tropical Convergence

Zone to finish in May in the north. At any single location

surface water temperatures were raised for up to 2 months,

with +1-2 o C anomalies recorded in-situ. Coral bleaching and

mortality increased from high to low latitudes, from <1% at

26-27 o S in South Africa to 50-80%, and in some locations

approaching 95%, at 2-4 o S in Kenya. In between, bleaching

and mortality levels of 30-80% were documented from

northern Mozambique and Tanzania. Mortality was least

where local features reduced surface heating, influenced by

depth, tidal exchange in reef channels and upwelling on

continental shelves. Newly dead surfaces were colonized by a

variety of algal groups, invertebrates, microbial mats and

bioeroders, and are currently undergoing succession. Changes

in consumer populations have been documented but vary

greatly. Until the end of 1999 recovery of corals has been

principally through regrowth of surviving colonies, however

surveys in early 2000 have revealed significant recruitment at

some reefs, dominated by Pocillopora damicornis and a mix of

acroporids, siderastreids and faviids. Recovery also appears to

be faster on reefs previously impacted by anthropogenic

stressors, where opportunistic species predominated.

Socioeconomic impacts of bleaching and loss of corals appears

to have been minor, with other factors dominating resource use

practises.

THE ROLE OF REEFCHECK: LESSONS LEARNED

FROM INDONESIA.

Putra, Ketut Sarjana. *WWF Indonesia, Wallacea

Bioregional Program, Bali, Indonesia. EMAIL:

KPUTRA@WWFNET.ORG

WWF Indonesia has been primarily responsible for

implementing Reef Check in Indonesia since its inception in

1997. From the outset, the focus has been on using Reef Check

both as a tool for monitoring reefs and as a tool for raising

awareness and building support for coral reef conservation

among key government sectors and reef users. Reef Check

activities included a training of trainers (TOT) for participants,

a media launch by the minister of environment, and a media

event to disseminate the results. Important lessons from the RC

experience included the following; use of media and key

government figures helps raise the profile of reef conservation

nationally, care should be taken to ensure that there is good

communication between the Reef Check coordinators and the

government and academic monitoring programs so that good

collaboration can be achieved. To maximize impact, 31

participants received training, who went on to leverage local

funding sources for funds to implement Reef Check 1999.

Priority in selection of trainers was given to Indonesian NGOs,

university representatives and government officials, rather than

the private sector, with a view of building capacity and

creating an Indonesian network for coral reef conservation and

monitoring. Reef Check was then conducted by the TOT

participants at 33 sites in eight locations and involving a total

of 134 divers. The major obstacle faced in Indonesia is to get

sponsorship to implement the Reef Check.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA'S PARTICIPATION IN A

GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF HUMAN EFFECTS ON

CORAL REEFS.

Quinn, N.J.*, B.L. Kojis & R. Sammuel. Biology, Dept.,

Uni. of Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby, Papua New

Guinea. Email: quinnnj@upng.ac.pg

The transformation of PNG’s economy has altered the use of

coral reefs. Today reefs are increasingly fished commercially,

visited by tourist divers, and impacted by resource

exploitation. The impact of these activities on the reef

ecosystem needs to be assessed. Using the Reef Check

protocol, PNG university students have been conducting

surveys on PNG coral reefs. To do this, students needed to be

taught scuba skills and marine survey techniques. Preliminary

results suggest that the main human impact on PNG’s reefs is

from coastal artisanal fisheries. Offshore reefs still retain high

fish populations as exemplified by the large schools of Maori

Wrasse within 15km of Port Moresby. Coral cover is generally

high, with very few Crown-of-thorns starfish and no reported

outbreaks.

STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN SOUTH ASIA.

Rajasuriya A.*; Zahir, Hussein; Muley, E.V.;

Subramanian, B.R.; Venkataraman, K.; Wafar, M.V.M.;

and Whittingham, Emma. *National Aquatic Resources

Research and Development Agency, Crow island, Colombo

15, Sri Lanka. Email: arjan@nara.ac.lk

Major coral reefs in South Asia surround the oceanic islands

of Lakshadweep, Maldives, Chagos and the high islands of

Andaman and Nicobar. Other extensive reefs are in the Gulf of

Mannar region. There are also numerous fringing and patch

reefs in India and Sri Lanka. In Bangladesh the only coral reef

occurs around St. Martin’s Island. Recent surveys indicate that

recovery of corals bleached in 1998 is poor. Natural and

human disturbances, such as the crown of thorns starfish, coral

mining, destructive and unmanaged resource harvesting,

sedimentation and pollution continue to cause much damage to

coral reefs in South Asia and reduce their capacity to recover

from the 1998 bleaching event. Capacity for monitoring coral

reefs has been improved with donor assistance, however there

is limited application of monitoring data due to a lack of

management mechanisms. Due to the absence of proper

management the condition of marine protected areas in South

Asia has degraded. Several new protected reef areas have been

recently declared in the Maldives. This report highlights the

increasing population pressures on reef resources, lack of

awareness and inadequate capacity for management and

discusses the need to improve management capacity for the

conservation and sustainable use of coral reefs in South Asia..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D1: GCRMN & ReefCheck

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ADAPTING REEF CHECK TO CORAL REEF

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN HAWAI`I.

Raney, Dave*, *Sierra Club Coral Reef Working Group,

1621 Mikahala Way, Honolulu, Hawaii 96816, USA.

Email: d_raney@aloha.net

Although Reef Check was initially designed as a one-time

assessment of coral reef health on a global basis, it has evolved

into an ongoing program, has been adopted widely for

community-based coral reef monitoring programs, and in 1998

was chosen by the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network

(GCRMN) for the community-based tier of monitoring within

GCRMN. This paper discusses the use of Reef Check by

community volunteers in Hawai`i, and its integration with state

and local resource management programs so the work of the

volunteers is credible, linked to resource management actions,

and of value to local communities. One of the challenges

encountered was the need to adapt and extend the core Reef

Check methodology to fit local requirements while retaining

consistency with Reef Check’s global monitoring protocol and

data structure. Other challenges include (1) the need to address

state agency concerns over diver safety and potential impacts

of volunteer monitoring activities on the resources being

monitored; (2) identification of which findings by volunteers

might trigger responses by resource management agencies if

reported; (3) the need for funding or donated goods and

services to cover costs of ongoing monitoring programs; and

(4) the need to effectively involve community members so as

to build an informed constituency in support of coral reef

protection.

STATUS OF SOUTH EAST PACIFIC CORAL REEFS.

POLYNESIA MANA NODE : COOK IDS, FRENCH

POLYNESIA, NIUE, KIRIBATI, TOKELAU, TONGA,

WALLIS AND FUTUNA.

Salvat, B., *EPHE, ESA CNRS 8046, Université de

Perpignan, France, and CRIOBE, B.P. 1013 Moorea,

Polynésie française. Email: bsalvat@univ-perp.fr

Cook Ids, French Polynesia (F.P.), Niue, Kiribati, Tokalau,

Tonga and Wallis and Futuna are 7 independent or

autonomous countries or territories with 347 islands with coral

reefs and an EEZ more than 12 millions sq.km. The total

population is about 450.000 living on less than half the number

of islands, with about 80% concentrated in 6 islands with

urban centres. Coral reef habitat and biodiversity are reduced

along a west to east gradient in the Pacific. Cyclones do impact

on the reefs but only at about decadal scales. Crown-of-thorns

starfish have appeared with varying levels of intensity, but the

only major outbreak was in the 70's in F.P. Bleaching events

with high mortality were reported in F.P. in 1991 and in some

localities all over the region in 1999 and 2000. Pollution

(mainly eutrophication and sedimentation) only occurs near

urban centres. Documented information on reef stocks and

exploitation of resources is poor except in F.P., but coral reef

resources are very important for subsistence economies, with

local commercial exploitation developing. Tourism - about

tourists per year - is still in early stages of development except

in F.P. Black pearl oyster culture is only important in the

Cooks and F.P. Nacreous gastropods have been introduced and

now constitute income for local communities. Threatened

species include giant clams with plans for reintroduction and

commercial exploitation. Regular monitoring programmes

only exist in F.P. with only occasional or starting programmes

elsewhere. Even where conservation laws and legislation exist,

enforcement is very weak

GLOBAL CORAL REEF MONITORING NETWORK –

REGIONAL REPORT: IOI-PACIFIC ISLANDS.

South, G. Robin* & Skelton, Posa A.. *IOI-Pacific Islands,

Marine Studies Programme, USP. PO Box 1168, Suva,

FIJI. Email: south_r@usp.ac.fj

The IOI-Pacific Islands GCRMN Node covers six

independent nations (Fiji, Kiribati, Nauru, Samoa, Tonga and

Tuvalu), consisting of over 1000 islands and islets and

spanning from 32 o S to 4 o N and 166 o E to 168 o W. The countries

comprise high and low lying islands and atolls, containing

fringing, barrier, submerged, platform, oceanic ribbon and

drowned reefs, atolls and near atolls. The diversity of marine

species declines eastwards from the Indo-Pacific centre of

origin. The fin fishes decline from 1900 species in Fiji to 991

in Samoa and just over 400 in Tuvalu. Marine benthic algae

decrease from 422 in Fiji to 287 in Samoa and 40 in Nauru.

Extinct species include the giant clams: Tridacna maxima and

Hippopus hippopus from Nauru and Samoa, respectively.

Endangered species include marine turtles, giant clams, giant

tritons, mangrove crabs, bêche-de-mer, trochus and turban

shells, and highly targeted reef fishes. Coral reefs are in good

condition in most countries, although significantly degraded in

urban areas. The reefs are becoming increasingly vulnerable

from over-fishing, pollution, sedimentation, environmentally

unsound development, crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks and

habitat loss. Climatic factors such as cyclones, sea level rise,

coral bleaching (such as the early 2000 bleaching event in Fiji

and Tonga) are real or potential threats. Long-term monitoring

of biotic reef systems is not in place, although the development

of marine protected areas has been implemented in Samoa and

Tuvalu or identified in Fiji and Nauru. There is a need for

integrated coral reef management. Technical knowledge exists

in most government departments, but there is a lack of trained

biologists, taxonomists, ecologists and managers.

ADAPTIVE COMMUNITY-BASED MANAGEMENT OF

A MARINE RESERVE NETWORK IN HAWAI’I.

Tissot, Brian*; Walsh, William; Hallacher, Leon.

*Program in Environmental Science and Regional

Planning, Washington State University, 14204 NE Salmon

Creek Ave., Vancouver, WA 98686 USA Email:

tissot@vancouver.wsu.edu

Monitoring programs often suffer from weak links to

effective management strategies. In Hawai’i, aquarium

collecting on reef fish populations has caused multiple-use

conflicts between collectors and other ocean users. Using a

control-impact design we determined that 8 species targeted by

collectors were significantly less abundance at impact relative

to control areas. In response to widespread perceptions of

declines in reef fishes and community pressure the state

legislature passed a bill in 1998 to establish Fish

Replenishment Areas (FRAs), reserves closed to aquarium

collecting along 30% of the west Hawai’i coastline. Based on

scientific input, a network of 9 FRAs was proposed by a

community-based group, the West Hawai’i Fishery Council. In

1998 we began monitoring 23 study sites to evaluate changes

in abundance and community structure as the reserve system is

implemented. After 5 years, our goal is to maximize fishery

production by modifying the design of the network based upon

community input and our findings..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D1: GCRMN & ReefCheck

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THE CORALS AT CON DAO ARCHIPELAGO (SOUTH

VIETNAM) –BEFORE, DURING AND AFTER THE

BLEACHING EVENT IN 1998

Tuan, Vo Si* *Institute of Oceanography Nha Trang

Vietnam. Email: thuysinh@dng.vnn.vn

Reef Check with more detail records was used to monitor

variation of coral community Con Dao archipelago. By April

1998, exposed reefs showed major hard coral cover loss (up to

100%) due to the typhoon, while repeated surveys of 6 sites

not hit by the typhoon revealed that high coral cover was still

present. Follow-up surveys in October 1998 coincided with the

world-wide bleaching event. The frequency of coral colonies

suffering bleaching ranged from 0 to 74.2% (n=11 sites) with a

mean value of 37% including 10.8% considered as mortality

up to this time. The soft coral Sinularia was most affected by

bleaching with almost 100% colonies bleached and then the

fire coral Millepora (83%). The hard corals belonging to

strong impact group included Porites (57%), Symphyllia

(42%), Leptastrea (40%), …and also Acropora. Contrarily,

there was no bleaching among 45 Galaxea colonies observed.

In July 1999, most reefs showed recovery with some new

recruits evident, but coral abundance was less than that before

bleaching. The long-term influence was significant for massive

corals, especially big Porites colonies.

SCIENTIFIC IMPLICATIONS OF MONITORING

CORAL REEFS FOR SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOOD

DEVELOPMENT IN POOR COUNTRIES;

EXPERIENCES IN SOUTH ASIA.

Whittingham, Emma* & Rubens, Jason. *Global Coral

Reef Monitoring Network South Asia, 48 Vajira Road,

Colombo 5, Sri Lanka. Email: reefmonitor@eureka.lk

Coral reef monitoring protocols have generally been

designed by scientists from developed countries where

academic perspectives govern research and monitoring,

funding is relatively plentiful, and subsistence livelihoods are

not a priority concern. However in developing countries where

most coral reefs occur, funds and staff resources for coral reef

assessment and monitoring are often very scarce, and are

strongly tied to sustainable livelihood development objectives.

Therefore changes may be required to match scientific

monitoring designs to the needs and capacity of developing

countries. The problem is acute in South Asia where over two

and a quarter million, mostly poor, people live in direct

proximity to coral reefs and depend wholly or partly on direct

use of coral reef resources. Development priorities and the

shortage of resources both support a case for de-centralising

research activities to community level officers, NGOs and

community groups. This serves both to reduce costs and to

promote awareness amongst resource users. However, in doing

so there is likely to be a compromise in the reliability and

resolution of data collected. Since quality scientific

information is still at a premium amongst donors and

governments, such community approaches must still be

balanced with orthodox specialist research. With the above

perspective to the fore, this paper will present the experiences

of the past 3 years in developing a coral reef monitoring

network in India, Sri Lanka and the Maldives.

CORDIO: REPORTS OF CORAL REEF

DEGRADATION IN SOUTH ASIA

Wilhelmsson Dan*, *SACEP, 10 Anderson Road, Colombo

5. Email: dan.wilhelmsson@cordio.org

The reefs of South Asia were severely degraded by the

bleaching event of 1998, with subsequent mortality of corals

ranging between 50% and 100%. In early 1999, the CORDIO

program was launched to determine the ecological and socio-economic

effects of coral reef degradation in the Indian Ocean.

The South Asian component of CORDIO includes activities in

India, Sri Lanka and Maldives and is co-ordinated from a

regional office (SACEP) in Colombo. Biophysical monitoring

of the reefs is combined with research focussed on recruitment

patterns of corals, rate of erosion of the reef framework and

changes in community structure of coral reefs. Also, socio-economic

studies were conducted to determine the impacts of

coral reef degradation on fisheries and tourism. In addition,

projects investigating alternative livelihoods for people

dependant on coral reefs, such as fishermen and ornamental

fish collectors, are being conducted. Already, research has

identified ecological and economic effects resulting from coral

reef degradation in South Asia. Reef surveys conducted during

1999 and early in 2000 recorded some coral recruitment, but

many areas still show no signs of recovery. Changes in fish

communities have also been reported in some areas, such as in

Sri Lanka where a dramatic decrease in the number of butterfly

fish has been recorded. Declines in tourism are likely to be

most pronounced in the Maldives, where dive tourism

contributes approximately 20% to the GNP. Surveys have

already indicated economic losses attributable to reef

degradation. This paper presents the activities and results

obtained during the first year of the CORDIO program in

South Asia.

THE QUIKSILVER CROSSING AND CORPORATE

SPONSORSHIP FOR REEF CHECK

Willcox, K.* *Quiksilver International Pty. Ltd., 303

Barrenjoey Road, Newport Beach, NSW, 2106, Australia.

Email: kirk.willcox@quiksilver.com.au

“The quiksilver crossing” is a unique surfing, scientific and

cultural expedition to remote coral reefs sponsored and

managed by quiksilver international, a boardriding company.

The crossing, which started in march 1999, involves a series of

voyages of the motor vessel indies trader within 21 degrees of

the equator, with the primary purpose of finding new surfing

locations. As an environmentally responsible corporation with

an ocean focus, quiksilver also seeks to educate surfers and the

public about the value of conservation of the marine

environment, especially coral reefs. Quiksilver thus sponsors

reef check scientists to travel on the ship to carry out surveys

on the health of remote reefs. Data from such locations isolated

from most human influences are critical to determining

baseline conditions at reefs elsewhere. The scientists also train

surfers and local island residents in basic reef ecology and reef

check methods. A website (www.quiksilver.com), films

(including a 13-part national geographic/southern star

entertainment television series) and videos document the

expedition and disseminate what is learned throughout the

world. When seeking corporate sponsorship, it is helpful to

contact companies with an overlapping interest such as the

ocean, the environment, sports or education. The corporate

sponsor should also be able to generate some positive public

relations from the sponsored activity. Innovative sponsorship

methods such as granting permission to use the reef check logo

can help the corporation see a direct benefit of sponsorship..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D1: GCRMN & ReefCheck

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THE STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE NORTHERN

CARIBBEAN & WESTERN ATLANTIC.

Woodley, Jeremy * , Pedro M. Alcolado, Timothy Austin,

Rodolfo Claro-Madruga, Gina Ebanks-Petrie, Reynaldo

Estrada, Francisco X. Geraldes, Floyd Homer, Eleanor

Phillips, David Shim, Kathleen Sullivan, Monica B. Vega,

Jean Wiener. Centre for Marine Sciences, University of the

West Indies (Mona), Kingston 7, Jamaica W.I.

<woodley@uwimona.edu.jm>

Deterioration of reef resources is reported from all countries.

The most extensive direct human impact is over-fishing; acute

in Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic, where narrow

fringing reefs are easily accessible. Reef fish stocks dispersed

over broad shelves are less depleted, as in Cuba and,

especially, in the Bahamas and the Turks & Caicos Islands.

Higher standards of living in the Cayman Islands and Bermuda

result in less fishing pressure. Mass mortality of the sea-urchin

Diadema antillarum, throughout the region in 1983, resulted in

excessive growth of macroalgae, especially where over-fishing

had already depleted herbivores. This, and white-band disease

in the Acropora spp, led to catastrophic declines in coral cover;

notably in Jamaica, but there has been some recovery in recent

years. In 1998, coral bleaching was severe in Cayman and

Cuba, but mortality seems to have been low. Sediment run-off

and nutrient pollution are especially prevalent in the three high

islands. Careless coastal development for tourism has

impacted reefs in most countries, while increasing pressures of

diving tourism are apparent in Cayman and the Turks &

Caicos Islands. There is increasing local awareness of the need

for coastal conservation, and all countries, except Haiti, have

declared Marine Protected Areas. There is generally little

enforcement of conservation laws, and most agencies need

more resources, trained personnel and political support.

REPORT ON ICRI/GCRMN ACTIVITIES IN JAPAN.

Yoshinaka, Atsuhiro*. *Nature Conservation Bureau, The

Environment Agency of JAPAN, 1-2-2, Kasumigaseki,

Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan. Email:

NAOKO_NAKAJIMA@eanet.go.jp

Japan has been continuously committing the International

Coral Reef Initiative(ICRI) activities since the beginning of the

Initiative. Especially, in order to promote ICRI activities in

East Asian Sea Region, we organized and/or co-organized

workshops, training courses, conferences etc. such as follows,

with co-operation with other Countries, international

organizations, NGOs, and etc.

1995-: JICA Training Courses for Coral Reef Conservation

1996-:Development of Management Plan of Tubbataha Reef

1997: The 2 nd Regional Workshop for the East Asian

Seas(Okinawa) GCRMN Socio-Economic Workshop (Bolinao,

Philippine)

1999: Training Course in Global Coral Reef Monitoring

Techniques (Vietnam)

In order to promote Global Coral Reef Monitoring

Network(GCRMN), which is recognized as one of the primary

activities of ICRI, we established "International Coral Reef

Research and Monitoring Centre" in Okinawa Prefecture, so

that it may work as a "node" in East Asian Sea Region. Based

on the Centre, we have started Coral Reef Monitoring Surveys

(CRMS) to know the present situation around coral reefs in

Japan with Government-level, Public-level and Researcher-level

Monitoring Surveys. The Centre also has started

collecting references, reports, monographs, and documents on

Coral Reefs especially in the Region and plans to send the

information on them as well as the results of CRMS globally

through Internet and publications..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D2: Experimental Design

REHABILITATION

Session D2: Central Questions, Experimental Design and Methods of Long Term

Monitoring Programs

218

IDENTIFICATION OF CHANGE IN MULTI-SPECIES

ASSEMBLAGES OF CORAL REEF FISHES.

Anderson, Marti J. and Angus A. Thompson* Australian

Institute of Marine Science, PMB # 3 Townsville MC.

Queensland, Australia 4810. a.thompson@aims.gov.au

Coral reef fish communities typically have many species,

most of which are locally rare. This presents considerable

problems for univariate statistical analysis of both spatial and

temporal dynamics. A common solution is to group species

into a higher taxonomic or functional level to reduce the

prevalence of zeros in the data matrix. Such groupings will

likely desensitise the analysis by obscuring species level

response to factors of interest. By nature large-scale

ecological monitoring studies require a broad taxonomic

coverage as impacts are often unpredictable in origin and

effect. In the context of monitoring for change, we present

examples of a multivariate approach that tests the observed

location of a community in multivariate space against that

expected under the hypothesis of no change. We expect that

this novel approach will have general application to any multi-species

environmental monitoring program.

ADVANCES IN REEF FISH MONITORING AND

ASSESSMENT IN THE FLORID KEYS.

Bohnsack, J.A.*, Ault, Jerry S. and Smith, Steven G.

*Southeast Fisheries Science Center, NOAA Fisheries, 75

Virginia Beach Dr., Miami, FL 33149 USA. Email:

Jim.Bohnsack@noaa.gov

Reef fish monitoring of species presence, abundance, and

sizes has been conducted in the Florida Keys, USA for over 20

years using the circular plot sample technique with a centrally

located stationary diver described by Bohnsack and Bannerot

in 1986. Statistical power has been significantly improved by

using a habitat-based stratified random sample design in which

effort is allocated based on sample variance. Other

improvements involve sampling more sites with fewer samples

per site, combining data for buddy pairs for analysis, and using

nitrox for divers. These changes have significantly increased

the sample size, geographical coverage, and habitat types that

can be monitored. Further technological developments could

potentially increase the accuracy of size estimates and biomass

projections. This monitoring is being used to evaluate habitat

importance to individual species, changes in reef fish

communities due to no-take protection, and regional changes

in management and water quality. In addition, the fishery-independent

data generated can be used to do traditional

fishery stock assessments with several advantages over using

only fishery-dependent data.

CENTRAL QUESTIONS IN CORAL REEF

MONITORING: A SYNTHESIS OF ECOLOGICAL

CONCEPTS AND INTEGRATION WITH

MANAGEMENT NEEDS.

Brosnan D.M.* Sustainable Ecosystems Institute, 0605 SW

Taylors Ferry Road, Portland Oregon 97219 USA. e-mail

brosnan@sei.org

Over the past decade, the status and fate of coral reefs has

emerged as a critical issue in conservation science. As a result,

reefs are being monitored at an unprecedented scale by

academic scientists, policy makers, and conservation groups.

How each group views monitoring is a reflection of their

training, profession, and goals. All share a common aim, an

understanding of the factors affecting coral reefs and a

framework for their conservation. Monitoring is both a

scientific endeavor and a tool to inform management decisions.

This dual nature has frequently led to intense debate over

which methods and designs to use. This in turn has often

obscured the central questions surrounding monitoring. Our

goal is to focus on the relationship between the questions

(scientific and management) and the methods used, in order to

move towards a more predictive and question-driven approach.

Bringing together the results from the simple volunteer

approaches to sophisticated scientific programs, we can now

focus on a more synthetic approach. Our aim is a review and

synthesis that addresses: 1. What are the main scientific and

management questions? 2. Is current experimental design

sufficient to address the proposed questions? 3. Can we

develop a question-driven decision tree that provides guidance

on methodologies and experimental design? 4. How do we

develop a synthesis of ecological concepts and monitoring

goals?

CHANGES OF CORAL COMMUNTIES ON THE

FRINGING REEFS IN SOUTHERN TAIWAN: 1987-1999

Dai, C.-F.*. *Institute of Oceanography, National Taiwan

University, Taipei 106, Taiwan, R. O. C. Email:

corallab@ccms.ntu.edu.tw

Coral communities at six sites (Wanlitung, Hongchai,

Maobitou, Houbihu, Tiaoshi, and Hsiang-chiaowan) in

southern Taiwan were resurveyed in 1999 and comparisons

with the data obtained in 1987 were made to illustrate the

changes of coral communities. The results show that

significant changes of coral communities have occurred at

three sites (Wanlitung, Hongchai and Tiaoshi). These changes

include decreases in species richness, number of coral

colonies, living coral cover, and species diversity. Species

composition of the communities has also changed with the

relative abundance of branching corals (such as Acropora spp.)

decreased and those of massive corals increased. Possible

factors responsible for the changes of coral communities are

sedimentation pollution, mass production of macroalgae, and

extensive growth of sea anemones. Minor changes were found

in coral communities at the other three sites. These results

indicate that coral communities in southern Taiwan are under

severe stresses and protective measures must be taken to

prevent the degradation of the coral communities..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D2: Experimental Design

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219

BRIDGING SCIENCE, POLICY, AND MANAGEMENT

OF CORAL REEFS: THE KEY ROLE OF

MONITORING PROGRAMS

Griffis, Roger* and Turgeon, Donna. *National Oceanic

and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of

Commerce, 14 th and Constitution Ave. N.W., Washington,

D.C. 20230 USA, Email: roger.b.griffis@noaa.gov

Monitoring programs can play key roles in linking scientists,

policy makers, and managers involved in the conservation and

sustainable use of coral reef ecosystems. In 1998, the United

States embarked on an ambitious new effort to increase

protection, conservation, and sustainable use of coral reef

ecosystems for current and future generations. A critical part

of this effort is to develop and implement a comprehensive

national program to assess and monitor US coral reefs.

Development of this national monitoring program faces a

variety of challenges and opportunities. At present, there are

numerous monitoring activities being operated by various

governmental and private entities at local and regional levels,

but these generally lack consistent designs, purpose, and

comparable data sets, and leave wide gaps in coverage. This

program seeks to integrate existing Federal, State,

Commonwealth, Territorial, and non-governmental efforts into

a national monitoring network. The goal is to fill critical gaps

in the ability to determine and track the condition of US coral

reef ecosystems by expanding existing monitoring programs

and sponsoring activities that will lead to the establishment of

new long-term monitoring sites. This presentation will

highlight the challenges, opportunties, strategies, and current

status of this effort to develop a national coral reef monitoring

system that effectively links science, policy, and management.

THE X-FILES: THE USE (OR NON-USE) OF

SCIENTIFIC MONITORING DATA FOR CORAL REEF

MANAGEMENT.

Gulko, David A. Division of Aquatic Resources, Hawai'i

Department of Land & Natural Resources, 1151

Punchbowl St. Rm. 330, Honolulu, HI 96813 U.S.A.

david_a_gulko@exec.state.hi.us

A number of long-term coral reef monitoring programs are

currently on-going in the State of Hawai'i. Frequently, as part

of the grant review process, claims are made as to the benefits

of such monitoring to active management of coral reef

resources. Often the results of such efforts never live up to

these claims, in part due to a disconnect between management

and academic needs, and in part due to a system that

encourages the creation of technical reports which end-up

amongst hundreds of other technical reports filed away on

shelves somewhere. This talk will focus on the major

disconnect between a scientist's view of what and how

monitoring should be accomplished and a manager's need for

information that can be actively used to manage the resource.

It will look at the end products produced and their practicality

for use in active management of coral reefs. Focus will be on

topics such as the value of various levels of measuring change

(i.e. detecting change at a precision level far above the level at

which the resource is actively managed), the difference

between watching an event and determining its cause (i.e.

should one also monitor users and inputs?), and finally, the

cost-to-benefit ratio of such programs when weighed against

the need to manage resources with severely limited dollars in

the socio-political environment that currently exists.

Suggestions will be made as to how the current system might

be improved in order for scientific monitoring programs to

better support active management of coral reef resources.

CLASSIFYING CORAL REEFS FOR DIAGNOSTIC

MONITORING.

Jameson, SC*, Erdmann, MV, Potts, KW. *Coral Seas Inc

- Integrated Coastal Zone Management, 4254 Hungry Run

Road, The Plains, VA 20198-1715. Email:

sjameson@coralseas.com

The first step in developing a diagnostic monitoring program

using the biocriteria process is to design a classification system

for coral reefs that will determine regional ecological

expectations and reference sites representative of classification

categories. A classification system for coral reefs under United

States jurisdiction that includes ecoregions and classes of sites

is proposed. The classification system groups coral reefs by

physical and biological community characteristics such that

biotic responses are similar both in the absence of human

disturbance and after human disturbance. This system creates

only as many classes as are needed to represent the range of

relevant biological variation in a region and for detecting and

describing the biological effects of human activity in that

place. It is hoped that these groupings will give reliable metrics

and accurate criteria for scoring metrics to represent biological

condition and evaluate sites over time and place. The proposed

coral reef classification system is different than traditional

classification systems designed for identifying conservation

areas. Classification based on ecological dogma, on strictly

chemical or physical criteria, or even on the logical

biogeographical factors used to define ecoregions is not

necessarily sufficient for biological monitoring. One must use

the best natural history, biogeographic, and analytical

resources available to choose a classification system. Higher

level taxonomic and ecological structure usually provide better

guidelines for classification than focusing primarily on species.

THE CARIBBEAN COASTAL MARINE

PRODUCTIVITY PROGRAM (CARICOMP)

DATABASE.

CARICOMP, Linton Dulcie*. *Centre for Marine

Sciences, University of the West Indies, Mona, Kingston 7,

Jamaica. Email: dmlinton@uwimona.edu.jm

The Caribbean Coastal Marine Productivity Program

(CARICOMP) is a regional, cooperative project monitoring

attributes of the three main ecosystems, coral reefs, seagrass

beds and mangrove forests. Since 1993 twenty-two marine

laboratories, parks and reserves in 14 islands and 8 mainland

countries have collected data according to the protocols

outlined in CARICOMP Level 1 Methods Manual (1994,

1998). The data are stored in a relational database allowing

correlation between data parameters to be explored through the

use of queries. Example query outputs include the effect of the

presence of one benthic organism on the abundance of another,

e.g the density of urchins on fleshy algae or hard coral %

cover. CARICOMP data showed generally that high urchin

density was not correlated with low % cover by fleshy algae or

high % cover by hard corals, though at the Discovery Bay site

(Jamaica) there was some correlation between high urchin

density and low % cover by fleshy algae. Physical data queries

can highlight coral reef stations with high seawater

temperatures allowing prediction of future bleaching events.

Other queries can explore possible relationships between

particular coral species and high seawater turbidity, indicating

tolerance of species to high sediment load. Extracting data by

coral species gives information on the relative abundance and

regional distribution, dominant and rare species and temporal

patterns of change in species abundance, suggesting possible

tolerance to anthropogenic stresses by species. This database is

an invaluable regional marine resource..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D2: Experimental Design

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220

SAMPLING STRATEGIES FOR MONITORING

BENTHOS ON CORAL REEFS: SIMULATION

STUDIES.

McManus John W.*. *National Center for Atlantic and

Caribbean Reef Research (NCORE) RSMAS, 4600

Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, Florida 33149 Email:

jmcmanus@rsmas.miami.edu

Monitoring can be viewed as area sampling in which the

characteristic of interest is the change in benthos over time.

The development of sufficient sample designs for monitoring

programs must account for variability in both space and time.

As the time scales of interest are often annual or longer, it is

difficult to develop guidelines for such sampling based solely

on field observations. In this study, I test a variety of sampling

designs using an automaton model. The model simulates the

growth and perturbation of corals and other benthic

components across grids of square centimeters over substrates

of tens of square meters. A range of simulated sample units,

deployment patterns and sampling frequencies are being

investigated. The results of these trials are summarized in

support of suggested guidelines for the design of benthic

monitoring programs.

MULTIPLE SPATIAL SCALE ASSESSMENT AND

MONITORING OF MARINE RESERVES IN THE

FLORIDA KEYS.

Miller S.L. *, D.W. Swanson and M. Chiappone. The

National Undersea Research Center, University of North

Carolina at Wilmington, 515 Caribbean Drive, Key Largo,

Florida, 33037, USA. Email: smiller@gate.net

The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS)

management plan features 23 relatively small (0.2-30 km 2 ) no-take

zones or reserves that were designed to evaluate human

impacts such as fishing, minimize user group conflicts, and

preserve many of the well-developed reefs in the Sanctuary.

The reserves provide a unique opportunity to monitor

ecosystem structure and function in the absence of fishing and

other extractive activities. We implemented a large-scale (over

100 sites from south of Miami to the Dry Tortugas), stratified

random sampling design (multiple habitat types in reserves and

fished areas) in 1999. The design includes a large and spatially

dispersed sampling scheme instead of paired site

measurements. Using the benthic habitat map for the FKNMS,

site locations were randomly assigned. Rapid assessment

surveys measured stony coral, octocoral and sponge species

richness; abundance measurements for stony corals (juvenile

and adult) and octocorals; percent cover estimates for sessile

benthic organisms and abiotic reef components (sand, rock,

rubble); coral size and condition measurements; rugosity; and

reef fish abundance and size. Unique features of the program

include the diversity of benthic taxa sampled, the suite of static

and process variables measured, and the linkage of essential

fishery habitat data with concurrent fishery-independent

surveys of reef fishes. Sample design statistics provide the

power to detect spatial variation within reef, among reefs,

between specific reserves and reference areas, and among

regional sectors that differ in physical setting. Large-scale

ecological patterns, and the potential changes in community

structure and function that result in reserves, link compelling

scientific questions with important management issues in the

Sanctuary.

MEASURE OF MESOBENTHIC REEF DIVERSITY: A

PILOT STUDY USING 3-DIMENSIONAL ARTIFICIAL

SUBSTRATES AS A SURROGATE FOR NATURAL

SUBSTRATA.

Robinson, J.L.* and Thomas, J.D. National Coral Reef

Institute, Dania, FL. 33004. Email: robinj@nova.edu.

While coral reefs harbor an extremely rich diversity of

organisms, the species diversity, in most taxa of reef-associated

organisms, is poorly understood and strongly

underrepresented in many ecological studies and monitoring

programs. Historically, biodiversity analyses in reef systems

has been coral, fish, and molluscs. This focus on spatially

obvious components in reefs creates a biological bias for using

organisms that may not be as informative as other groups such

as motile mesobenthic invertebrates, which may provide a

higher degree of information in monitoring coral reef

biodiversity. However, the lack of suitable non-destructive

techniques to collect data hampers estimations at these lower

trophic levels. We conducted a study of mesobenthic

assemblages in shallow-water reef systems incorporating 3-

dimensional artificial substrate units (ASUs). These units were

placed in two representative reef habitats (live hardbottom and

rubble) and collected at two-week intervals for one year.

Collateral measures of in-situ natural substrata were also

performed. Results are presented describing population

dynamics of mesobenthic invertebrates colonizing 3-

dimensional ASUs. The potential use of ASUs in assessing this

ecologically important, but little studied component of reef

systems will also be discussed.

AN EVOLUTION IN OUR APPROACH TO CORAL

REEF MONITORING.

Rogers, Caroline S.*. US Geological Survey, P.O. Box 710,

USVI 00830 Email: caroline_rogers@usgs.gov

The effort required to collect, analyze, and interpret high

quality long-term data from coral reefs has been seriously

underestimated. In general, monitoring has been less valued

than experimental research. There is now acknowledgement

that monitoring is a professional research activity that provides

the context for experimental research, and that some

information can only be obtained through long-term

monitoring or interpreted in light of long-term data. Initially,

my research team's objective was to try to differentiate natural

variation from change due to human activities on presumably

more "protected" reefs in Virgin Islands National Park. This

perspective changed after eight hurricanes, massive bleaching,

and widespread disease epidemics! Our monitoring program

has evolved to become more comprehensive, with a larger

spatial scale and more statistical rigor, as a response to an

unprecedented combination of stresses affecting reef resources.

We feel an obligation to provide information useful for park

managers. I believe that the overall goal of managers and

scientists is the same---a greater understanding of reef

ecosystems---and that the scientist vs. manager dichotomy has

been overstated. Many questions and challenges remain. For

example, how statistically rigorous must we be to learn what

we want to know? How can we conduct research over the

appropriate temporal and spatial scales? Coral reef assessment

is even more complex than people initially thought and is best

accomplished through collaboration with other scientists and

with clear objectives in mind..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D2: Experimental Design

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221

ATLANTIC AND GULF RAPID REEF ASSESSMENT

(AGRRA): A SPECIES AND SPATIALLY EXPLICIT

REEF ASSESSMENT PROTOCOL.

Steneck, Robert S. Robert N. Ginsburg, Philip Kramer,

Judith Lang and Peter Sale. University of Maine, School of

Marine Sciences, Darling Marine Center, Walpole, ME

04573. USA. Email: Steneck@Maine.EDU

Are coral reefs dying throughout the western Tropical

Atlantic; if so, at what rate? Are patterns of mortality related to

species, regions, population centers or specific human

activities? What, if any, agents of mortality correspond with

observed patterns? These are questions the Atlantic and Gulf

Rapid Reef Assessment protocol

(http://coral.aoml.noaa.gov/agra/), seeks to address. The

primary bjectives are to determine species-specific and

spatially-explicit patterns in distribution, abundance, mortality,

and size of major reef-building corals. Specifically, we record

percent cover, colony size, diversity, structural height,

mortality rates (recent and past), bleaching, and coral diseases.

High biomass macroalgae can smother reef corals, hence, their

relative abundance, canopy height and biomass are estimated.

Reef fish communities affect the structure and function of

coral reef ecosystems, so population density, average body

size, trophic structure, and species diversity of key species are

censused. Biomass estimates and population densities of

grazing fish and the sea urchin Diadema antillarum,

respectively, indicate herbivory. Reef monitoring is

accomplished by repeatedly applying the protocol on fixed

reefs, as done for the impacts of Hurricane Mitch and

bleaching in Mexico. Workshops and electronic data

summaries give reef managers and researchers free access to

the completed assessments.

CORAL REEF MONITORING PROGRAMS:

WORKING TOWARDS A SYNTHESIS OF SCIENCE,

MANAGEMENT AND POLICY.

Tissot, Brian*. *Environmental Science and Regional

Planning, Washington State University, Vancouver, WA

98686 USA Email: tissot@vancouver.wsu.edu

Monitoring programs can be used to effectively manage

human impacts. However, many monitoring programs suffer

from weak links to effective management strategies and from

gaps between state and federal policy. Problems with

sustaining strong connections between science, management

and policy include institutional barriers, traditional disciplinary

boundaries, lack of funding and scientific perceptions of

monitoring activities. The most important long-term driver of

monitoring programs is likely to be changes in technology.

Increases in the resolution of remote sensing combined with

increasing scale of underwater survey work will provide large-scale

data for ecosystem management. However, efficient

management at the ecosystem level will require better

integration of state and federal policy and cooperation and

collaboration among a wide variety of stakeholders. Moreover,

community-based councils are likely to play an increasing role

in resource management and require better integration of

community education with monitoring programs. In the US the

Coral Reef Protection Act offers an unparalleled opportunity to

mesh state and federal policy and establish a national coral reef

monitoring program. However, in order to develop an efficient,

effective and sustainable monitoring program we need to

conduct a comprehensive review and synthesis of existing

long-term programs, identify gaps in information, and develop

a greater integration of ecological concepts into experimental

design.

STATUS AND TRENDS IN CORAL REEF

ECOSYSTEMS—A NEW US INITIATIVE

Turgeon, Donna D.*. *Center for Coastal Monitoring and

Assessments, National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science,

National Ocean Service, NOAA, 1305 East-West Highway,

Silver Spring, MD 20910 USA, Email:

donna.turgeon@noaa.gov

In 1998, the United States established new policies to

conserve and protect US coral reef ecosystems that initiated a

variety of significant activities to map, monitor, and manage

US coral reefs. One of these activities is the development of a

national program to assess, inventory, and monitor US coral

reef ecosystems, and report to the nation biennially on the

status and trends of US coral reef ecosystems. Beginning in

2000, this multi-disciplinary, multi-partner effort is

implementing a monitoring network and assessment of coral

reef resources nationwide. Assessment reports have been

prepared on the condition of coral reef resources from nine US

State, Commonwealth, and Territories (i.e., Hawai‘i, Guam,

American Samoa, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana

Islands, Florida, Texas, the US Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico,

and Navassa). This and other information has been used to

prepare an Initial Report on the Status of US Coral Reef

Ecosystems. The first report on the condition of US coral reefs

is now available and has been incorporated into the GCRMN

World 2000 report. This presentation will highlight findings

from the initial US report.

WHAP! THE WEST HAWAI`I AQUARIUM PROJECT.

Walsh, William J. *, Tissot, Brian N. Hallacher, Leon E..

*Hawai`i Division of Aquatic Resources, 88-1610

Mamalahoa Hwy. Captain Cook, HI 96704 USA. Email:

DARkona@interpac.net

Commercial aquarium collecting has been controversial in

West Hawai`i for over 20 years. In response to widespread

perceptions of declines in reef fishes and to community

pressure, the 1998 Hawai`i State Legislature created a 235km

West Hawai`i Regional Fishery Management Area to

sustainably manage and enhance nearshore resources and to

reduce user conflicts. A prohibition on aquarium collecting

was mandated for a minimum of 30% of the area (termed Fish

Replenishment Areas or FRAs). A community-based fisheries

council proposed nine FRAs, which, with existing protected

areas, comprise 35% of the coast. WHAP is a collaborative

effort between university scientists and resource managers to

evaluate the effectiveness of the FRAs to sustainably manage

the aquarium fishery. Additional objectives include estimating

impacts of ongoing aquarium fish collecting, documenting

temporal and geographic recruitment patterns of reef fishes to

examine developmental dynamics and population-level

outcomes of a Hawai`i marine reserve system, determining

critical habitat characteristics for aquarium fishes in relation to

nearshore bathymetry, developing stock assessment data of

heavily exploited species, and baseline monitoring of

associated corals and selected invertebrates. A total of 23

permanent study sites have been established in FRAs, open

areas (impact), and existing MPAs (control). Visual surveys

are conducted bimonthly on four belt transects at each site.

Six complete baseline surveys were conducted prior to FRA

implementation and on-going monitoring will continue for five

additional years..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D3: Biodiversity

REHABILITATION

Session D3: Coral Reef Biodiversity: Assessment and Conservation

222

BIODIVERSITY MAPPING AND CONSERVATION IN

SULAWESI, INDONESIA.

Allard, Patrick J., *Collaborative Environmental Project

in Indonesia (CEPI), BAPEDAL Wilayah, Jl. Letjen

Hertasning No. 22, Makassar, 90222. Email:

pallard@evsenvironment.com

Indonesia’s archipelago is one of the world’s most

biologically diverse regions. However, with a rapidly

increasing human population, the exploitation of its

ecosystems and natural resources has been expanding and

intensifying. As part of their Collaborative Environmental

Project in Indonesia (CEPI), the Canadian government

completed a geographical information system (GIS)

assignment aimed at developing a biodiversity classification

framework for Sulawesi and applying it to specific case-studies

(the Bantimurung Karst Area, the Bunaken-Manado

Tua National Marine Park, and the Togian Islands). The

biodiversity classification framework was developed using

representative areas concepts based on ecosystem (or habitat)

diversity rather than species diversity information. This was

done for two reasons: 1) species diversity is difficult to define

accurately because it may involve different measurement

endpoints (i.e., richness, endemism, rare/endangered species),

and 2) species diversity information does not take into account

the ecological function of different habitat types. Work on the

representative areas of Sulawesi involved three steps: 1) the

systematic classification of terrestrial and marine bioregions

based on habitat types, biogeography, and uniqueness (e.g.

spawning grounds, nesting sites); 2) a review of the

anthropogenic threats and current levels of protection relevant

to each bioregion; and, 3) the identification of a number of

potential representative areas (PRAs) based on their capacity

to represent the biodiversity of Sulawesi.

INDO-PACIFIC CORAL REEF FISHES AS

INDICATORS OF CONSERVATION HOTSPOTS.

Allen, Gerald R *. Conservation International, 2501 M

Street, NW, Suite 200, Washington, DC 20037, USA.

Email: fish@multiline.com.au

The concept of “hotspots” or threatened areas of

extraordinary endemism and/or biodiversity has been

effectively used to target conservation priorities, although it

has been applied mainly to terrestrial systems. In the present

study coral reef fishes are used as general hotspot indicators in

the Indo-Pacific region. A zoogeographic analysis involving

2051 species reveals 46 sites of local endemism, as well as

elucidating regional trends. Locally, the highest number of

endemics are found in the Hawaian Islands, southern Japan,

Marquesas Islands, Oman, Lesser Sunda Islands, eastern

Andaman Sea, Palawan Island, and northern Red Sea. The

greatest percentage of endemic species in relation to overall

faunal totals are found at Easter Island (31.8 %), Hawaiian

Islands (26.2 %), Red Sea (12.1 %), Marquesas Islands (11.8

%), Galapagos Islands (11.1 %), and Clipperton Island (7.7

%). Additional analysis of published faunal checklists and

personal survey data reveals a detailed pattern of reef fish

diversity in the Indo-Pacific, centred on the Indonesia-Philippines

region. This pattern is corroborated by the

distribution of the 285 Indo-Pacific species of damselfishes

(Pomacentridae), one of the largest families of coral reef

fishes. The hotspots data suggest that Indonesia and the

Philippines are worthy of the highest conservation priority due

to their extraordinary diversity, significant endemism, and high

degree of threat.

A JOINT NOAA/USFWS CORAL REEF ASSESSMENT

OF THE U.S. LINE AND PHOENIX ISLANDS.

Brainard, R.* Maragos, J., DeMartini,V., Wass, R.,

Parrish, F., Boland,V., Newbold, R. *NOAA Fisheries -Honolulu

Laboratory, 2570 Dole Street, Honolulu, HI,

USA, 96822-2396. Email: Rusty.Brainard@noaa.gov

In April 2000, the NOAA ship Townsend Cromwell

completed a joint NMFS-USFWS research cruise to conduct

rapid ecological assessments of the remote coral reef

ecosystems of Howland, Baker and Jarvis Islands and Palmyra

and Kingman Atolls of the U.S. Line and Phoenix Islands.

Two teams assessed the spatial distributions of reef resources

and characterized habitat along >100 km of 5-20 m isobaths on

upper reef slopes using diver-observers on towed sleds with

mounted digital video cameras. Observers alternated between

recording ecologically/economically important fish taxa (>30

cm TL) and recording only sharks and large (>50 cm TL)

jacks, maori wrasse, bumphead parrotfish, and groupers.

Seventy stationary fish censuses were conducted. Detailed reef

fish surveys (roving diver and line transects) to document

species composition and relative abundance at sites differing in

wave exposure and coral habitat were conducted. Detailed

surveys of stony and soft corals, macro-invertebrates, and

algae also were conducted at most of the same sites. Observed

shallow reef fish/coral species were: 145/53, 160/60, 160/31,

200/110 and 170/102 at Howland, Baker, Jarvis, Palmyra and

Kingman, respectively. Algal vouchers were archived. One

permanent coral monitoring transect (100 m) was established

at each island/atoll. Oceanographic dynamics of these

ecosystems were described using closely-spaced CTD casts

and current profiles around the islands/atolls.

ECOLOGICAL AND BIODIVERSITY INDICATORS

FOR MARINE PROTECTED AREAS PLANNING:

CORAL COMMUNITIES OF THE SAUDI ARABIAN

RED SEA.

DeVantier, L.M.*; Turak, E.; Al-Shaikh, K.A. *JICA-NCWCD

Study, c/o National Commission for Wildlife

Conservation and Development, P.O. Box 61681 – Riyadh

11575, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Email:

coralfish@bigpond.com

Towards development of a system of large multiple-use

Marine Protected Areas in Saudi Arabia and the greater

Arabian region, coral communities of the central-northern Red

Sea coast were assessed in terms of cover, species diversity,

community structure, and representativeness – uniqueness in

1998-99. The communities were composed of ~ 260

scleractinian species forming four major community types

developed in relation to differences in degee of exposure,

depth and water clarity. Although coral communities on some

reefs (< 10 %) had been badly affected by predation or coral

bleaching, most reefs (~ 90 %) were in good condition, with a

strong overall positive ratio of living : dead coral cover (~ 6 :

1) and little local human impact. Ecological and biodiversity

indices incorporating attributes of cover, diversity, endemism

and rarity identified individual reefs and larger reef tracts of

special conservation value, with the Gulf of Aqaba, Tiran area

and Al-Wajh Bank forming important reservoirs of

biodiversity and replenishment. These are priority areas for

development of Marine Protected Areas, augmenting those

already developed in Saudi Arabia and neighbouring Red Sea

and Gulf nations..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D3: Biodiversity

REHABILITATION

223

BIODIVERSITY, ENDEMISM AND EVOLUTION OF

OPISTHOBRANCH GASTROPODS ON INDO-PACIFIC

CORAL REEFS.

Gosliner T.M.* *California Academy of Sciences, Golden

Gate Park, San Francisco, CA 94118, U.S.A. email address:

tgosline@calacademy.org

The Indo-Pacific tropics support more than three thousand

species of opisthobranch gastropod molluscs. The greatest

species richness is found within the reefs of the western Pacific

from the Philippine Islands, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.

Areas of high diversity and endemism have been traditionally

identified as regions of particular concern for assessment of

conservation priorities and hotspots. With increased

understanding of phylogenetic relationships of highly diverse

taxa, other important data are available for consideration in

determining conservation priorities: 1. Are endemic taxa

representative of basal or highly derived lineages? 2. Are

groups of endemic taxa the result of single instances of

adaptive radiation or are endemic biotas composed of

representatives of several different lineages within a

monophyletic group? 3. Are sister species of endemic taxa

found in relatively close geographic proximity to their sisters

or in distantly separated portions of the Indo-Pacific?

Phylogenetic studies of many clades of opisthobranchs

strongly suggest that Indo-Pacific representatives generally

form monophyletic lineages that the sister clades to Atlantic

and eastern Pacific lineages. This fact suggests that the Indo-Pacific

represents an historically significant evolutionary and

biogeographical unit. Different taxa within the Indo-Pacific

may exhibit radically different patterns of speciation,

diversification and evolutionary history, thus adding to the

challenge of developing unified conservation strategies for

preserving the diversity of life that inhabit the world’s riches

coral reefs.

BIODIVERSITY AND HABITATS OF THE CENTRAL-NORTHERN

SAUDI ARABIAN RED SEA: AN

INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT FOR MARINE

PROTECTED AREAS PLANNING.

Matsushima N. *, Khushaim, O. Suzuki, K. Tsubouchi, T.

DeVantier, L. *National Commission for Wildlife

Conservation and Development, P.O. Box 61681 – Riyadh

11575, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Email:

nmatusima@jwrc.or.jp

The National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and

Development, with support from the Japanese International

Cooperation Agency, conducted a large multi-disciplinary

assessment of the biodiversity and habitats of the central-northern

Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia in 1998-99, for future

marine protected areas planning. The study included

assessment of the biodiversity, present status and distributions

of marine turtles and mammals, corals, fish, algae and sea-grasses,

other benthos, birds, coastal vegetation and

mangroves. The results were used to ‘ground-truth’ detailed

habitat-maps (scale 1 : 50,000) prepared from higher resolution

aerial photographs. Socio-economic status and trends of the

region were also assessed and, with the above information,

incorporated in a customized GIS package to facilitate future

management. An index incorporating the biodiversity, habitat

and socio-economic information identified three key areas for

conservation, with high priority for development of Marine

Protected Areas. These should provide the foundation for

integrated coastal zone management cored by Marine

Protected Area Network in the Red Sea. These also should

augment MPAs already developed in other areas of the Red

Sea by Saudi Arabia and neighbouring countries.

THE GALAPAGOS ARCHIPELAGO: STATUS OF

ICHTHYOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE AND FISHERY-RELATED

PROBLEMS.

McCosker J*. *Cali forni a Academy of Sciences, San

Fran cisco, Cal iforn ia, USA. Email :

jmccosker@calacademy.org

The Gal ápagos Archi pel ago i s a l iving l aborator y for t he st udy

of m ari ne or ganism dispersal, endemism, and evolution, and mor e

recentl y, of human impacts on a li mit ed near shore ecosyst em .

The Gal ápagos ichthyof auna is fair ly well known t o - 60 m and

endemism is approxi mat el y 14- 16% ( sever al speci es ar e shared

wi th Malepel o and t he Cocos i slands). Recent sur veys to -1000 m

using submer si bles have increased knowl edge of the deep r eef

fauna and dept h distri bution of many shall ow water species. T he

ef fects of r ecent E l Niño events and expandi ng fi sheri es wi ll be

di scussed.

BRAZILIAN REEFS AS PRIORITY AREAS FOR

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION IN THE ATLANTIC

OCEAN,

Moura, Rodrigo L., *Museu de Zoologia, CP 42694

Universidade de São Paulo, 04299-970 São Paulo SP Brazil,

Email: rlmoura@usp.br

Considerable attention has been devoted to reef degradation

in the Caribbean region, resulting in an increase in monitoring

and research activities, besides a number of effective

conservation actions. The southwestern Atlantic (Brazil), on

the other hand, has received fewer local and international

attention, in part due to the smaller size and lower relative

species richness of its reefs. Nonetheless, these reefs have high

percentages of endemism (33% in reef corals and 20% in reef

fishes) concentrated in only 0.4% of global reef area, and

therefore constitute a global conservation priority. Alarmingly,

habitat destruction and coral reef degradation is occurring at

extremely high levels in the Southwestern Atlantic. Coastal

deforestation (less than 8% of Brazil’s Atlantic Forest is now

left) and urban pressure are dramatically increasing

sedimentation rates on all major Brazilian coastal reefs. With

a few exceptions, the existing Marine Protected Areas are not

equipped and prepared for enforcing fisheries restrictions and

monitoring programs. The small reef area of the Southwestern

Atlantic, together with the high endemism levels, categorize

this region as an Atlantic coral reef “hot spot”, deserving

immediate attention from scientists and conservationists..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D3: Biodiversity

REHABILITATION

224

ON THE STATUS OF GIANT CLAMS, RELICTS OF

TETHYS (MOLLUSCA: BIVALVIA: TRIDACNIDAE).

Newman, William A. * and Gomez, Edgardo D. *Scripps

Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, CA 92993-0202,

USA. Email: wnewman@ucsd.edu.

Giant clams, family Tridacnidae, have long stimulated the

interest and imagination as well as the pallet of man. The

family includes two extant genera, Hippopus and Tridacna,

represented by two and seven extant species, and five and one

extinct species, respectively. The extant species are presently

restricted to the Indo-West Pacific, with the center of diversity

in the western Pacific, but fossil evidence of the extinct species

and four extinct genera not only shows the family once had a

pan-tropical, Tethyan distribution, but a substantially greater

generic diverse during the Tertiary than it does today. The

reliction included total extinction in the tropical Atlantic

(Europe and Caribbean), and some extinction and range

reduction in the Indo-W. Pacific as recently as the Pleistocene.

Due to increasing human populations and concomitant

resource exploitation and environmental deterioration in the

Indo-West Pacific, some species have become depleted or even

locally extinct, so that current management practices include

rearing and re-introductions as well as some regulatory

measures.

BIODIVERSITY AND ENDEMISM IN THE INDO-WEST

PACIFIC REEF FAUNA: HOW MUCH AND

WHERE?

Paulay, G. *, Meyer,. *Marine Lab, University of Guam &

Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida,

Gainesville FL 32611 USA. Email: paulay@flmnh.ufl.edu

The Indo-West Pacific (IWP) has long been recognized for

its species richness, yet the extent of its diversity remains

poorly understood. Taxonomic compilations have led to

estimates of reef-associated diversity of generally <100,000

species. Several centers of endemism have been recognized,

especially at peripheral areas and the Indo-Malayan diversity

center, but emerging data from field-based and molecular

taxonomic approaches are changing our views of species

boundaries and ranges. Results from an intensive survey of the

marine fauna of Guam suggest that faunas of even well-studied

areas remain poorly known, and that small islands can host

several tens of thousands of species. Extrapolations via

traditional taxonomy imply IWP-wide diversity in the

hundreds of thousands. Emerging data from field-based

taxonomy and molecular genetic scrutiny however are

revealing an even higher provincial diversity of likely >1

million species. In a family-wide survey of the species-rich,

reef-associated gastropod family Cypraeidae, most wide-ranging

“species” are differentiable into numerous allopatric

taxa under genetic scrutiny. Narrowly distributed endemics

appear to be common virtually everywhere, and several groups

are comprised largely of patchwork mosaics of allopatric taxa.

Although hotspots of diversity and endemism remain, the

assumption that most archipelagoes virtually lack marine

endemics is not tenable. The endemism documented has major

implications for marine speciation and reef conservation.

GLOBAL PRIORITY REGIONS FOR CORAL REEF

CONSERVATION.

Roberts, Callum M.*, Hawkins, Julie P. McAllister, Don E.

McClean, Colin J. and Werner, Tim. *Environment

Department, University of York, York, YO10 5DD, UK.

Email: cr10@york.ac.uk

Coral reefs worldwide are under threat from human activities

and many are rapidly being degraded. The scale of the problem

greatly outstrips the level of conservation funding available

with which to tackle it. This means that scarce conservation

resources must be carefully targeted to areas where they will

have the greatest benefits. In this study we use information on

the distributions of reef-associated fish, cone shells and

lobsters, combined with data on the distribution of threats to

reefs, to identify priority sites for conservation worldwide. We

created maps showing the global distribution of species

richness and endemism of fish, cone shells and lobsters, using

an equal-area grid. This grid divides tropical seas into around

4500 cells of approximately 50,000km 2 (an edge length of

225km, equal to 2 o latitude at the equator). The grid enabled us

to compare patterns of species richness and endemism across

taxa, and to link such patterns to levels of threat experienced

by reefs in each cell. Threat scores were calculated from the

‘Reefs at Risk’ database developed at the World Resources

Institute. The results show a high level of concordance

between hotspots of species richness across all taxa, while

hotspots of endemism show substantial overlap between fish

and cone shells, but not lobsters. Conservation strategies

focused on regions rich in restricted-range species could have

much value in stemming loss of species. However, there is a

dilemma between whether to target the most threatened

hotspots or those currently in better condition and where long-term

prospects of success may be greater.

A NEW MODEL FOR IDENTIFYING EVOLUTIONARY

DIVERSITY IN CORAL REEFS USING MARINE

INVERTEBRATES: A SYNTHESIS OF GEOLOGY AND

BIODIVERSITY.

Thomas, J. D.*. *National Coral Reef Institute, 8000 N.

Ocean Dr., Dania, FL 33004 USA. Email:

thomasjd@ocean.nova.edu

While reports and evidence for large-scale change in coral

reefs and associated reef communities continues, scientists and

managers persist in viewing reef biodiversity through a narrow

lens of coral, fish, and mollusks. This constrains accumulation

of additional informative data from other highly diverse taxon

groups, especially small cryptic marine invertebrates. While

global networks of marine protected areas and similar

conservation and management tools are intended to ensure

long-term survival of coral reefs and associated habitats,

current efforts in this regard lack testable hypotheses to affirm

or measure the value of such actions once taken. Often, marine

protected areas are situated by socio-political process rather

scientifically testable predictions that attempt to “target” areas

of critical biodiversity. A new approach is proposed using an

overlay of plate tectonics and phylogenetic data from selected

marine invertebrates to define critical areas of biodiversity.

This model, based on identifying centers of evolutionary

diversification, can be readily tested using selected groups of

invertebrates. Initial emphasis should be directed at reef areas

where geological history and biodiversity data together

indicates specific location(s) and areas of reef systems and

events that may explain unusual patterns in biodiversity not

obvious from other methods. Such patterns include elucidation

of widespread paleoendemic faunas, high levels of regional

endemism, areas of composite biodiversity, and ex-situ versus

in-situ evolutionary patterns and processes..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D3: Biodiversity

REHABILITATION

225

GLOBAL PATTERNS OF REEF CORAL

BIODIVERSITY.

Veron, J.E.N.*. *AIMS, PMB 3, Townsville MC 4810,

Australia. Email: j.veron@aims.gov.au

Patterns of diversity of zooxanthellate corals have been

generated by combining the distribution ranges of all 793

recognised species. At the family level, there is no well-defined

Indo-Pacific centre of diversity and the Caribbean is

almost as diverse as the Indo-Pacific. At the generic level,

there is a well-defined Indo-Pacific centre of diversity in the

Indonesian-Philippines archipelago and the Caribbean has a

substantially lower diversity than the Indo-Pacific. At species

level, this centre attenuates progressively to the north and east

but is mostly uniform in the tropical Indian Ocean. The

Caribbean is no more diverse than a depauperate outlying

location of the Indo-Pacific. These distribution patterns have

largely separate explanations. At the family level, they are

mostly explained by continental drift and mass extinctions. At

the generic level, they are mostly explained by closure of the

Tethys Sea and the Central American Seaway. At the species

level, they are mostly explained by patterns of ocean currents

and changing climates. This is a progression of level of detail

from the family to the species and from the most distant times

to the most recent. Like the taxonomic hierarchy itself, there is

a progression of inheritance in explanations of distributions.

BIODIVERSITY OF MOLLUSCS IN THE INDO-WEST

PACIFIC.

Wells, Fred E*. *Western Australian Museum, Perth 6000,

Western Australia. Email: wellsf@museum.wa.gov.au

The distribution of 1268 species of molluscs in 10

geographical regions of the tropical Indo-West Pacific is

examined. The greatest diversity (745 species) occurs in the

“coral triangle”. Diversity in the Coral Sea is nearly as great at

708 species. Intermediate diversity occurs in the western (532

species) and eastern (524 species) Indian Ocean and the

western Pacific Ocean (503 species). The lowest diversity

occurs in the region between Lord Howe Island and the

Kermadec Islands (66 species), Hawaiian Islands (245

species), South Pacific Ocean (293 species), and the Red Sea-Persian

Gulf area (336 species). A total of 321 species are

endemic to one of the 10 regions. Similar numbers of endemic

species occur in the Red Sea-Persian Gulf (51 species), “coral

triangle” (49 species), and eastern Indian Ocean (44 species).

The fewest endemic species were found between Lord Howe

Island and the Kermadec Islands (4 species), and the central

Pacific Ocean (14 species). The combination of diversity and

endemism provides a powerful tool for determining where to

direct survey efforts for studies aimed at protecting and

conserving coral reefs in the Indo-West Pacific.

A COMPARISON OF CORAL REEF BIODIVERSITY

BETWEEN THREE SITES IN THE INDO-PACIFIC’S

“CORAL TRIANGLE.”

Werner, Timothy B.* and Espinel, Alvaro. *Conservation

International, 2501 M St., N.W., Washington, DC 20037

USA. Email: t.werner@conservation.org

The central Indo-Pacific has long been known as the region

with the biologically richest coral reefs, especially the “coral

triangle” which includes Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia, and

PNG. Between sites within the coral triangle, there is little

information indicating how species diversity and assemblages

vary. Between 1997 and 1999, a team of marine scientists

organized by CI inventoried zooxanthellate coral (Order

Scleractinia), fish and mollusc diversity in three different areas

of the coral triangle. Each survey lasted approximately two

weeks with an average of 43 sites inventoried across a mean

geographic area of 8000 km 2 . Sites within each area were pre-selected

to maximize habitat heterogeneity. Rapid assessments

at each site involved recording all species observed between

the surface and approximately 35m depth during 75 minutes

bottom time using scuba. Unknown species were collected for

later determination in the lab. The PNG location had the

richest diversity of fishes (869 species) while the area selected

in the Philippines had the highest species diversity for corals

(386) and molluscs (657). Mean richness by site for molluscs

(70 species) was highest in PNG, whereas mean richness in

fishes was greatest in Indonesia (175). Fish and mollusc

diversities showed a positive correlation with all sites pooled,

but when analyzed separately only in the Philippine location

was the correlation significant. Our results suggest ways to

improve rapid biological assessment methodologies and

recommend how conservation resources can be targeted to

capture priority areas for coral reef biodiversity..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D4: Restoration

REHABILITATION

Session D4: Coral Reef Restoration in the Next Milennium

226

CORAL COLONIZATION (SCELERACTINIAN) ON

ARTIFICIAL SUBSTRATE AT SIKUAI ISLAND

BUNGUS TELUK KABUNG PADANG WEST

SUMATERA (A CONSERVATION PLANNING FOR

DAMAGED CORAL REEF)

Abrar, Muhammad S.Si* : *Indonesia Association Coral

Reef Study (IACRS) Region I Sumatera. Email:

sanari@padang_id@yahoo.com

The study about coral colonization on different substrates

and temporal variation was conducted from June to November

1996 at Pulau Sikuai Bungus Teluk Kabung Padang West

Sumatera. Artificial substrates in the form of cement, tile and

iron size 12 x 12 cm was deployed at 5 metre deep at four

stations. Station I, was a sandy area, Station II, a sandy area

with the poor coral cover, Station III, live coral area with the

rubble of dead coral, Station IV, dominated live coral. The

result of this study founded six genera from three families

tehere being Acropora and Genus X (Family Acropoidae),

Pocillopora, Seriatopora and Stylophora (Family

Pocilloporidae) and Porites (Family Poritidae). The taxa of

coral settlement was dominated by Pocilloporidae, consist of

genera Pocillopora, Seritopora and Stylophora. There were a

total of 108 colonies on srtificial substrates within a five month

periods that is 59 colonies on cement, 29 colonies on tile and

20 colonies on iron. The cement plate could be consistant and

its can't damaged on the water volume. The period with the

highest abundace of coral settlement as September with a total

of 63 colonies. During September the weather conditions in

Indonesia change from the West Moonson to the East

Moonson called "Pancaroba Akhir Tahun". The highest

density of coral colonization was 0,41 colony/m 2 /month by

Pocillopora at September. The highest relative frequency was

64,28 % by Pocillopora at August. Diameter of these settled

corals were 0.7 mm to 3.1 mm. All genera were found on the

lower surface of substrate. The distribution pattern of coral

colonization was generally clustering and several genera were

not counted. Analysis of waters condition at Sikuai Island

were normaly and optimal for coral communities. This result

to be very important on aquaculture development project,

especially in the Coral Farming

CAGING STRATEGIES FOR REEF BASED GROW-OUT

OF TROCHUS NILOTICUS (GASTROPODA) IN

VANUATU.

Amos, Moses * and Purcell, Steven W. *ACIAR Trochus

Research Project, PO Box 71, Broome WA 6725, Australia

Email: spurcell@fish.wa.gov.au

Trochus niloticus (‘trochus’) has been overfished throughout

the Indo-Pacific. Intermediate grow-out in cages may be an

effective approach for restocking. In Vanuatu, 15-30 mm

tagged juveniles were grown over a 9-month period at varied

stocking densities inside steel benthic, plastic benthic and

plastic floating cages. Growth rates were highest during the

first 3 months, >4 mm month -1 in some cages. Benthic cages

on the reef were more problematic but generally yielded faster

growth than floating cages. The caging methods produced

different growth rates, which dif-fered over time. Stocking

density related negatively to growth rate. The findings show

that reef based grow-out is effective at producing sub-adult

trochus for restocking.

SOFT CORAL TRANSPLANTATION AS A MEANS

FOR REEF REHABILITATION.

Barneah O.* and Benayahu Y. *Department of Zoology,

George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv

University, 69978 Tel Aviv, Israel. Email:

oritbar@post.tau.ac.il

Transplants of the soft corals Dendronephthya hemprichi and

Litophyton arboreum (family: Nephtheidae), taken from

artificial reefs, were used as a means for reef rehabilitation in

Eilat (Red Sea). Natural attachment of the transplants of both

species to hard substrate, rather than using glue, was found to

be ideal. The overall survival rates obtained after 200 days in

D. hemprichi and L. arboreum were 20 and 14% respectively,

the first ever presented results for soft coral transplants. The

highest survival of D. hemprichi transplants (35%) coincided

with seasonal availability of phytoplankton (January-March),

which comprises its major food source. Therefore, it is

suggested that timing of transplantation is a crucial factor. The

advantage of using D. hemprichi transplants is due to their fast

attachment by rhizoids developing at their basal part. Rhizoids

appeared 4 days after removal from the parent colony and

reached maximum number 4 days later. Firm attachment was

accomplished within 10 days and the number of rhizoids

decreased thereafter. Light and electron microscopy elucidated

the cellular cascade of events during the attachment process of

D. hemprichi transplants and desmocytes were discovered to

be the main cellular component involved in it. This is the first

record of desmocytes mediating attachment to substrate in an

octocoral. Using soft corals, flourishing on artificial reefs, as a

source of transplants for recovery of denuded natural reefs is

thus a recommended practice for coral reef rehabilitation.

REEVALUATING THE FIELD OF CORAL REEF

RESTORATION.

Bowden-Kerby, Austin*. *Foundation for the Peoples of

the South Pacific P.O. Box 14447, Suva, Fiji Islands Email:

bowdenkerby@is.com.fj

The long-term conservation value of prevailing approaches

to coral reef restoration has recently been questioned. Coral

transplanting and substrate stabilization methods are generally

quite expensive and are thus of limited applicability on a

global scale. Coral reefs are complex ecosystems, however an

ecosystem approach appears to be largely missing from much

of the current work. As no adequate or generally accepted

definition of “coral reef restoration” can be found in the

literature, i define coral reef restoration as: any manipulation

of biotic or abiotic factors that leads to a recovery of coral

cover, biotic diversity, or ecological functionality in the

overall coral reef ecosystem. In addition to direct

manipulations such as transplanting corals, this broad

definition encompasses the management of fish, invertebrate,

and algal communities to correct for ecological imbalances

that have lead to coral reef decline or that prevent recovery.

The current state of the field of coral reef restoration is

reviewed in this light, attempting to more directly connect the

field to that of fisheries management, and modeling methods

more closely after natural fragment-based coral reef recovery

and development processes. Gaps in ecological understanding

needing more research are discussed in the paper. The

potential of low-tech methods to restore fisheries habitat

within marine protected areas or to restore coral cover to

former blast fishing areas is discussed as well, accelerating

resource recovery and amplifying the effectiveness of

community-based conservation measures..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D4: Restoration

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227

SURVIVORSHIP OF RESTORED ACROPORA

PALMATA FRAGMENTS SECURED USING WIRE

AFTER A SHIP GROUNDING IN PUERTO RICO.

Bruckner, R.J.* and Bruckner, A.W. NOAA/National

Marine Fisheries Service, 1315 East West Highway, Silver

Spring, Maryland, United States. Email:

robin.bruckner@noaa.gov

On July 23, 1997 the M/V Fortuna Reefer ran aground on a

coral reef off the southeast coast of Mona Island, Puerto Rico,

fracturing and dislodging colonies of Acropora palmata; the

grounding and vessel removal impacted over 6 acres of coral

reef. A primary, emergency restoration took place within two

months, during which 1857 A. palmata coral fragments were

attached to the reef substrate or to dead, standing A. palmata

skeletons using stainless steel wire. Fragment survivorship

and condition were assessed after 23 months and again after 31

months. During August 1999, 17% of the fragments were

identified as missing and 26% had died. Mortality was

attributed to sponge overgrowth, predation, disease, and

damselfish algal lawns, respectively. Living fragments (57%

of the total surveyed) had tissue covering 52% of the branch

surface; 23% experienced little or no tissue loss and 27%

exhibited signs of new growth (protobranches). Eight months

later few additional fragments were lost (<1%) or had died

(<1%) and 36% of the live fragments had protobranches.

Limitations of the wire included breakage and a low ability

(16%) of coral tissue to overgrow it. Low rates of natural

fusion to the substrate (14%), continued wire corrosion and

breakage, and additional periods of high wave surge may

hinder long-term recovery; these concerns have prompted

mid-course corrective actions to ensure that surviving

fragments remain stabilized on the site.

EFFECTS OF SEASON AND CORAL SIZE ON THE

GROWTH RATE AND SURVIVAL OF

TRANSPLANTED ACROPORA CERVICORNIS IN THE

CARIBBEAN.

Chilcoat, G.C.* Brazeau, D. and Fitt, W.K. *University of

Georgia, rm 711 Biosciences, Athens GA, 30602 Email:

gcc7314@arches.uga.edu

Pieces of Acropora cervicornis were transplanted in the

Florida Keys and in the Bahamas during four different seasons

in order to determine the relationship between size of the

transplant and seasonal growth rates and survival. Fragments

2-20 cm in length were mounted to PVC such that buoyant

weight and linear extension could be monitored seasonally.

The following questions were addressed: (1) Will the time of

year of transplant influence survival and growth rate? (2) Does

survival or growth vary with size of transplants during any

season? (3) What is the relationship between linear growth and

buoyant weight increase for each season transplants were

conducted? The answers to these questions are discussed in

terms of potential restoration of damaged or diseased reef

corals.

A TEST OF POST-BLEACHING RECOVERY USING

CORAL FRAGMENTS AS SEEDLINGS

Eakin C.M.*. *NOAA/National Geophysical Data Center,

325 Broadway, E/GC, Boulder, CO 80303. Email:

mark.eakin@noaa.gov

In a study designed to look at the use of fragments as a

recovery tool on a reef severely affected by bleaching, 8 1m x

1m plots were seeded with 25 loose fragments each of

Pocillopora damicornis and Pocillopora elegans. These plots,

located in two different parts of the reef at Uva Island (Pacific

Panama), were tracked for changes over 11 years. Similar to

other experiments using coral fragments, a large percentage

were lost in the first year. Survival rates over the initial 7

months ranged from 2-12%. However, subsequent losses were

low, and surviving colonies grew larger while suffering

mortality and changes in colony size throughout the

experiment. Losses of colonies well after they had become

established provides some indication of mortality rates that can

be expected in attempts to seed reefs after mass mortalities. In

regions with low sexual recruitment like the eastern Pacific,

such seeding efforts can be effective means of encouraging

recovery. However, without ongoing attention to replace lost

colonies, such efforts may have little influence on reef coral

cover. Results from this experiment will be compared with

other plots that have been tracked for community changes at

Uva Island and elsewhere.

CORAL REEF RESTORATION AFTER BLAST

FISHING IN INDONESIA

Fox, H.E., Pet, Jos S.; Dahuri, Rokhmin; Caldwell, Roy L.

*Department of Integrative Biology, U.C. Berkeley,

Berkeley CA 94720 3140 USA. Email:

hfox@socrates.berkeley.edu

One of the most devastating threats to reefs in Southeast Asia

comes from dynamite or "blast" fishing. Inexpensive

homemade bombs not only kill fish, but also pulverize coral

skeletons, leaving bare, shifting rubble fields. This study,

conducted in blast-damaged areas of Komodo National Park

and Bunaken Marine Park, Indonesia, tests methods to recreate

the structural foundation of the reef with stable, complex

substrate. Significantly greater recruitment occurs on the

experimental treatments compared to the bare, untreated

rubble. In shallower water (2-6 m deep), rubble is often

overgrown by soft coral and corallimorpharians. The survival

of hard corals in these soft coral fields is being quantified with

tagged juveniles, transplanted Acropora nubbins, and soft coral

removal quadrats. Although rubble is stabilized in the soft

coral fields, hard coral mortality is high. In addition, blast

sites of known age are being studied, with pre- and post-blast

analysis of community composition. Despite the blast crater

rubble becoming more stable over time, coral recruitment in

the craters has been slow. An integral goal of this research is

to develop a relatively inexpensive and effective method for

enhancing coral reef rehabilitation..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D4: Restoration

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TRANSPLANTING “AT-RISK” CORAL FRAGMENTS

IN VIRGIN ISLANDS NATIONAL PARK.

Garrison G.*. *Biological Resources Division, U.S.

Geological Survey, P.O. Box 710, St. John, U.S. Virgin

Islands 00831. Email: ginger_garrison@usgs.gov

The coral reefs of Virgin Islands National Park (VINP)

continue to sustain damage from a variety of natural

disturbances and human activities, with little evidence of

recovery of scleractinian corals. Transplanting corals to

damaged sites may initiate or speed up recovery, but the source

of colonies is problematic. Naturally occurring fragments of

elkhorn (Acropora palmata), staghorn (A. cervicornis), and

finger (Porites porites) corals, three of the fastest growing

Caribbean species, were taken from marginal environments in

the park and attached to stable substrate on VINP reefs.

Survival rates, growth, and causes of mortality are being

documented over a two year period for 60 transplanted

fragments (30 A. palmata, 15 A. cervicornis, and 15 P. porites

corals) and 75 control fragments or small colonies in naturally

occurring communities (45 A. palmata, 15 A. cervicornis, and

15 P. porites corals). After one year, preliminary results show

a highly dynamic shallow reef system, with similar survival

rates for transplanted and natural community corals. Mortality

was high in all groups due to unusually powerful storm swells

in January 2000 and predation by corallivorous snails. Growth

of transplanted Acropora palmata exceeded that of the other

two species. Transplanting “at-risk” fragments of A. palmata

and A. cervicornis appears to be a viable, low-tech method for

accelerating reef recovery without degrading other reefs.

COMMUNITY-BASED CORAL FARMING:

ECONOMICALLY VIABLE REEF REHABILI-TATION

AND LIVELIHOOD OPTION FOR FISHERFOLK.

Heeger, T.; Sotto, F.; Gatus. J. and M. Langevoord.

*Unversity of San Carlos -Marine Biology Section- P.del

Rosario St., Cebu City, Cebu, Philippines Email:

theeger@mangga.usc.edu.ph

The Philippine coral reefs are degrading at an alarming rate.

Overexploitation using destructive techniques is the single

most important factor in long-term habitat destruction causing

decline of fish stocks and catches. More than 1 million

artisanal fishermen in the Philippines compete daily for the

decreasing production of coral reefs and remain under the

poverty level. A new low-cost coral farming technology was

developed in Olango Island, Cebu. At present 62 scleractinian

coral species of various life forms have been farmed. Studies

showed that the fragmentation process is not hampering further

growth of donor corals. The fragments in the Coral Nursery

Units (CNU) grew for less than 2 to 4 months and were sold by

the fisherfolk for reef rehabilitation at an average density of 2

fragments per squaremeter (=12.5% cover). Coral species

selection followed the natural community structure of adjacent

reefs with good coral cover. The net rehabilitation cost of a

one hectare reef with 12.5% cover is US$ 2,100,-. Considering

the cash revenue of more than US$ 700,- annually for a hectare

of healthy reef, rehabilitation through coral farming may be an

option providing income for fisherfolk and enhancing coral

biodiversity.

INTEGRATED COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT OF

CORAL REEFS: DECISION SUPPORT MODELING.

Huber R.M.* *The World Bank, Environmentally and

Socially Sustainable Development Sector Management

Unit, Latin America and the Caribbean Region (LCSES),

1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433, USA. Email:

rhuber1@worldbank.org

Ecological economic decision support models can play a

critical role in the development of effective ICZM for the

protection and restoration of coral reefs. In 1995, work

commenced under World Bank Research Committee funding

on two streams of research: i) cost-effectiveness modeling of

management interventions (i.e., a question of the “supply” of

biodiversity as an economic asset); and, ii) marine system

valuation (i.e., a question of the “demand” for biodiversity).

The results are reported for the primary case study site –

Montego Bay, Jamaica. Total benefits from the Montego Bay

reefs are US$401 million NPV, with an estimated additional

potential benefit of US$70 million NPV through

pharmaceutical bioprospecting. The price (marginal benefit) of

the coral reefs is US$9.88 million/% abundance. Up to a 20%

increase in coral abundance may be achievable through the use

of appropriate policy measures with a present value cost of

US$153 million over 25 years. If economic efficiency is the

goal, both costs and benefits must be considered when dealing

with complex systems such as coral reefs. Marginal cost

function (least cost intervention study) in conjunction with the

marginal benefit estimates (valuation studies), allows one to

arrive at a global optimization. Optimization requires a 13%

improvement in coral reef abundance, requiring net

expenditures of US$27 million. Advice is offered regarding

policy applications and priorities for further research.

INJURY ASSESSMENT AND RESTORATION OF THE

R/V COLUMBUS ISELIN GROUNDING SITE: LOOE

KEY REEF, FLORIDA KEYS NATIONAL MARINE

SANCTUARY, FLORIDA.

Hudson J.H.* and Spadoni, Richard H. *Florida Keys

National Marine Sanctuary, P. O. Box 1083, Key Largo,

Florida, USA. Email: harold.hudson@noaa.gov

The purpose of this report is to document assessment

methods used to quantify injury to Looe Key reef caused by

M/V Columbus Iselin and to provide information on

restoration techniques and materials used to rebuild four coral

spurs excavated by the ship and a post-grounding hurricane.

An accurate injury map was created from aerial photographs of

the site, and excavation volume was determined by diver

measurements and high-resolution depth-sounder. Coral spurs

were reconstructed by using a barge, crane, and divers to place

quarried limestone boulders, fiberglass reinforcing rods and a

specially formulated tremie-pumped concrete. On upper

finished surfaces, exposed fresh concrete between boulders

was ornamented with randomly placed limestone rocks to

increase surface area and create a more natural appearance.

Both hard and soft corals will be transplanted onto repaired

spurs. Donor specimens will be collected from nearby reef

rubble areas and other sources as appropriate..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D4: Restoration

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HISTORY AND USE OF QUICK-SETTING PORTLAND

CEMENT TO TRANSPLANT CORALS: TWO

DECADES OF PROOF THAT IT WORKS.

Hudson, J. Harold*. *Florida KeysNational Marine

Sanctuary, P. O. Box 1083, Key Largo, Florida, USA.

Email: harold.hudson@noaa.gov

The purpose of this report is twofold: to show that a quick-setting

(hydraulic) Portland cement developed by the author

has long-term efficacy as a coral transplant adhesive, and to

describe its basic formulation, preparation, and application

under various environmental conditions. The hydraulic cement

described here was first used on a large scale in 1977 to

transplant 32 hard corals onto precast hollow concrete “coral”

domes. The cement was also used to grout the domes to

underling bedrock. After 23 years and a major hurricane, all

cemented corals and grouted concrete domes remain firmly

attached. Basic formula is 4 parts Portland type 2 cement and 1

part moulding plaster. Cement is combined with water and

mixed by hand to the consistency of firm putty, formed into a

ball and quickly applied. Both materials are inexpensive and

are available from large companies that supply cement and

plaster products to building contractors. This product requires

strict adherence to sound practices of storage, handling,

prepration, and application.

REEF REHABILITATION THROUGH

TRANSPLANTATION OF STAGHORN CORALS:

ARTIFICIAL STABILISATION AND EFFECTS OF

BREAKAGE AND ABRASION.

Lindahl, Ulf. *Göteborg University, Department of Marine

Ecology, Kristineberg Marine Research Station, 450 34

Fiskebäckskil, Sweden. Email: u.lindahl@kmf.gu.se

The staghorn corals Acropora formosa and A. vaughani were

used in experiments on reef rehabilitation. A newly developed

low-cost method for transplantation of corals was tested in a

shallow reef area with loose substrate and moderate exposure

to waves. To avoid dislodgement and abrasion due to water

movement the transplanted coral branches were tied to string

sections, which were connected at the seabed to form a grid.

This treatment created stability and improved the survival and

growth of the transplanted corals. The average annual live

weight increase was 56%, which was significantly more than

the control treatment with loosely placed coral branches.

Mortality was negatively related to the initial size among the

loosely placed branches, whereas the trend was reversed

among the branches tied to strings. Staghorn corals

transplanted on sand suffered severe mortality through burial

and smothering whereas corals transplanted to thickets of dead

standing corals survived and grew well. Branches of A.

formosa were experimentally damaged to simulate the effects

of breakage and severe abrasion during and after

transplantation. The growth rate was not affected by the

damage, and the results also show that the growth rate may

vary up to five-fold between different clones.

SEA URCHIN REDUCTION AS A RESTORATION

TECHNIQUE IN A NEW MARINE PARK

McClanahan T.R.* *The Wildlife Conservation Society,

Coral Reef Conservation Project, P.O. Box 99470,

Mombasa, Kenya. Email: crcp@africaonline.co.ke

Coral reefs degraded from heavy fishing may require both

fisheries management and habitat manipulation in order to

promote desired species of fishes and corals. This study

explores the effect of a large-scale (~100 m x 100 m studied

for three years) sea urchin reduction experiment in a new

marine park to determine the effectiveness of this method in

promoting the recovery of hard corals and finfishes and I

compare the outcome of this management experiment with a

previous smaller scale (~ 50 m x 50 m for one year;

McClanahan et al. 1996), but better replicated experiment.

Both experiments found increases in fleshy algae, estimates of

total finfish wet weights, and particularly parrotfish, wrasses

and scavengers biomass after the manipulation. Changes in

fish wet weights were smaller in the large compared to the

small-scale study which suggests a dilution effect with the

increasing scale of the manipulation. The small-scale

manipulation produced a loss while the large-scale

manipulation produced an increase in hard coral cover. In both

cases this appeared to be caused by an initial rapid increase in

fleshy algae during the first 200 days of the experiment.

Afterwards, fleshy algae decreased and hard coral increased.

The decrease in fleshy algae and increase in hard coral were

probably attributable to increased herbivory and seasonal

storms. The loss of algae combined with reduced sea urchin

grazing promoted hard corals. Sea urchin reductions in new

parks is a useful reef restoration technique but requires

sufficient fisheries restrictions, to promote commercial

herbivores like parrotfish, and time, to promote coral recovery.

THE IMPORTANCE OF EVALUATION,

EXPERIMENTATION, AND ECOLOGICAL

PROCESSES IN ADVANCING REEF RESTORATION

SUCCESS.

Miller, Margaret W.*. *NOAA-Fisheries Southeast

Science Center, 75 Virginia Beach Dr. Miami, FL USA.

margaret.w.miller@noaa.gov

The practice of coral reef restoration in the past has been

largely confined to replacement of habitat with artificial

structures and the transplant of coral colonies or fragments,

either borrowed from nearby populations or rescued from the

disturbance. Despite lip-service paid to “monitoring” in most

restoration plans, the rigorous evaluation of these efforts has

been, often, lacking completely and the declaration of success

is often based on the most rudimentary criteria (stability of

artificial structures or survival of x% of coral transplants). In

very few cases, restoration projects have been designed to test

the effectiveness of different restoration approaches (e.g.

structure designs) in enhancing the biological performance

(e.g., recruitment, growth, disease susceptibility) of key

organisms and, in even fewer cases, in enhancing community

function. However, these studies demonstrate the power of an

adaptive management approach to restoration; that is,

rigorously evaluating the ecological performance of alternative

restoration approaches in order to do better in the future. If

coral reef restoration is to advance beyond its current “build it

and they will come” paradigm, an experimental approach and

the evaluation and implementation of ecological restoration

measures built upon our understanding of reef community

processes and function must be pursued..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D4: Restoration

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ECOSYSTEM SERVICES IN THE TROPICAL

SEASCAPE: ECOSYSTEM INTERACTIONS,

SUBSTITUTING TECHNOLOGIES, AND ECOSYSTEM

RESTORATION.

Moberg, F.* and Rönnbäck, P. Natural Resources

Management, Department of Systems Ecology, Stockholm

University, S-106 91, Stockholm, Sweden. Email:

fredrikm@system.ecology.su.se

The tropical coastal “seascape” often includes a patchwork

of mangroves, seagrass beds, and coral reefs that produces a

variety of natural resources and ecosystem services. By

looking into a number of attempts at substitution and

restoration of ecosystem services (e.g. artificial reefs,

aquaculture in mangroves, and artificial seawalls) we address

the notably complex questions: (1) to what degree can

technologies substitute for ecosystem services in the seascape?

and (2) how can ecosystem restoration reestablish not only the

functions of direct value to humans, but also the ability of the

systems to absorb future perturbations? Substitutions often

imply the replacement of a function provided free by a solar

powered, self-repairing resilient ecosystem, with a fossil-powered,

expensive, artificial substitute that needs to be

maintained. Further, restoration usually do not focus on large-scale

processes as the numerous physical, biological and

biogeochemical interactions between mangroves, seagrass

beds and coral reefs. Nonetheless, restoration might be the

only way to facilitate recovery when the system is essentially

locked into an undesired stability domain after a phase-shift.

We conclude that ecosystem services cannot be readily

replaced or restored without extensive knowledge of the

dynamics, multifunctionality and interconnectedness of

ecosystems.

COMPARISON BETWEEN ARTIFICIAL AND

NATURAL REEFS.

Perkol S.* and Benayahu Y. *Department of Zoology, Tel-Aviv

University, Tel-Aviv 69978, Israel, Email:

sperkol@post.tau.ac.il

Coral reefs all around the world are experiencing substantial

decline, partly due to anthropogenic perturbances. Despite

increasing interest in alternative ecosystems, little is known

about the relationship between artificial reefs and their

surrounding natural environment. Initial surveys conducted in

Eilat (northern Red Sea) have led us to the hypothesis that the

species diversity and community structure on artificial reefs

are different than those found on the nearby natural reefs.

Community structure of stony and soft corals was

characterized using line transects conducted on two artificial

reefs and on adjacent natural reefs. Stony coral coverage on the

natural reefs was three times higher than on the artificial reefs,

while soft coral coverage was ten times lower. The older

artificial reef had higher species diversity than the younger (30

and 12 years respectively), and resembled the values obtained

for the natural reefs. Soft corals such as Dendronephthya,

Scleronephthya and Nephthea dominated the artificial reefs,

yet had a minor significance on the adjacent natural reefs.

Highest soft coral species count was found on the artificial

reefs, also contributing to their remarkable total living

coverage. These results are consistent with our hypothesis and

present the value of artificial reefs as a successful tool for

ecosystem rehabilitation, demonstrated by rapid colonization

and establishment of high species diversity. Consequently,

artificial reefs are attractive sites which may divert man made

pressure away from degraded reefs, by that helping to sustain

natural habitats and prevent their loss.

THE HISTORY AND FUTURE OF CORAL REEF

RESTORATION

Precht, William F. * and Dodge, Richard E. *PBS&J, 2001

NW 107 th Ave., Miami, FL 33172, USA. Email:

bprecht@pbsj.com

Coral reefs are in crisis. It seems evident that if we continue

the present rate of destruction, reef ecosystems will likely

suffer continued degradation, possibly to the point of

irreversible decline. Accordingly, the most appropriate course

of action is to replace damaged reefs with fully functional,

restored reefs at a rate resulting in no-net loss of ecosystem

value. To date, most coral reef restoration programs have been

focused on the physical damage caused by humans. In fact,

much of what we know about the rehabilitation of coral reef

systems stems from our work in repairing reefs injured by

vessels that have run aground. Although quantification of reef

restoration projects has been increasing, our level of

understanding varies greatly based on our personal

experiences. Finding appropriate solutions to a particular

damage scenario is hampered by a lack of quantitative

descriptions of the ecological effects of anthropogenic

disturbance on coral reefs and an even greater lack of data

describing the direction and rate of natural recovery.

Inasmuch, there is little basis for understanding what works,

what does not, and why? Hypothesis driven, ecological studies

are the only means of answering these critical questions.

Formulating and testing hypotheses about the response of both

corals and reefs to these disturbances, allows us to establish the

scientific protocol necessary to design and implement

restoration strategies (by setting definable scientific goals),

develop a baseline for developing quantifiable success criteria,

and determine the efficacy of the restoration effort. It is to be

hoped that these lessons learned will help to develop

successful restoration efforts into the next millennium.

SURVIVORSHIP, REGENERATION, AND GRAZING-ALGAE

EFFECTS ON TRANSPLANTED COLONIES

OF MONTASTRAEA ANNULARIS.

Sánchez, Juan A.*; Gil, Maria F.; Alvarado, Elvira M.;

Arenas, Olga L.; & Chasqui, Luis H.. *Dept. Biol. Sci.,

SUNY at Buffalo, NY 14260, USA. Email: js15@buffalo.edu

Coral reef restoration techniques usually include

transplantation of scleractinian corals. We conducted an

experiment with colonies of Montastraea annularis to study

survival of coral transplants. Following disturbance,

Caribbean reefs often undergo algal blooms that may prevent

coral growth. Therefore, corals were transplanted to an algae-dominated

fore-reef terrace (dead Acropora cervicornis

stands). In order to control for the effect of algae bordering the

corals we included a treatment excluding surrounding algae.

Grazing pressure was twice as great among colonies

surrounded by algae. Annual grazing rates were lower than the

rate of polyp origination. The time required to recover from

grazing increased with the amount of area affected. Net size of

the transplants oscillated over time but most colonies exhibited

net growth after one year. The plastic capability to recover

after grazing allows M. annularis to survive transplantation

even at algae-dominated areas..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D4: Restoration

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ANALYSIS OF THE CORAL REEF RESTORATION

FOR THE GROUNDING OF THE CONTSHIP

HOUSTON, FLORIDA KEYS.

Schmahl, George P.*, *NOAA, Flower Garden Banks

National Marine Sanctuary, 216 W. 26 th St., Suite 104,

Bryan, Texas 77803 USA. Email:

George.schmahl@noaa.gov

On February 2, 1997, the 187 meter container ship Contship

Houston ran aground on the Florida reef tract near Maryland

Shoal in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. This

incident resulted in significant injury to coral reef resources

over an area 650 meters in length. A major coral reef

restoration effort followed the incident to repair and mitigate

the injury. Three primary categories of injury were addressed:

1) corals that were crushed, broken or dislodged from the

substrate as the ship approached the grounding site; 2)

accumulations of coral rubble created by propeller action as

the vessel tried to remove itself; and 3) reef substrate fracture

and destabilization in the area which supported the weight of

the grounded vessel. A partnership between NOAA and the

responsible party enabled a rapid response and restoration

effort. Over 3,000 broken and dislodged corals were

reattached to the substrate utilizing hydraulic cement and

epoxy. A “liquified” epoxy was developed and poured over

the rubble berms for stabilization. A combination of flexible

concrete mats and large limestone boulders were utilized to

stabilize the fractured reef substrate. A natural “test” of the

restoration came in August 1998, when the category 2

hurricane Georges made almost a direct pass over the study

location. Performance of the restoration technologies used in

this effort was mixed. Reattached corals fared well, but the

stabilization effort required repair.

ENHANCED FORMATION OF PROTOREEFS BY

ACCRETION TECHNOLOGY AND CORAL

TRANSPLANTATION

Schuhmacher, Helmut; and van Treeck, Peter *Institute of

Ecology, University of Essen, D-45117 Essen, Germany,

Email: h.schuhmacher@uni-essen.de

Mechanical damages of reefs often result in and leveled

gravel fields inhospitable for recolonisation by corals.

However, a living reef nucleus can be formed within a few

years by combining a) the creation of an artificial reef

framework formed by electrodeposition of calcium minerals

from the sea-water and b) the transplantation of living coral

fragments (nubbins) onto this frame and cementation of these

nubbins by the precipitating limestone substrate itself. Ideally

the nubbins are taken from coral nurseries. The protoreef

community is successively enriched by coral larvae thus

serving at key locations as a stepping stone for further

recolonisation of wide areas. After the feasibility of the

technology has been proved first results of experiments run in

Ras Muhamed National Park (Red Sea, Egypt) are presented.

The combination of an ecologically unobjectionable

technology to create reef structures from the sea-water with the

option to transplant coral nubbins offers a huge variety of

applications for conservation and beyond that - for coastal

protection, recreational diving, and coral farming.

THE STUDY ON INTEGRATED CORAL REEF

REHABILITATION AND MANAGEMENT IN NORTH

SULAWESI PROVINCE IN THE REPUBLIC OF

INDONESIA

Suzuki, K.* *Social Development Study Department,

Japan International Cooperation Agency Shinjuku

Maynds Tower Bldg. 7 th Floor, Yoyogi, 2-chome, Tokyo,

Japan. Email: ksuzuki@jica.go.jp

JICA is now conducting the study on the Integrated Coral

Reef Rehabilitation and Management in North Sulawesi

Province in response to the official request made by the

government of the Republic of Indonesia. Needless to say,

Indonesia is composed of around 17,000 islands and their

coastlines are quite complicated. these coastlines are

surrounded by several kinds of natural environments such as

coral reef, sandy beach, mangrove, etc.Especially in the North

Sulawesi, around 350 species of coral have been officially

found. Unfortunately, coral reefs in North sulawesi have been

damaged by inappropriate natural resources use and spatial use

including illegal human activities such as dynamite fishing.

Therefore, it is indispensable to avoid conflicts between

natural preservation and economic utilization in the area of this

Study and to get involved with local government, local

communities including fisherman, local NGOs and others

concerned in planning for coral reef management. Under this

situation, this Study aims to formulate a integrated master plan

for conversation of coral reef ecosystem through sustainable

natural resource management from the perspective of

biodiversity conservation in close cooperation with the

Government of Indonesia.

CORAL RESTORATION PLANNING IN U.S. MARINE

SANCTUARIES.

Symons, L.* Benson, K. *National Marine Sanctuaries

Program, NOAA, 1305 East-West Hwy., Silver Spring, MD

20910 USA. Email: lisa.symons@noaa.gov

Lasting impacts of physical injuries to coral reef ecosystems

are well documented. NOAA has the statutory responsibility,

under the National Marine Sanctuaries Act (NMSA), to restore

injured resources and habitats within the National Marine

Sanctuaries. Under this mandate, NOAA has completed a

number of coral restorations from vessel groundings in the

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS). To

facilitate future restoration work, NOAA has undertaken a

comprehensive compilation and assessment of the available

physical and biological coral restoration technologies to be

approved for use in marine sanctuaries. The work will

encompass three marine sanctuaries (Gray’s Reef, Florida

Keys and Flower Garden Banks), and a broad range of

restoration activities. This document, along with appropriate

funds from litigation, will serve to significantly shorten both

response and restoration implementation times. In addition,

the effort will stand as a definitive description of the types of

coral restoration technologies and approaches NOAA can

implement in National Marine Sanctuaries and will serve as

guidance for other resource managers as well..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D4: Restoration

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CORAL REHABILITATION STUDIES IN THE

ANDAMAN COAST OF THAILAND.

Thongtham, Nalinee*, Panchaiyapum, Pitul; and Somlap,

Som-ying. *Phuket Marine Biological Center, PO Box 60,

Phuket 83000, Thailand. Email:

pmbcnet@phuket.ksc.co.th

The studies on coral reef rehabilitation were started in 1995

in some degraded coral reef areas of Phuket, Thailand. Two

studies were done, coral transplantation and providing artificial

substrates of different complexity for natural coral recruitment.

For coral transplantation study, effective methods for

transplant fragments of staghorn coral (Acropora formosa,

Dana, 1846) were evaluated, including handling, transplanting

techniques, survival rate, growth and number of new branches

were determined. Study on recovering of staghorn corals in

donor reef and transplantation of massive coral (Porites lutea)

were also done. For the study on providing artificial substrate

for natural coral recruitment, three different complexities, but

triangular in shape and 50*50*50 cm 3 in size of concrete

modules were used as settlement substrate. After 25 months,

the first monitoring found Porites sp. to be the most dominant

of the corals that had settled on these modules. The second

monitoring, made six months later, found that Porites sp. was

still the most dominant, but the fire coral, Millepora sp. had

the highest rate of survival. The number of colonies,

percentage and diversity of surviving corals were significantly

higher on high-complexity modules than on the less complex

ones. The results indicate that artificial substrate provided a

more suitable area for settlement and growth of coral larvae

than natural substrate. In conclusion, for the area that natural

substrates are no longer suitable for settlement of coral larvae,

providing artificial substrates could be an answer to coral

rehabilitation.9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D5: Remote Sensing & GIS

REHABILITATION

Session D5: Remote Sensing and GIS in the Study of Coral Reefs

233

COMPARISON OF SPACE SENSORS FOR

ESTIMATION OF CORAL REEF AREAS IN SOUTH

PACIFIC ATOLLS.

Andréfouët, Serge * , Julie A. Robinson, Gene C. Feldman,

Frank E. Muller-Karger, Chuanmin Hu, Bernard Salvat.

*University of South Florida, Dept. of Marine Science, 140

7 th Ave. South, Saint Petersburg, Fl. 33701, USA. Email:

serge@carbon.marine.usf.edu

A variety of remote sensing data, including Landsat 7-

ETM+, SPOT-HRV, SeaWiFS Local Area Coverage (LAC),

Space Shuttle photography and High Definition Television

(HDTV), were collected over various atolls of the Tuamotu

archipelago (French Polynesia). The objective was to assess

the accuracy of each data set in addressing: 1/ detection of an

atoll and estimation of its area, 2/ detection and estimation of

rim and lagoon areas, 3/ characterization of the structure of the

rims (4 classes) and main geomorphological lagoon features, 4/

characterization of the structure of the rims (7 classes) and

detection of hard and soft bottom in the shallow parts of the

lagoons, 5/ characterization of the structure of the rims (11

classes) and habitat zones (4 classes) in the shallow parts of the

lagoons, 6/ characterization of the structure of the rims (11

classes) and shallow habitats zones both in the lagoon and

outer slope. SeaWIFS data meet the first goal, but lacked

sufficient spatial resolution to provide better than 80%

accuracy for the distinction between rim and lagoon areas

(goal 2). Space Shuttle HDTV images and photographs were

useful for simple characterization of the rims and lagoon

features (goal 3) but could not accurately classify at more

detailed levels (goal 4 and higher). SPOT-HRV or

LANDSAT/ETM+ were useful to classify the rim structure

and simple habitat zones (goal 5), but did not provide

information on the steep outer or inner slopes (goal 6).

ESTIMATION OF CORAL REEF AREA FOR 82

FRENCH POLYNESIAN ATOLLS USING SPACE

SENSORS: A PATHFINDER FOR GLOBAL SCALE

ASSESSMENTS.

Andréfouët, Serge * , Bernard Salvat, Frank E. Muller-Karger.

*University of South Florida, Dept. of Marine

Science, 140 7 th Ave. South, Saint Petersburg, Fl. 33701,

USA. Email: serge@carbon.marine.usf.edu

Coral reef ecosystems worldwide are now consistently

targeted by several space missions. This includes the EOS

(Earth Observing System) LANDSAT mission, which has

collected over 3500 images over coral reef areas in less than

one year (1999-2000). The new data allows consistent

quantification of the spatial extent of “units” that can be

defined from an ecological, biogeochemical or economical

point of view. They complete the old, inappropriate and

sometimes inaccurate hydrographic maps traditionally used to

assess the extent of coral reefs in remote regions. This study

presents how estimates of coral reef area coverage can be

updated using recent LANDSAT 7 ETM+ images acquired in

1999-2000 or older SPOT-HRV images acquired in the late

80’s. As a pilot study, we focussed on a large sample (72

images covering 82 islands of various size) of one type of

geomorphological formation (atolls), located in one

biogeographic region (South Pacific), and associated to one

political entity (French Polynesia). Principles of the methods

of image interpretation, typology of coral reef formations and

statistics on surface areas are presented, as well as the

limitations of such an approach. This large-scale exercise

provides lessons useful for other similar studies that may be

attempted in other regions of the world.

ASSESSING THE EXTENT OF CORAL BLEACHING

USING AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND IMAGE

PROCESSING TECHNIQUES, GREAT BARRIER

REEF, AUSTRALIA.

Baxter, K*. *School Of Tropical Environment Studies And

Geography, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld,

Australia 4811. Email: KAT_MID@HOTMAIL.COM

Management authorities face difficulties when attempting to

monitor large scale disturbances, primarily due to the extent

and isolation of their jurisdictions. Remote sensing provides a

potential means of cost effectively monitoring coral reefs

across a variety of scales. Remote sensing techniques were

applied to high-resolution aerial photographs of two sites on

the Great Barrier Reef to detect coral reef bottom types and in

particular, coral reef bleaching. 1:2000 and 1:500 scale

photographs were classified to distinguish coral growth forms

that were (1) more than 50% bleached (2) 10 to 50% bleached

and (3) unbleached. Supervised remote sensing techniques,

which require ground truth data to classify with, and

unsupervised techniques, which do not, were applied. Both

techniques were shown to provide an efficient and accurate

means of distinguishing corals more than 50% bleached at both

scales of observation. The success of the unsupervised

technique illustrates the potential to rapidly assess severe

bleaching events with minimal ground truthing. However,

further research to improve the accuracy of the results is

required. Partially bleached corals were often incorrectly

classified as unbleached corals, at both scales using both

techniques. Without an understanding of why

misclassifications occur, the extent of bleaching can be over or

under estimated. Determining at which scale reef types are

best classified may improve accuracies and ensure the overall

health of the reef system is not misinterpreted.

PRELIMINARY RESULTS FROM A NASA

EXPERIMENTAL ADVANCED AIRBORNE

RESEARCH LIDAR (EAARL) SURVEY OF PACIFIC

REEF IN BISCAYNE NATIONAL PARK, FLORIDA,

USA.

Brock, J.C.* And Wright, C. Wayne. *Usgs Center For

Coastal Geology, 00 4 th Street South, St. Petersburg,

Florida 33701-4846 Usa. Email: JBROCK@USGS.GOV

Airborne hyperspectral passive sensors that offer distinct

advantages over existing satellite and photographic methods

have recently become available for mapping coral habitats.

However, submerged reefs present fundamental difficulties for

strictly passive remote sensing, which relies upon reflected

sunlight that is greatly attenuated and spectrally contaminated

during passage through the water column. Accordingly,

aircraft LIDAR remote sensing techniques are of particular

interest, as these techniques can acquire highly detailed

bathymetry and bottom texture, and water depths for the

correction of passive imagery, and can also stimulate and

detect the fluorescence of coral heads, algae, and other benthic

cover types. Following a successful test of a preliminary

proof-of-concept instrument in the spring of 1999, NASA built

the Experimental Advanced Airborne Research LIDAR

(EAARL), which couples a small field-of-view receiver with a

high repetition rate (5000 Hz), low power, short-pulse laser.

The NASA EAARL, specifically designed for low cost coral

reef investigations that require extremely high density

bathymetry and hyperspectral scanning for scientifically useful

benthic reef classification, was tested over Pacific Reef in

Biscayne National Park, Florida, USA..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D5: Remote Sensing & GIS

REHABILITATION

234

REEFS AT RISK IN SOUTHEAST ASIA – A SPATIAL

ANALYSIS OF THREATS, PROTECTION AND

CONNECTIVITY.

Burke, Lauretta*, Selig, Elizabeth. *World Resources

Institute, Washington, DC, USA. Email: lauretta@wri.org

The global Reefs at Risk analysis, released by the World

Resources Institute in 1998, concluded that over 80% of the

coral reefs in Southeast Asia are threatened by human activity.

Reefs at Risk in Southeast Asia is a more detailed follow-up to

the global report, utilizing new research to more accurately

predict threats to coral reefs. Implemented with many partner

institutions in the region, this analysis is aimed at developing

and making available an integrated base of information for

exploring threats to coral reefs, including an examination of

the link between human activities and reef condition. The

analysis models and maps threats from coastal development,

overfishing, destructive fishing, marine pollution, and

sedimentation from inland activities. In addition, the study

examines management factors and natural features, which

influence human pressures on coral reef ecosystems. During

the project, collaborators have improved data sets reflecting

coral reef locations, marine protected area locations,

management effectiveness, tourism pressure, and use of

destructive fishing techniques. These data, modeling

techniques, and results, as well as a written report will be

available over the Internet.

USE OF DIGITIZED AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS AND

AIRBORNE LASER BATHYMETRY TO MAP AND

MONITOR CORAL REEFS

Chavez P.S., Jr. * and Mike Field *United States

Geological Survey. Email: pchavez@usgs.gov

The U. S. Geological Survey is using remotely sensed image

data to help map and study coral reef environments. Digitized

aerial photographs and airborne digital SHOALS (Scanning

Hydrographic Operational Airborne Lidar Survey) laser

bathymetry data covering portions of the island of Molokai,

Hawaii are being used. Digital image maps with 1.0 and 0.3 m

resolution were generated using aerial photographs, as well as

a laser bathymetry image map with two m resolution and 15

cm vertical accuracy. The digital georeferenced image maps

are being used as a guide for extensive field work that includes

on-the-ground validation and interpretation of the information

seen in the remotely sensed data. The laser bathymetry and

aerial photography images show information to a depth of

approximately 35 and 20 m, respectively. Both data sets were

useful for defining geomorphologic features such as channels,

spur-and-groove, and reef holes. Areas covered by sand or

hardrock can be mapped in water depth less than about 15 m,

but information such as sediment cover and thickness,

presence/absence of live coral, and percentage of live coral

cover can’t be determined without field studies. The main

advantages of the remotely sensed data have been to locate

features on the reef, define the local geomorphology, and as a

geographic base to plot results. A promising application deals

with temporal monitoring of change. Using digitized aerial

photographs collected in September 1993 and January 2000 we

have detected changes in the amount of sea grass and sand

cover.

REMOTE SENSING AND GIS: DEVELOPING A

SPATIAL MODEL OF REEF-TOP HABITATS AND

MARINE INVERTEBRATES ON RAROTONGA, COOK

ISLANDS.

Drumm D.J.*. *Department of Marine Science, University

of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand. Email:

druda019@student.otago.ac.nz

Coral reef ecosystems are among the most complex, diverse

and beautiful ecosystems on earth and they provide many

commercial, recreational, aesthetic and environmental benefits

to humans. It is widely acknowledged that coral reefs are

subjected to numerous anthropogenic and natural stresses

resulting in rapidly increasing global degradation. In the

Pacific Island nations there is a priority for accurate mapping

and data collection to provide baseline information for

resource management decisions in the coastal zone.

Classification and mapping of marine habitats and their

associated communities is fundamental to management of the

ecosystem, yet reliable maps and baseline data on global or

regional reef ecosystems are rare. This study satisfies these

priorities for the island of Rarotonga, Cook Islands by utilizing

aerial photographs and a geographic information system (GIS)

to develop a spatial database of the shallow-water reef habitats

and invertebrate resources. The primary goal is to assess the

spatial relationships between the reef-top habitats and

associated macroinvertebrate species (i.e. sea cucumbers, giant

clams, sea urchins and trochus) distribution and abundance

patterns. The GIS provides the basic tool for the classification

of the marine habitats, sample design, and spatial analysis of

the species-habitat relationships. Aerial photographs and GIS

provide a valuable, cost-effective method for small Island

nations to develop high quality databases and long-term

monitoring programmes for their marine environment.

AN UPDATE ON THE SYSTEMATIC LANDSAT

7/ETM+ ACQUISITIONS OVER CORAL REEFS

WORLDWIDE.

Gasch J. * , Terry Arvidson, Samuel N Goward, Serge

Andréfouët, Chuanmin Hu, Frank E. Muller-Karger.

*Goddard Space Flight Center, Landsat 7 Mission

Operations, Code 428.1, Bldg 32 Rm W210A, Greenbelt

MD 20771. Email: john.gasch@gsfc.nasa.gov.

Landsat 7 (L7) satellite and the ETM+ sensor were launched

in April 1999. Routine imaging operations started in July 1999.

Although L7 was designed principally for land survey, the

coral reef science objectives have justified periodic imaging of

shallow coastal regions. Therefore, the Long Term Acquisition

Plan (LTAP) of the L7 program is directing the acquisition of

images worldwide as a support for research on coral reefs for

which a poor or non-existent coverage existed. LTAP was

created to acquire and periodically refresh an archive of sunlit,

substantially cloud-free scenes. Of the roughly 14,000 distinct

global scenes targeted by LTAP for routine acquisition, 878 of

these have been now identified as containing coral reefs,

including the ~9000 reefs in ReefBase V3.0. Many of these

coral reef scenes reach a high rate of acquisition owing to their

proximity to coastal land already planned for acquisition. As a

result, 70% of the reefs have acquisition rates of twice per year

or more, 65% have acquisition rate of 4 times per year, and

33% are acquired as often as possible (typically 5 or more

times per year). This communication will present the state of

the L7 archive as acquired in September 2000 (3500 coral reef

images in April 2000). Statistics on acquisitions and cloud

cover will be presented by geographic regions..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D5: Remote Sensing & GIS

REHABILITATION

235

MEXHAB: A MODEL FOR PREDICTING CORAL

REEF HABITAT IN THE TROPICAL WESTERN

ATLANTIC AND EASTERN PACIFIC.

Guinotte J.*. *James Cook University, Tropical

Environment Studies and Geography, Townsville,

Australia. Email:john.guinotte@jcu.edu.au

This study identifies potential coral reef habitat by

investigating the key physical and chemical controls that limit

coral reef development and survival. MexHab is an extension

of the ReefHab model developed by Dr. Joanie Kleypas is

1997. ReefHab used temperature, salinity, nutrients, and

depth-attenuated level of photosynthetically active radiation

(PAR) to predict the distribution of reef habitat at the global

scale. Both models share similar methods but MexHab differs

from ReefHab in two ways: (1) the scale of modelling, and (2)

the selection of an additional environmental variable. MexHab

models reef habitat at a spatial resolution of 2 ´ 2 minutes and

incorporates topographic relief as the additional environmental

variable that exerts a physical control on reef occurrence.

MexHab model results show a strong quantitative and

qualitative similarity to documented reefs depicted in two data

sources that are thought to be representative of ecological

reality: ReefBase and World Conservation Monitoring Center

reef maps. It is possible that MexHab false positives may

identify reefs that are uncharted and thus not included in

ReefBase or WCMC reef maps. This research indicates that

within limits defined by temperature, salinity, nutrients, depth-attenuated

level of PAR, and topographic relief, MexHab can

accurately predict coral reef habitat at the regional level. This

study represents the first quantitative attempt to use

topographic relief as a physical control on reef occurrence and

demonstrates that this variable is useful as a predictor of

potential reef habitat.

GIS - AN ESSENTIAL TOOL FOR EDITING AND

VALIDATING MARINE DATABASES.

Hartcher M.G.*, *GIS Australasia Pty. Ltd., PO Box 1583,

Townsville, QLD 4810, Australia. Email:

michael.hartcher@jcu.edu.au

As research funds become increasingly limited, it is essential

to validate and utilise existing digital databases, such as the

Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) data managed by the Great

Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA). Accordingly,

in October 1996, the COTS Program research staff at

GBRMPA began verifying the existing COTS historical

database by cross checking the digital data with paper records

on file. It was apparent that the database was highly corrupt

and most of the records had not been entered. Additionally, Mr

Bob Pearson from DPI Fisheries contributed some 25 years of

field diaries, which contain the original COTS field data,

previously only published as broad-scale counts. A new

database structure was then designed to accommodate spatial

information as well as COTS sample data, coral data, size

frequency data, oral history data, and world data. During the

process of editing, the use of GIS software was essential -particularly

for correct site identification using multiple data

sources. Using ArcView to integrate topographic reef data

layers with aerial photographs, satellite images, and scanned

maps saved time and improved the accuracy of site

identification. After editing, the COTS data was imported into

ArcView from Excel and spatially linked to the reef data layer.

Finally, custom query and zoom tools were set up to help

managers quickly access information about COTS outbreaks.

The final product, COTSbase Version 1.0, was completed in

March 2000.

SPECTRAL REFLECTANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF

CORAL REEF BENTHIC COMMUNITIES.

Hochberg, E. J. *, M. J. Atkinson. *University of Hawaii,

Department of Oceanography, 1000 Pope Road, Honolulu,

HI 96822 USA. Email: hochberg@soest.hawaii.edu

Successful remote sensing of coral reef benthos ultimately

requires that different communities of interest have

characteristic and distinct spectral reflecting properties. We

use a portable fiber optic spectrometer to measure in situ

spectral reflectance, R, for coral reef benthic communities. To

date, our spectral library consists of ~10,000 individual R's,

representing reef benthos and substrates from Hawaii, French

Polynesia, Fiji, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. We have

measured R for ~50 coral species, ~20 algal community types

(brown, green, red), and ~5 sedimentary community types

(reef-derived, terrigenous). Our analysis indicates that these

reef community types have characteristic R's that are consistent

across geographic locations. The distinctions of these

communities, however, are subtle, and thus resolution of

community types requires narrow wavebands. With this

knowledge of R for reef benthos, it is straightforward to tailor

remote sensing classification functions for particular

applications and sensors. We present two examples of such

algorithm tailoring: one with airborne hyperspectral imagery of

Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii, and one with airborne multispectral

imagery of Moorea, French Polynesia.

OPTICAL WATER COLUMN PROPERTIES OF A

CORAL REEF ENVIRONMENT: TOWARDS

CORRECTION OF REMOTELY SENSED.

Holden, Heather * and LeDrew, Ellsworth. *Department of

Geography, National University of Singapore AS2 1 Arts

Link Singapore 117 570, Email: geohmh@nus.edu.sg

The primary concern in using remote sensing data for

applications such as identifying water quality, bathymetry, or

benthic habitat, is that water depth variations are

indistinguishable from bottom type variations. With relatively

constant inherent water optical quality, 51 multispectral

radiometric profiles were measured in environments with (1)

common bottom types, but variable depths, and (2) common

water depths, but variable bottom types. Cluster analysis and

analysis of variance reveals that a significant amount of

variability in both downwelling irradiance and upwelling

radiance attenuation coefficients can be attributed to water

depth when bottom type remains constant. Investigation of the

downwelling irradiance and upwelling radiance profiles

indicate that water column effects are not simply additive, but

are more complex and involve variable contributions from

bottom reflectance and water depth. The database also enabled

calculation of spectra at the top and bottom of the water

column to examine the potential effects of the water column on

measured spectra. An unpredictable “crossover” effect was

observed in these spectra over both living coral and rubble

substrata in depths ranging from 2-27m: spectra measured at

the bottom of the water column displayed increased magnitude

of upwelling radiance at longer wavelengths. The anomalous

cases correspond to the cases excluded from the dominant

clusters in the cluster analysis. Both predictable and anomalous

observations occurred in a common range of water depths and

occurred independent of bottom type, suggesting complex

radiative transfer in the water column that may not be

adequately addressed given available models for water column

correction at present..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D5: Remote Sensing & GIS

REHABILITATION

236

INTEGRATION OF HYPERSPECTRAL AND PULSE

AMPLITUDE MODULATED (PAM) FLUOROMETER

TECHNIQUES FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND

PIGMENTATION ANALYSIS OF CORALS.

Joyce, K.E. and Phinn, S.R. *. *Biophysical Remote

Sensing Group. Department of Geographical Sciences and

Planning. The University of Queensland, Brisbane,

Queensland, 4072, Australia. Email

s.phinn@mailbox.uq.edu.au

Remotely sensed data sets are a "potentially" powerful tool

for understanding spatial and temporal variations in the

biological and physical processes of coral reefs. Reflectance

curves of selected coral and algae features were obtained in

situ on Heron Reef and used to draw correlations with

photosynthetic capacity and pigment content within samples.

The greatest spectral variance between features was found

between 570 – 595nm, highlighting the ability to discriminate

between targets based solely on their reflectance spectra. This

is likely due to differences in pigment content, in addition to

morphological or structural variations between species. All

targets exhibited an absorption feature about 675nm, attributed

to the presence of chlorophyll a. The degree of correlation

between photosynthetic capacity and spectral reflectance

varied between features. The generally weak relationships

observed between spectral response and these biophysical

properties were most likely due to more complicating factors

influencing the absorption and reflection of incident light (eg.

water depth, refraction of light at the air-sea interface, water

column optical properties) not previously considered in similar

terrestrial studies. This highlights the requirement for a

changing approach to coral reef remote sensing, incorporating

models that take into account air-water interfaces and specific

scales of reef features and processes.

DISTRIBUTION AND BIOMASS OF PRIMARY

PRODUCERS IN SHIRAHO REEF, JAPAN

INTEGRATED IN GIS

Kayanne H.*, Y. Tanaka, S. Harii, H. Yamano, M.A.

Haltuch, M. Yamamuro, Y. Ide, N. Miyamoto, F. Akimoto,

N. Ito and T. Nakane. Department of Earth and Planetary

Science, University of Tokyo, Hongo, Tokyo 113-0033

Japan. Email: kayanne@eps.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp

To monitor and estimate changes in distribution and relative

abundance of primary producers in a coral reef, we made

repeated surveys along five transects in the field from 1997 to

2000 in Shiraho Reef (ca 0.8 x 1.2 km), southwest of the

Ryukyu Islands, Japan. The results were compared with

remotely sensed images (aerial photos and satellite images)

and integrated in a GIS framework together with some

physical parameters (depths, currents, temperature etc). The

dominant primary producers in this reef are Sargassum, corals

and seagrass. They form a distinct zonation parallel to the

shoreline: Sargassum on the reef crest, corals on a reef

pavement behind the reef crest and seagrass along the shore

separated by a sand flat. Biomasses of Sargassum, corals and

seagrass were 0.6-56.1, 4.6 and 3.8-12.1 tons of carbon for the

whole area, respectively. The biomass of Sargassum showed

large seasonal variation: low in winter and high in summer.

During our survey, Shiraho Reef experienced severe bleaching

from July to September, 1998. Changes in living coral

distribution just before and after the bleaching and

recovery/demise process of corals were recorded and analyzed

quantitatively in the GIS database. GIS together with ground

surveys and remote sensing provide a useful and basic tool for

modeling and management of coral reef ecosystems.

DECADAL-SCALE NUTRIENT ENRICHMENT

CORRELATES WITH CHANGES IN THE OPTICAL

PROPERTIES AND BIOTIC STRUCTURE OF CORAL

REEF COMMUNITIES ON BANK REEFS OF THE

LOWER FLORIDA KEYS, U.S.A.

Lapointe B.E.*, C.S. Yentsch, C.M. Yentsch, P. Barile, D.

Phinney, J. Vanderbloemen, and S. Andrefouet. *HBOI,

5600 U. S. 1 North, Ft. Pierce, FL 34946. Email:

lapointe@hboi.edu

We integrated a 15-year (1983-1998) low level nutrient

database for the "core area" of Looe Key National Marine

Sanctuary (LKNMS) with measurements of benthic

community structure, optical properties of the water column

(chl-a, Km -1 , spectral reflectance), and satellite imagery. From

the 1980's to the 1990's, annual mean dissolved inorganic

nitrogen (DIN) and soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP)

concentrations increased significantly from ~ 0.5 uM and

0.05 uM in the 1980's to ~ 1.0 uM and 0.10 uM in the 1990's,

respectively. The nutrient enrichment of the fore reef at

LKNMS since 1992 was accompanied by parallel increases in

water column chl-a, Km -1 , and benthic algal cover but also

dramatic decreases in live coral cover. These marked changes

in water quality and reef biota correlated temporally with

increased freshwater flows from the Everglades, which

resulted in decreased salinity and increased chl-a and turbidity

in "upstream" waters of central and western Florida Bay.

Outflows of degraded water from Florida Bay were evident in

satellite images, which showed plumes of turbid water flowing

through tidal passes of the middle and lower Florida Keys

towards offshore bank reefs, including LKNMS.

CHANGE DETECTION OF SATELLITE IMAGERY

FOR MAPPING AND MONITORING STRESSED

CORALS.

Ledrew, Ellsworth F.*; Wulder, Mike; Holden, Heather.

*Department of Geography, University of Waterloo,

Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada. Email

ells@watleo.uwaterloo.ca

Considering the vast area of Coral Reefs, and the remote

nature of many of them, an effective procedure to map and

monitor ecosystem stress from satellite imagery is needed. The

procedure must not be dependent upon in situ measurements

that typically have been used to correct beam attenuation

through the water column if it is to be a reconnaisance tool for

remote and/or historical imagery. The stresses may be related

to El Niño-induced temperature and radiation changes,

pollution and siltation, or unsustainable fishing practices. For

our trial study, we have selected Savusavu Bay of Fiji as a test

region. A gold mine was recently recommissioned on the west

side of the bay. During an anomalous winter storm, the

retaining walls of some effluent storage facilities failed and a

toxic spill was released through the adjacent river system and

dispersed over a large coral reef. We have SPOT satellite

imagery from before and after the event. Preliminary

reconnaissance indicates severe damage to the corals with

colonization by algae. In this paper we determine a procedure

for change detection from the multidate SPOT data that is

independent of spatial variations in water depth over the

features of interest. The Getis statistic, which is based solely

on image characteristics, is evaluated as a tool for change

detection. Preliminary examination suggests that it meets the

requirements for rapid assessment for environmental change

without the need for individual image calibration based upon

in situ information..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D5: Remote Sensing & GIS

REHABILITATION

237

DETECTION OF A CORAL BLEACHING EVENT

FROM HIGH RESOLUTION SATELLITE IMAGES.

Lindell L. Tommy *, Petra Ammenberg &

PhilipKramer. * Centre for Image Analysis, Uppsala

University, Sweden. Email: tommy@cb.uu.se

The dramatic bleaching events on the coral reefs of the world

have once again put a focus on the environment and the

necessity for resource monitoring. Sparse point observations

from the field can not alone satisfy the need for large scale

bleaching status, particularly in remote areas. This paper

investigates the value of present high resolution satellites to

detect coral bleaching. An image from the Indian Remote

Sensing satellite (IRS) from the beginning of the bleaching

event in Belize 1998 has been compared to Landsat TM

images before the bleaching. The digital counts on the TM

scenes have been normalized to the IRS and difference images

created. Lighter pixels in areas interpreted as coral habitats

were marked and then compared to field observations collected

during and immediately after the bleaching event. Several of

the lighter pixels in the 1998 image correspond to field

observations of bleaching. The spectral characteristics of those

pixels have been analysed and methods for an automated

analysis suggested. Field observations from Belize suggest

that recovery from the 98 bleaching was variable with both

depth and location and that different coral species were

differentially affected. The current spatial, spectral and

temporal resolution of satellite images limit the ability to

detect these finer scale bleaching patterns. Improved

radiometry of the data associated with Landsat-7, MODIS, and

EVISAT may allow for a more quantitative evaluation of coral

bleaching.

STATUS OF THE REEFS IN THE TURKS, CAICOS,

AND MOUCHOIR BANKS.

Manfrino, C. *, B. Riegl, K, Hoshino, and S.C.C. Steiner.

Kean University, Department of Geology and Meteorology,

1000 Morris Avenue, Union, New Jersey, 08540. Email:

ckievman@turbo.kean.edu

Coral reefs of the Turks, Caicos and Mouchoir Banks (TCI)

were surveyed using the Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef

Assessment (AGRRA) protocol in August 1999. Twenty-eight

study sites on the rims of the banks were surveyed and a total

of 3276 corals in 289 transects, 1421 algal quadrats and 279

fish transects were measured. The TCI expedition focused on

the reefs of both remote and more popular areas, and reefs in

marine protected and unprotected areas. The TCI area is at the

far southern extent of the Bahamas Archipelago and may be an

important source of larvae for reef dwellers and builders as

ocean currents drift up from the south. Live coral cover and

coral recruit occurrence was lowest, and the percent recent

mortality, old mortality and total mortality and the incidence of

white, black, and yellow band syndromes was the highest on

the Mouchoir Bank, the most remote location. Coral cover

averaged 17.8 % across the region, but was 13.8 % on the

Mouchoir Bank. Bleaching was not observed at any of the

study sites, whereas, the white plagues were found at every

site. Acropora palmata stands occurred mainly on the eastern

facing areas of the bank, and A.cervivornis was rare at all but

one location. Fish size and abundance was lowest on the

Mouchoir Bank. The reefs in the TCI are most at risk from

under regulation in marine parks where tourism and

development and from poaching and hazardous fishing

practices (Dominican poachers and local fishers using gasoline

mixtures) which is obvious in the Mouchoir and South Caicos

regions.

REMOTE SENSING OF CORAL REEFS USING HIGH-RESOLUTION

SATELLITE DATA

Maeder J. *, S. Narumalani, J. Schalles, D. Rundquist, and

K. Hutchins

CALMIT, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588-

0517, USA. Email: jmaeder@calmit.unl.edu

Monitoring coral reefs, seagrasses and sand features with

remotely sensed data can be a cost effective and time efficient

means for reef management. Prior efforts at sub-surface

feature discrimination with satellite remote sensing have been

limited in accuracy because of the coarse spatial resolutions.

This research utilizes imagery acquired by the newly launched

IKONOS satellite, at a nominal spatial resolution of 4x4-m in

the multispectral mode, for underwater feature identification

and discrimination. The image was acquired on 10 March

2000 for the western coast of Roatan Island, Honduras, and

two study areas including Half Moon Bay and Tabyana Bay

were subset from the image. Spectral pattern recognition was

performed on these subsets using the visible IKONOS bands,

because of their water penetration capability. Sub-surface

feature stratification included sand, coral reef, sparse seagrass,

dense seagrass, and deep-water categories. Significant in situ

work involving a Global Positioning System (GPS), close-range

spectral information gathering, and simultaneous digital

video capture had been performed at the site one day prior to

the image acquisition. These data were used to determine the

accuracy of the classification. Overall accuracy was 86%,

which was higher than previous studies that have utilized

coarser spatial resolution satellite data.

HOW GOOD IS CASI FOR RED SEA CORAL REEF

SURVEY?

Minghelli-Roman, Audrey *, John R. M. Chisholm,

Manuel Marchioretti, Herbert Ripley & Jean M. Jaubert.

*Observatoire Océanologique Européen, Centre

Scientifique de Monaco, Avenue Saint-Martin, MC98000,

Monaco; Email: amingh@club-internet.fr

Spectral reflectance images of a species rich coral reef near

gübal island, red sea, were obtained using a compact airborne

spectrographic imager (casi) in combination with ground-level

spectra and photographic records to determine the absolute

reef-mapping capability of casi. The casi was flown at 4

altitudes to obtain images composed of pixels representing

projected ground areas of 0.35´0.35, 0.5´0.5, 0.75´0.75 and

1.0´1.0 m. Identically orientated white targets (4´4 m), were

secured to the seabed at depths of 1, 5, 10, 15 and 20 m to

acquire images with pixels parallel and perpendicular to the

sides of the targets. A 5´5 m pvc quadrat (with 1´1 m

subdivisions) was positioned along the same edge of each

target and the underlying reef communities were photographed

using a camera mounted on an aluminium frame. Over 200

reflectance spectra were obtained of algae, sand, rock, corals

and other invertebrates in situ, while diving on scuba, using a

li-1800 spectroradiometer fitted with a fibre optic sensor. The

sensor was maintained at a vertical distance of 30 cm from

each subject to provide a circular capture area of 10 cm

diameter, thus obtaining an average reflectance signature for

subjects with variable surface topography and colouration.

Comparison of casi-derived thematic maps (by decomposing

the pixel reflectance signatures) with photographed reef areas

indicated that casi has the potential to discern and map diverse

reef communities to a depth of at least 15 m with good

precision..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D5: Remote Sensing & GIS

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SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS IN RESOURCE

USE BY THE FISHING COMMUNITIES IN AND

AROUND KOMODO NATIONAL PARK, A MARINE

PROTECTED AREA IN CENTRAL INDONESIA.

Mous Peter J. *, Andreas Muljadi & Jos S. Pet. *Indonesia

Coastal & Marine Program, The Nature Conservancy.

Jakarta Office, Jln Hang Tuah Raya 42, Jakarta 12120,

Indonesia Email: pmous@attglobal.net

Komodo National Park (1,800 km 2 ) is situated in Central

Indonesia, between Flores to the East and Sumbawa to the

West. The Park was established in 1980 to protect the Komodo

dragon Varanus komodoensis, but it also encompasses 1,200

km 2 of highly diverse marine habitats. The fishing

communities in and around the Park, numbering ca. 20,000

people, use a variety of fishing methods to exploit pelagic

resources such as squid, small clupeids, and demersal

resources such as lobster, groupers (Plectropomus spp. and

Epinephelus spp.), sea cucumber and abalone. Especially if

destructive fishing methods are used, the exploitation of

demersal resources threatens the marine biodiversity of the

Park. During 1997, 1998 and 1999, creel surveys were

conducted in the Park to study resource use by the fishing

communities to support the management of the Park. The creel

surveys revealed distinct spatial patterns in resource use, which

vary between fishing communities and between years. Based

on resource use patterns, and on the spatial distribution of

marine habitats in the Park, a zoning plan was proposed and

endorsed by the Indonesian Park authorities.

SEA-SURFACE CURRENT INVESTIGATION

CONCERNING LONG-DISTANCE TRANSPORT OF

CORAL PLANULAE WITH HF RADAR, DRIFTING

BUOYS AND NUMRICAL SIMULATIONS.

Nadaoka K.*, Y. Nihei, G. Hanada, S. Fujii, K. Sato, T.

Ikema, S. Kakuma, K. Iwao. Graduate School of

Information Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of

Technology, 2-12-1 O-okayakma, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-

8552, Japan. Email: nadaoka@mei.titech.ac.jp

Regarding the possible long-distance transport of coral

planulae from the Kerama Islands and Chiibishi toward the

southwest coast of the main Okinawa Island, a field

observation using a set of HF radar and drifting buoys and

numerical analyses were performed, as an activity of CREO

(Coral Reef Environments in Okinawa) project, to clarify the

Eulerian and Lagrangian characteristics of sea-surface current

and thereby to examine possible trajectories and extent of the

coral planulae transport. The HF-radar data in the area of the

southwest of the main Okinawa Island shows the regional

dependence of the current characteristics; i.e., in the shelf area

including the Kerama Islands, the currents are exclusively

governed by tide and winds, whereas in the area beyond the

shelf boundary the contribution of the ocean currents becomes

appreciable, providing unidirectional currents toward the west

coast of the main Okinawa Island. In accordance with this, the

drifting buoys released in the Kerama Islands were transported

toward the main Okinawa Island, when they entered in the

region beyond the shelf edge. These results are supported also

by a numerical simulation of the 3-D currents for the region

concerned and that of the Lagrangian tracking of neutral

particles.

A TWENTY YEAR EVOLUTION IN REMOTE

SENSING OF REEF MORPHOLOGY: EVALUATION

OF 1979 VERSUS 1999 LANDSAT IMAGERY OF THE

NORTHERN MALDIVES.

Naseer, Abdulla* and Bruce G Hatcher, *Dept. of Biology,

Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 4J1,

Canada. Email: anaseer@is2.dal.ca

Atolls of the Maldives exhibit distinctive, large-scale

morphological characteristics, which can be depicted using

digital satellite multispectral data. In an attempt to understand

spatio-temporal changes in the gross morphology of atoll reefs

in response to monsoon forcing, we quantify the zonation and

distribution of shallow reefs of the northern Maldives at two

spatial scales: 100’s of metres within reefs and 1000’s of

metres among reefs within an atoll. A LANDSAT-MSS (80m

pixel size) image of the large atolls of Miladhunmadulu and

Maalhosmadulu acquired in 1979 was compared with a

LANDSAT-7-ETM+ (30m pixel size) image of the same atolls

acquired in 1999. Individual reefs and faros were classified

into six, clearly defined morphological categories (reef top

islands, shallow reef flats, shallow sand sheets, sandy lagoons,

patch reefs, seagrass beds) that could be derived from a

supervised classification of the MSS image using bands 1, 2

and 3, and bands 1, 2, 3 & 4 of the ETM+ image. The

proportions of each category within each atoll were determined

from the spatial and spectral properties of the images, and

compared across time and sensors to measure reef growth and

destruction. The accuracy and reliability of the classifications

is compared between sensors by configuring the LANDSAT-7

image to MSS specifications and calculating confusion

matrices and the ‘kappa’ statistic. The degree to which natural

and anthropogenic changes can be inferred from LANDSAT

multispectral data are considered.

A MULTI-NESTING APPROACH FOR NUMERICAL

SIMULATION OF COASTAL CURRENTS WITH A

NEW ASSIMILATION METHOD

Nihei, Yasuo *, Kazuo Nadaoka, and Ryoko Kumano. Civil

Engineering, Science University of Tokyo, Japan. Email:

nihei@ rs.noda.sut.ac.jp

For accurate computations of currents in near-shore regions

facing open sea, like coral reefs of an island in an ocean, the

conditions at the open boundaries of the computational domain

must be properly specified. However no methods which are

reliable theoretically and reasonable in cost have existed for

this purpose. We employ a multi-nesting approach, in which

the computational results in a larger-scale domain are taken

into account successively in a smaller-scale computation. In

the conventional nesting methods, the larger-scale

computational results are used as the boundary conditions for

the smaller-scale computation. However, the scattering waves,

which may arise in the computational domain, cannot

propagate through the open boundaries so the computational

domain may be contaminated with the multi-reflected waves.

In the present study, a new method is proposed in which the

lager-scale computational results are incorporated as the values

to be assimilated in the smaller-scale computation. all the

dependant variables in the governing equations are separated

into the assimilating components and their residues. For the

residual components, simple radiation conditions may be

applied. The currents at Shiraho reef in the Ishigaki Island are

computed in which the large-, intermediate- and small-scale

domains have the spatial resolution of 2000m, 250m and 90m,.

Computational results of give good agreements with observed

data, indicating the fundamental validity of the present

method..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D5: Remote Sensing & GIS

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ALL STORMS ARE NOT CREATED EQUAL:

PREDICTING REEF IMPACTS FROM CYCLONES IN

THE GREAT BARRIER REEF REGION.

Puotinen, ML*. *School of Tropical Environment Studies

and Geography, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD,

Australia 4811. Email: gemlp@jcu.edu.au

Tropical cyclones can have major long-term impacts on

coral reef communities, and have been suggested to 'set the

stage' within which other reef disturbances operate. Thus,

effective management of coral reef systems like those of the

Great Barrier Reef Region (GBRR) requires a basic

understanding of the long-term cyclone disturbance regime

(which reefs are likely to be affected and how often).

However, since both the distribution of cyclone energy and

that of storm impacts on reefs are difficult and costly to

measure, the history of cyclone impact even for a single reef

across the GBRR is poorly known. In response to this lack of

data, scientists worldwide have developed methods to

reconstruct (hindcast) the likely magnitude and distribution of

cyclone energy from the meteorological record. This hindcast

energy can then be linked statistically to field observations of

reef impact to predict the distribution of cyclone impacts on

areas not surveyed. With today's improved computing power

and advances in GIS technology, it is now possible to use these

techniques to span longer time periods and cover larger areas

than has typically been done. Such an effort is nearing

completion for the entire GBRR over the last three decades. A

logistic regression model has been developed linking hindcast

cyclone energy with field data from several cyclones, and will

be used to build a history of likely impacts across the region.

A key finding of the study thus far is that unusually large and

long-lived cyclones (Cyclone Justin 1997) produce

significantly different patterns of impact than that generated by

more typical cyclones (Cyclone Joy, 1990).

MAPPING OF TUBBATAHA REEF USING AERIAL

VIDEOGRAPHY.

Ramos, Abigail Joy A.*, Jose Noel B. Dumaup, Emmanuel

S. Bate. *World Wildlife Fund-Philippines, 23 Maalindog

St., U.P. Village, Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines.

Email: aramos@wwf-phil.org.ph

Essential for the effective management and protection of a

marine habitat is the availability of a detailed, accurate and

current base map of the area. This would serve as an important

tool in acquiring a complete resource assessment over time, as

well as an efficient means of monitoring a particular region.

The Tubbataha Reefs National Marine Park, consisting of

33,000 hectares of rich biodiversity and various forms of

marine life, has long been declared a one of a kind marine park

and in recognition of its uniqueness, was eventually included

in UNESCO’s list of World Heritage Parks. In recognition of

the importance of having an accurate base map of the area,

WWF-Philippines has adopted an effective and low cost means

of mapping the reef. An aerial videography survey was carried

out using the conventional techniques for aerial photography.

Flying at an altitude of 3,000 feet and at 70 knots per hour, two

video cameras were mounted and positioned at a near-vertical

angle to the ground. From the resulting video footage, images

were then captured to create a mosaic of the area. The mosaic

was then interpreted for reef features and bottom cover using

the interpretation technique for aerial colour photography that

was developed by UNESCO in 1978. The final output is the

first large-scale and accurate base map of the area showing

significant features of the reefs as well as the classification of

bottom cover.

BENTHIC MICROALGAL SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION

AT A CORAL REEF, DETERMINED BY REMOTE

SENSING

Roelfsema,C.M.*, Dennison, W. C., and Phinn, S. R. .

*Department of Botany, University of Queensland,

Brisbane, Australia 4072 Email:

C.Roelfsema@mailbox.uq.edu.au

Understanding the ecological role of algal communities in

coral reef ecosystems, requires information on their spatial

distribution. Benthic microalgae are single celled algae which

are found in the top centimeters of the sediment and until now

not much is known about these highly productivity algae.

Benthic microalgal communities are often interspersed with

coral and macroalgal communities and can occupy a large

spatial area within a coral reef, creating challenges for

measuring their distribution. The spatial extent of benthic

microalgae on Heron Reef, a platform reef in the southern

Great Barrier Reef, Australia was mapped using Thematic

Mapper data synchronized with field measurements of benthic

microalgal chlorophyll and sediment reflectance. Sediment

chlorophyll concentrations, ranging from 23 to 1153 mg chl a

m –2 , were classified into three classes using a K-means of

clustering algorithm and combined with spectral measurements

to produce spectral signatures for the chlorophyll a classes.

The Thematic Mapper image data were then classified into

three classes based on benthic microalgal chlorophyll a levels

and reflectance measurements. The resulting map of sediment

chlorophyll-a distribution levels revealed large-scale (>1 Km 2 )

patterns in benthic microalgal distribution on Heron Reef, with

high values in the lagoon and on the windward side of the reef,

and low values on the leeward side near Heron Island. Results

from this study indicate that benthic microalgae constitute 20%

of the total benthic chlorophyll-a on Heron Reef, and thus may

potentially contribute significantly to total primary

productivity on the reef.

HYPERSPECTRAL IMAGING SENSORS AND

ASSESSMENT OF CORAL REEF HEALTH IN THE

FLORIDA KEYS.

Richardson, Laurie L.* and Fred A. Kruse. *Department

of Biological Sciences, Florida International University,

Miami, Florida 33199, U.S.A. Email: richardl@fiu.edu

Hyperspectral imaging sensors provide data in which each

pixel of an image contains an entire spectrum due to numerous

narrow-width, spectrally contiguous bands. We are working

with AVIRIS (the Airborne Visible-Infrared Imaging

Spectrometer) data of reefs of the northern Florida Keys on

which we have been studying coral health and coral microbial

pathogens for a number of years. Each AVIRIS scene images

an area 10 by 12 km, with 20 m spatial resolution, the result of

flying the sensor in high altitude mode on NASA’s ER-2

aircraft. Individual scenes were atmospherically corrected

using ATREM, and then spectrally subset to yield images that

contained pixel spectra from 395 to 930 nm (visible to near IR)

with a spectral resolution of 10 nm. Image-derived

endmember spectra were extracted from pixels that

corresponded to our study reefs, and used to construct a

spectral library based on coral reef health and benthic

community structure. These spectra were then used to classify

the AVIRIS image data using a spectral-based algorithm (the

Spectral Angle Mapper) in which each pixel of the image was

compared to each spectrum within the spectral library.

Classification results yielded mapped images that both showed

the distributions of different coral reef-associated benthic

communities as well as general coral reef health..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D5: Remote Sensing & GIS

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GLOBAL AND REGIONAL CORAL REEF MAPPING

USING SEAWIFS AND ASTRONAUT PHOTOGRAPHY.

Robinson, Julie A.*, Gene C. Feldman, Norman Kuring,

Bryan Franz, Ed Green, Marco Noordeloos, Richard P.

Stumpf. *Office of Earth Sciences, Johnson Space Center,

Houston, Texas, U. S. A. Email:

julie.a.robinson1@jsc.nasa.gov

To meet needs for global and regional coral reef mapping,

scientists need to work simultaneously at multiple scales to

produce maps quickly and then improve these maps over time.

We describe an approach to reef mapping that uses a uniform

1-km dataset (SeaWiFS) as a backbone for global-scale reef

mapping and for integrating other higher-resolution remote

sensing data. SeaWiFS data were used to produce composite

maps of shallow bathymetry. Global reef maps compiled by

the World Conservation Monitoring Centre can be overlaid

with SeaWiFS data to facilitate comparison and refinement of

the maps. Data sets at moderate resolution (e.g. Landsat) and

high resolution (e.g. aerial photography) were converted to the

same projection. Astronaut photography of Earth is an

additional source of moderate resolution (pixel sizes of 30 m

or less) remote sensing data that makes a unique contribution

to these datasets. Georeferenced astronaut photographs were

incorporated as GIS base layers into a prototype for ReefBase:

A Global Database on Coral Reefs, and linked to information

on coral reef biology, status, exploitation, management and

socioeconomics. Finally, the global maps and remote sensing

data were made available for interactive searching on a

prototype Coral Reef Remote Sensing Web site

(http://seawifs.gsfc.nasa.gov/reefs).

SPECTRAL REFLECTANCE MEASUREMENTS OF

CORALS AND OTHER REEF SUBSTRATES AT

CLOSE RANGE AND NEAR THE SURFACE

Schalles, J.*, J. Maeder, D. Rundquist, J. Keck, And S.

Narumalami. Creighton University, Omaha, Ne 68178,

Usa, Email: Jfsaqua@Creighton.Edu

An Ocean Optics spectroradiometer and a 20 m fiber optic

cable were used in the western Caribbean (Roatan, Honduras)

and northern Red Sea (Eilat, Israel) to collect high spectral

resolution reflectance data of corals, nonliving coral substrates

with algal overgrowths, macroalgae, and other substrates. Data

were primarily collected at close range (FOV’s of about 4 – 8

cm) at depths of about 1 to 10 m. Additional measurements

were made of emergent reflectance signals just below the

water surface - representing mixed pixels at FOV’s of 0.5 to 4

m. Instrument measurement biases were problematic at low

signal strengths and we sometimes used underwater lamps to

boost incident signals. The biophysics of coral reflectance can

be treated as a two layer system with a living, pigmented outer

layer and opaque, highly reflective aragonite layer. Corals and

other algal colonized substrates have clear pigment absorption

features, with a strong chlorophyll a band near 670 nm and

related red edge near 700 nm. Strong absorption of blue light

occurs from both chlorophyll and carotenoids. Corals and other

carbonate substrates have strong NIR reflectance. Although

water path attenuation renders the upper red and NIR signals

undetectable at the surface, these spectral features may be

useful in close range monitoring of coral physiology and

photosynthetic state. Endosymbiot accessory pigment affects

are readily apparent in the spectra and are relatable to apparent

color and taxonomic patterns. Depth variation greatly

complicates analysis of emergent, mixed pixel signals and

good resolution bathymetry is probably required.

REMOTE SENSING OF CORAL REEF HEALTH.

Skirving, William*, Tiit Kutser, John Parslow, Terry

Done, Mary Wakeford, Ian Miller and Lesley Clementson.

*Australian Institute of Marine Science, PMB No. 3,

Townsville M.C., Qld., Australia. 4810. Email:

w.skirving@aims.gov.au

A new joint project between the CSIRO and AIMS is aiming

to answer the question of the usefulness of remote sensing for

mapping and monitoring the health of coral reefs. Unlike most

previous projects this project has taken a fresh approach to this

problem. It does not include the use of any air- or space-borne

data. Instead, spectral measurements of radiometric

reflectances were taken in such a way as to allow the

development of models, which will help answer the main

question of “how useful is remote sensing”, as well as help

determine the form of the most suitable instrument. This paper

will describe the techniques used to collect spectral

information from the water column and benthic habitat in and

around three GBR coral reefs. The reefs were chosen to

represent a range of water quality. Along with the description

of the instrumentation and techniques, some preliminary

results will be presented.

AN INTEGRATED STUDY USING AERIAL

PHOTOGRAPHY, GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

SYSTEMS AND FIELD STUDIES, OF THE CORAL

REEF COMMUNITIES AT NUKUBUCO REEF, SUVA,

FIJI.

South Robin, Dr. Veikila Vuki, Dr. Robyn Cumming, Liza

Koshy*. *Marine Studies Programme, University of the

South Pacific, P.O. Box 1168, Suva, Fiji Islands. Email:

S93005004@student.usp.ac.fj

The Nukubuco Reef forms part of the barrier reef system

which protects the shoreline of the Suva Peninsula in the Fiji

Islands. This study is being conducted to study the

effectiveness of integrating colour aerial photography,

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Global

Positioning Systems (GPS) in the spatial analysis of the

distribution and composition of the 5-6 seagrass species found

on this reef: Syringodium isoetifolium, Halophila spp.,

Halodule pinifolia and Halodule uninervis. The ground truth

of the colour aerial photography for the backreef region of the

reef indicates that the western, eastern and mid region of the

backreef have different species compositions. Preliminary

results show that patches with percentage cover between 0%-99%

are recorded in interspresion with unvegetated sand. A

GIS database will be created for interpolative spatial analysis

of the data, using IDRISI software, to represent the spatial

patterns extracted from the field sampling. Differential GPS

coordinates are collected to create thematic maps.

Photointerpretation to date, on the basis of field observation,

reveals that there are ‘mottled’ patterns in the backreef with

distinct colour contrast, tone and texture corresponding to

distinct mono-specific and multi-specific seagrass stands.

Further image analysis will be carried out using ENVI

software to digitise and classify the scanned colour aerial

photographs of 1998..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D5: Remote Sensing & GIS

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241

ANALYZING PIGMENT COMPOSITIONS AND

REFLECTANCE SPECTRA OF CORALS IN HIGH

NITRATE WATER.

Tomasetti, RJ* & MJ Atkinson. University of Hawaii at

Manoa, 2525 Correa Rd. HIG#215 Honolulu, HI 96822

USA. Email: tomasett@hawaii.edu

High nutrients can affect pigment densities in zooxanthellae,

in turn altering spectral reflectance properties in corals and

impacting the ability of remote sensing to identify corals. We

used HPLC to compare pigment compositions of corals in high

nitrate water at the Waikiki Aquarium, Hawaii, USA to

published data from corals in low nitrate conditions at Puako,

Hawaii. Coral tissue pigments, normalized to peridinin, were

1.295+0.138 (90% confidence limit) for chlorophyll a,

0.477+0.039 for chlorophyll c2, 0.054+0.005 for

chlorophyllide a, 0.021+0.003 for _-carotene, 0.229+0.021 for

diadinoxanthin, and 0.017+0.006 for diatoxanthin. Ratios of

_-carotene and chlorophyll a for corals were lower than similar

ratios from field corals (0.29+0.11 for _-carotene and

1.90+1.00 for chlorophyll a). This indicates higher peridinin

and lower accessory pigment concentrations resulting from

increased zooxanthellae densities in high nitrate corals. We

used an underwater fiberoptic spectrometer to collect

reflectance spectra at the Waikiki Aquarium (n=676) and in

low nitrate water in Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii (n=193). We

computed fourth derivatives to identify features in the spectra.

Reflectance peaks do not vary with nitrate concentration, but

higher nitrate causes greater variability in reflectance peaks

between 500-590 nm. The effects of nitrate on coral

reflectance spectra are small, so remote sensing algorithms will

be able to detect corals regardless of nitrate concentrations.

SPECTRAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ACROPORA

CERVICORNIS AND PORITES PORITES UNDER

LABORATORY CONDITIONS.

Torres, Juan L.* and Roy A. Armstrong. *UPR-Dept.

Marine Sciences, PO Box 3210, Lajas, PR 00667 USA.

Email: jltorres@caribe.net

The spectral response of the Caribbean shallow-water coral

species Acropora cervicornis and Porites porites was

measured under laboratory conditions with the aid of a

spectroradiometer GER-1500. Spectral curves for both species

revealed absorption peaks in the blue and red regions of the

visible spectrum and a high reflectance in the green region,

both indicative of the presence of chlorophyll a in the

zooxantellae. These peaks were absent in spectra taken from

bleached colonies of both species. Also, a second derivative

analysis revealed a peak at 500nm corresponding to the

presence of peridin in the zooxantellae. The reflectance curves

for both species were significantly different, at least, in the

magnitude of the different peaks. This methodology is

proposed as a possible tool for a later creation of a spectral

library that could aid in the identification of these species in

remotely sensed images.

UTILISING THE POWER OF GEOGRAPHIC

INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS) FOR CORAL REEF

RESEARCH AND MANAGEMENT.

Treml, EA* and Puotinen, ML. *Technology Planning and

Management Corporation, NOAA Coastal Services Center,

2234 South Hobson Avenue, Charleston, SC 29405-2413,

USA. Email: Eric.Treml@noaa.gov

Over the last decade, ecological theory and geographic

information science have advanced together to form a

conceptual and technological framework suitable for the

investigation of multi-scale, system-wide scientific issues.

Consequently, the computer-based analysis tools provided by

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have become essential

for land management, forestry, and terrestrial ecological

studies over the last several decades. However, extending the

use of these analysis tools to the marine environment has

begun only very recently. Yet GIS, combined with a broad-scale,

landscape ecology approach, is potentially of great use

in both understanding and managing the world's coral reefs.

This approach enables one to study the structure, function, and

change in and between marine communities while managing

the many spatial and temporal scales. This paper explores the

key issues that have limited the use of GIS in the coral reef

context in the past and what work has been done to overcome

them. In addition, several case studies are used to illustrate the

range of benefits of using GIS tools to research and manage

coral reefs.

INTEGRATING MULTI-LEVEL REMOTE SENSING

AND GIS FOR MONITORING BERMUDA'S BENTHIC

RESOURCES.

Vierros, M. K.*, *Rosenstiel School of Marine and

Atmospheric Science, Division of Marine Geology and

Geophysics, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, Florida

33149-1098, USA. Email: mvierros@rsmas.miami.edu

A combination of SPOT data and aerial photography were

used to map the benthic habitats of the Bermuda platform, and

the map was incorporated as a base layer in a multi-level GIS

designed to monitor changes in Bermuda’s seagrass beds. A

number of benthic habitat classes were mapped, including

coral reef classes. The mapping was achieved with low-cost

software and existing satellite imagery, providing an

alternative for those looking for cost-effective methods.

Bermuda’s high population density contributes to intense

human pressure, highlighting the need for monitoring key

benthic habitats. Bermuda's seagrass meadows are known to

have fluctuating coverage, with recent reports of disappearance

of seagrass cover from some areas. The base map is the first

step towards a more comprehensive understanding of seagrass

dynamics and will be incorporated in a hierarchical seagrass

monitoring program including quadrat-based sampling, digital

underwater video and repeated aerial photography. The habitat

map was also used as a basis for calculating feeding area

available for the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and the

carrying capacity of the seagrass meadows as feeding grounds.

GIS techniques will be used to assess the effect of fluctuations

of seagrass coverage on green turtle distribution and carrying

capacity..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D5: Remote Sensing & GIS

REHABILITATION

242

USING AN ACOUSTIC GROUND DISCRIMINATION

SYSTEM TO MAP CORAL REEF BENTHIC CLASSES.

White, W.H.*, A.R. Harborne, I.S. Sotheran, R. Walton

and R.L. Foster-Smith. *SeaMap Research Group,

Department of Marine Sciences and Coastal Management,

Ridley Building, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon

Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK. Email: w.h.white@ncl.ac.uk

An Acoustic Ground Discrimination System (AGDS) can

extract information on the nature of the seabed. Compared to

satellite or airborne sensors, AGDS is rarely used in tropical

environments but is easy to operate and produces a modest

amount of digital data. This study aimed to assess acoustic

surveys of coral reef benthic classes using a RoxAnn™ AGDS

in the Philippines. Benthic classes were categorised into four

levels of detail using hierarchical classification of field data.

Using independent data, subsequent maps were shown to have

overall accuracies of: 85% at coarse resolution (three classes),

61% and 54% at two intermediate levels (five and four

classes) and 28% at fine resolution (10 classes). These

accuracies are assumed to be conservative because of

constraints during this study including semi-quantitative data

for discriminating class types, benthic changes between AGDS

and accuracy assessment surveys and lack of differential GPS.

Despite these limitations, AGDS accuracy levels were

comparable to those achieved by satellites and it has

advantages including greater water penetration and

independence from cloud cover. Acoustic data are, therefore,

proposed +-as a useful tool for tropical habitat mapping and

complimentary to satellite and airborne sensors.

APPLICATION OF REMOTE SENSING DATA FOR

CORAL REEF MAPPING IN INDONESIA

Winarso, Gathot.* and Budhiman, Syarif, *Marine

Application Division Remote Sensing Application Center

National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN)

Email: dayat@bogor.net

Coral reef is a marine resource, which have a great value,

ecologically for marine ecosystem or economically for the

benefit of coastal communities. Indonesia is one of the

countries, which has a large area for coral reef. On the other

hand, coral reef is an ecosystem that is vulnerable to the

environment changes. The government feels that Indonesia has

to participate to save the coral reef, through activities including

the conservation and management of coral reef conducted in

the form of coral reef rehabilitation and management program

(coremap). The first step of this activity is to provide the

database of coral reef spreads in indonesia, using the remote

sensing data. This method is the answer to provide the

database, because it can map a large area in short times and

cheap cost. At least it can be the early reference for

management of coral reef. Remote sensing application for

mapping has develop very fast until the scale of 1:50.000, even

with the new technology it can get the scale of 1:5000. But the

application is only for the land area. Remote sensing

application for marine area especially for coral reef is not as

develop as for the land. One big problem is that

electromagnetic wave that is utilized to identify the coral reef

has to go through the water bodies and it will get influence by

many things. This paper examines the research result of the

remote sensing application for coral reef mapping, the

problems that occurred, the suggested method to solve the

problem, the ability of remote sensing and the quality of the

result. Landsat-tm data is use as main data and spot multi

spectral data as comparison because of the availability of data

in Indonesia

DEVELOPMENT OF AN OPTICAL MODEL FOR

EXTRACTING CORAL REEF BLEACHING.

Yamano, H.* and M. Tamura. Social and Environmental

Systems Division, National Institute for Environmental

Studies, Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan. Email:

hyamano@nies.go.jp

Coral bleaching is a major scientific and socio-economic

issue on coral reefs. The bleaching may be related to the high

sea surface temperature (SST) possibly induced by global

warming. SST is monitored by the NOAA/AVHRR sensor on

a global scale. However, till now, most studies on the effect of

increased SST on coral bleaching are based on in situ data and

of regional scale. Present situation demands monitoring the

same on a global scale. For that purpose, satellite data should

be quite useful as it has large spatial scale. However, satellite

sensors measure not only the radiance reflected directly by the

object of interest but also receive the radiance from scattering

by aerosols and the radiance from reflection on the sea surface,

etc. Moreover, the photons are absorbed or scattered as they

travel through the air or in the water. Thus, it is a must to

remove or to calibrate these effects to get the correct readings.

Here, we develop an optical model on the transmittance

through the air, the sea surface, and the seawater. The model

contains three sub-models (1) transmittance in the air, (2)

reflectance on the sea surface, and (3) transmittance in the

seawater. Using this model, we will examine the spectral and

spatial resolution needed for detecting the bleaching, and

discuss the feasibility of satellite data for monitoring coral reef

bleaching..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D6: Monitoring Studies

REHABILITATION

Session D6: Monitoring & Assessment of Coral Reefs: Examples

243

MONITORING REEF-BUILDING CORALS: HOW

OFTEN TO CENSUS AND WHAT TO MEASURE?

Cumming, R.L. *. *Department of Biology, School of Pure

and Applied Sciences, The University of the South Pacific,

PO Box 1168, Suva, Fiji. Email: cumming_r@usp.ac.fj

The costs and time commitment of monitoring can be large,

so optimizing the frequency of censuses is important when

developing a monitoring strategy. I examined what might be

missed in censuses of reef-building corals spaced one or two

years apart compared with 3-5 monthly censuses. The study

organisms were 1627 colonies of Indo-Pacific branching corals

of the genus Acropora (25 taxa) and the family Pocilloporidae

(5 taxa). Several variables were tested as predictors of

demographic fate (growth, shrinkage, death) using log-linear

models: growth form, size, presence of recent injury (inflicted

within the few days prior to censusing), presence of old injury

and presence of the predatory gastropods Drupella spp.

Colony size was the least useful predictor of fate within 3-5

months, and was significantly related to demographic fate for

only one group, the pocilloporids. This suggests that size-based

population models for acroporids should incorporate a

measure of colony condition. Recent injury, old injury and

predators were highly significant predictors for corymbose

acroporids (small, compact branches), whereas injury was not

a significant predictor for staghorn acroporids (large, widely-spaced

branches), even though recent injury was up to three

times more common in staghorn colonies.

FISH-BENTHOS CORRELATIONS IN SOME

OFFSHORE AND SHELF REEFS IN THE

PHILIPPINES.

Dantis A.L.*; Quibilan, M.C.C.; Nañola, Cleto L.; and

Aliño, Porfirio M. * Marine Science Institute, University of

the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City 1101,

PHILIPPINES.. Email: arvinld@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

The differential effects of natural forcing factors (e.g. wave

exposure and reef geomorphology) and disturbances (i.e. coral

bleaching) in the community structure and recruitment

dynamics of reef fishes in some offshore and shelf reefs of the

Philippines were explored based on fish-benthos correlations

using classification (TWINSPAN) and ordination (CANOCO)

techniques. Coral reef surveys and monitoring in the Kalayaan

Islands Group (KIG), South China Sea, Palawan Shelf and

Tubbataha Atolls, Sulu Sea were undertaken from 1997-1999.

A total of 87 fish transects were analyzed vis-à-vis benthos

data generated from line transects and video information.

Spatio-temporal variability in species richness, abundance and

biomass estimates of adult and juvenile reef fishes were also

determined. Initial results reveal that the predominant natural

forcing factors such as high energy, wind and wave stress and

the general reef morphology (i.e. offshore atoll reefs vs. shelf

fringing reefs) were observed to influence the fish community

structure. The widespread coral bleaching in 1998 caused a

significant changes in the benthos (i.e. reduced live coral

cover), thus this catastrophic event is implicated to have

caused the subsequent decrease in reef fish abundance,

biomass and diversity for that period.

MONITORING REEF FISH STOCKS IN THE

NORTHWESTERN HAWAIIAN ISLANDS.

DeMartini, E.D.*; and Parrish, Frank A. *National Marine

Fisheries Ser-vice (NMFS, NOAA), 2570 Dole Street,

Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA. Email:

Edward.DeMartini@noaa.gov

The status of coral reef fish stocks has been monitored at two

sites (French Frigate Shoals, FFS; Midway Atoll, MA) in the

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) in support of

conservation of the endangered Hawaiian monk seal,

Monachus schauinslandi, whose generalized prey base

includes reef fishes. Initial baseline surveys conducted by the

US Fish and Wildlife Service in 1980-83 were resumed by

NMFS personnel in 1992 (at FFS) and 1994 (MA). Visual

diver-surveys, conducted annually during 1995-99, have

estimated the density, size-structure, and biomass of reef fishes

in forereef, backreef, and lagoonal patch reef habitats.

Sampling effort was initially chosen to provide 80% power to

detect a 50% change in stocks of compound taxa comprising

trophic levels and major foraging guilds. Results-to-date

include fivefold (for lizardfishes) and fifteenfold (moray eels)

greater densities at MA compared to FFS, where monk seal

preda-tors of lizardfish and moray eel prey are ten times more

abundant; and a fivefold less frequent encounter of large jacks

such as Caranx ignobilis at MA compared to FFS, probably

caused by recreational fishing by military personnel prior to

wildlife refuge establishment in 1996.

NAUTILUS POMPILIUS POPULATION STUDIES AT

OSPREY REEF

Dunstan, Andrew.*; Medway, Tracey; and Hutchison,

Emma. *Undersea Explorer, Port Douglas, Qld, 4871,

Australia. Email: adunstan@ozemail.com

Nautilus inhabit the tropical Indo Pacific region and have

been studied in the field through mark recapture, in-situ

photography, radio tracking and associated

laboratory/aquarium experiments. Two species of Nautilus, N.

pompilius and N. stenomphalus, have been found in waters of

the Northern Great Barrier Reef. This study presents data on

the presence of Nautilus pompilius at Osprey Reef, an isolated

Coral Sea reef with vertical reef walls to 1000 metre depths. It

appears that just one species of Nautilus, N. pompilius, inhabits

the northwestern study sites of Osprey Reef. The isolated

nature of this reef system and the natural impediments to

dispersal of Nautilus suggest that this could be a genetically

isolated population. Between July 1997 and April 2000, 395

N. pompilius have been captured, marked, measured and

released with a 6.5% recapture rate. Recaptures occurred

between one week and 29 months after the initial capture,

giving confidence in the tagging method and viability of

released animals. N. pompilius at Osprey Reef are smaller

(mean diameter 130mm) than the same species at other Indo

Pacific sampling locations (133mm to 220mm mean diameter).

The population sampled is composed of mature and semi-mature

individuals of which 16.1% are female, which equates

with nautilus sampling programs elsewhere but leaves many

questions to be answered. This study provides the base to

investigate the unanswered questions of juvenile nautilus

habitat, sexual dimorphism and habitat partitioning and

geographical isolation and species drift..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D6: Monitoring Studies

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244

UTILISING PUBLIC AQUARIUMS FOR RESEARCH

TO INCREASE OUR DATABASE ON REEF SPECIES.

Gill A.B.*. *Jones Building, School of Biological Sciences

University of Liverpool, L69 3BX. Email: abgill@liv.ac.uk

Although advances in our understanding of reef species

ecology depend on target species research, one consequence is

that we are left with large gaps in our knowledge of many

other reef species. This can be problematical when we consider

such important topics as species diversity, community

dynamics and reef management. To address this lack of

knowledge, we have been exploring the utility of research

within the setting of a public aquarium, which represent huge

investments into simulating the natural environment for

display species. These facilities far exceed anything that could

be contemplated in a research environment other than in situ

field research. A major constraint of field based research is the

lack of control of extraneous variables. In the context of a

public aquarium we have an example of a more controlled

environment that is more closely related to the real situation

than a controlled research laboratory. Here I highlight the

potential for research utilising current behavioural ecology

techniques within a relatively controlled setting where

standard, repeatable data can be obtained on a variety of

species which are of sufficient validity to be analysed

scientifically. I focus on a selection of behavioural based

categories and discuss some specific results that we have

obtained, relating them to the context of the environment that

the species are in and how this links to the natural

circumstances. This approach also provides for education

about reef species to a wider audience.

THE IMPORTANCE OF COMBINING METHODS

WHEN ASSESSING CORAL POPULATION

DYNAMICS: CONTRASTING CONCLUSIONS FROM

DESCRIPTIVE, TAGGING AND GENETIC DATA.

Gilmour, JP*. *Department of Zoology, University of

Western Australia, Nedlands, W.A. 6907, Australia. Email:

jgilmour@cyllene.uwa.edu.au

Three different methods were used to investigate a

population of mushroom coral exposed to chronic

sedimentation stress and acute cyclone disturbance. 1)

Descriptive information for different life history stages of

polyps was collected through time, in the form of size

frequency distributions. These data provide information on

population structure from which inferences were made about

factors driving this structure. 2) Polyps at a variety of life

history stages were tagged and recaptured to yield a suite of

size specific life history traits relative to the period of

investigation. These data provide specific information on

individuals within a population and factors affecting them,

from which inferences regarding population dynamics and

structure were drawn. 3) Genetic analysis was performed to

quantify the cumulative contribution of sexual and asexual

recruitment to the population, also indicating levels of

reproductive exchange within and outside the population.

Descriptive, tagging and genetic analysis each provide

specific, but limited, data from which population dynamics are

routinely extrapolated. In this study population dynamics were

inferred from each of the three methods alone, and similarities

and differences in conclusions compared. A true indication of

population dynamics was obtained only when all three

methods were combined. Thus illustrating the importance of

combining methods of investigation and the care required

when extrapolating conclusions from limited types of data.

ESTIMATES OF THE SIZE AND COMPOSITION OF

SEA SNAKE POPULATIONS AT ASHMORE REEF,

EASTERN INDIAN OCEAN.

Guinea, M L*; and Whiting, S D. *Northern Territory

University, Darwin 0909, Northern Territory, Australia.

Email: m_guinea@site.ntu.edu.au

Population estimates and ecology of sea snakes

(Hydrophiidae) inhabiting Ashmore Reef National Nature

Reserve, Eastern Indian Ocean, were investigated from 1994 to

1999. Research was conducted in September and October

each year. The surveys concentrated on the species that

utilised the extensive reef flat. Of the 16 species of sea snake

recorded from Ashmore Reef, the most prominent in this study

were: Emydocephalus annulatus, Aipysurus laevis, A.

foliosquama, A. apraefrontalis and A. fuscus. Opportunistic

observations were made on other near shore species including

Acalyptophis peronii and Hydrophis coggeri and Astrotia

stokesii. Seven transects of variable length but known width,

were used in estimating the population density of 228 snakes

per square kilometre of reef flat at high water at that time of

the year. Mark and recapture studies of E. annulatus, indicated

that approximately 90 individuals utilised a coral patch

approximately 15 m in diameter. An association between

species and substrate appeared stronger than species and water

depth for the inshore species. The sea snake assemblage at

Ashore Reef is characterised by a large number of species,

including three endemics, and large population sizes.

COMPOSITION AND MONTHLY VARIATION OF

FAUNA INHABITING REEF-ASSOCIATED

HALIMEDA.

Jinendradasa, S.S.; Abeysirigunawardana, M.D.; and

Ekaratne, S.U.K..* *Department of Zoology, University of

Colombo, Colombo 3, Sri Lanka. Email: suki@eureka.lk

Composition and monthly variation of fauna inhabiting

Halimeda, a common calcareous reef alga, was studied in the

reef lagoon of Hikkaduwa Marine Reserve (HMR) in Sri

Lanka. The 1-year study was carried out using monthly

triplicated 25x25cm quadrat samples. The fauna was made up

of 18 classes distributed among Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes,

Nemertinea, Nematoda, Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda,

Echinodermata and Chordata. The major classes in these phyla

were Crustacea (37.6%), Polychaeta (23.6%), Gastropoda

(19.9%), Ophiuroidea (17%), Bivalvia (1.8%), Turbellaria

(0.9%), Nemertinea (0.8%) and Pycnogonida (0.5%).

Crustaceans were dominated by amphipods (43.7%) and crabs

(29.0%). Other crustaceans included hermit crabs (10.5%),

prawns and shrimps (11.1%), isopods (2.4%) and tanaids

(2.7%). Polychaetes included the Terrebellidae (13.9%),

Sabellidae (3.8%), Polynoidae (8.1%), Eunicidae (12.6%) and

Syllidae (5.7%). Gastropods consisted of prosobranchs

(78.9%) and opisthobranchs (21.1%). Dominant ophiuroids

were the Amphiuridae (65.7%) and Ophiactidae (31.0%)

followed by Ophionereidae (1.3%), Ophiocomidae (1.0%),

Ophiodermatidae (0.3%), Ophiomyxidae (0.3%), Ophiuridae

(0.3%) and Ophiotrichidae (0.2%). Juveniles inhabiting

Halimeda included corals, echinoids, asteroids, holothuroids,

ophiuroids, fish and squid. Halimeda of HMR had a diverse

faunal composition serving as a refuge habitat and a nursery

ground. Monthly faunal variations will be discussed. Support

from MacArthur Foundation and Biodiversity Support

Program is acknowledged..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D6: Monitoring Studies

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245

MONITORING ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON

CORAL REEFS WITH DEMERSAL FISH EMBRYOS.

Kerr, Lisa M.*. *University of Massachusetts, Biology

Department, 100 Morrissey Blvd., Boston, Massachusetts

02125. Email lisa.lobel@umb.edu

The early life stages of fishes are particularly sensitive to

anthropogenic perturbations and pollution assessment

techniques in temperate regions include assessing abnormality

levels in pelagic fish embryos. Since pelagic embryos are

rapidly transported from the site they are spawned, it may be

difficult to compare areas that are fairly close together. The use

of demersal fish embryos may allow for finer spatial resolution

in pollution studies. On coral reefs, nests of territorial,

demersal spawners like damselfishes or triggerfishes are easily

identified and synchronous development within clutches

facilitates identification of abnormal embryos. Nests of

individual fish can be identified for sampling or followed over

time. As part of the U.S. Army coral reef monitoring program

at Johnston Atoll, a study was conducted to address concerns

about potential effects of contaminants in resident organisms.

Damselfish (Abudefduf sordidus) and triggerfish

(Rhinecanthus aculeatus) embryos were collected from a site

with sediment PCB contamination and from uncontaminated

reference sites. Although the PCB contamination was confined

to a small area, some samples exceeded screening levels for

sediment PCBs. The occurrence of abnormal embryos was

significantly higher at the site contaminated with PCBs for

both species. Examining embryos from demersal spawning

fishes allowed specific comparisons between the occurrence of

abnormalities in embryos from resident fishes at the PCB

contaminated site and the reference sites approximately 1000m

distant. Ultimately, observing demersal embryos from fishes

with restricted spatial ambits may allow comparisons at the

scale of the home range or territory.

VARIATION IN SETTLEMENT OF LOBSTER

PUERULI AROUND ST. THOMAS, U.S. VIRGIN

ISLANDS.

Kojis, B.L.*; Quinn, N.J.; and Caseau, S.M.. *Division of

Fish and Wildlife, United States Virgin Islands. Email:

bkojis@vitelcom.net

Settlement of pueruli of the western Atlantic spiny lobster,

Panuluris argus, was monitored at five locations from

December 1997 to March 1998 in waters off St. Thomas, U.S.

Virgin Islands. The number of pueruli differed greatly between

sites. The greatest number settled on collectors located over

sand in Nazareth Bay. The mean catch per unit effort (CPUE)

at this site was 5.6 pueruli per sampling time. Pueruli were

recorded on 61% of the sampled dates. The CPUE at other

sites varied from 0.8 pueruli in the Mangrove Lagoon to 0.3

pueruli at Lovango Cay and Shark Island. Pueruli were present

on collectors at the three sites on 77%, 57% and 50%

respectively of the dates sampled. The results will be

compared to an earlier study in the U.S. Virgin Islands.

TEMPORAL CHANGE IN HARD SUBSTRATE

COMMUNITIES, 10-250 M, THE BAHAMAS.

Liddell, W*; and Avery, WE. *Department of Geology,

Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA 84322-4505.

Email: davel@cc.usu.edu

Fine-scale change in hard-substrate community structure was

determined through repeat photography of natural substrates

and artificial settling panels over a three year period and along

a depth gradient of 10-250 m off Lee Stocking Island, The

Bahamas. Indices were developed to address temporal

changes in substrate components, including percent areas

occupied and addition and losses of individuals or colonies.

Overall values for change were relatively low at 10 m depth,

increased to a maximum between 30 and 50 m, and then

declined with increasing depth to 250 m. Numbers of fish

grazing scars counted on artificial settling panels were

positively correlated with the loss index and negatively

correlated with algal cover, suggesting that fish are a major

contributor to the observed temporal changes in the sessile

community between 10-50 m. Dominant substrate

components shifted from algae to corals to sponges with

increasing depth. Although correlations between change

indices and hard-substrate community structure suggest an

association between intermediate values of change and high

species richness (S) and Shannon diversity (H’), a simple

causal relationship between agents (wave action, fish grazing)

of fine-scale change and community structure was not

demonstrated. Instead, a complex interplay of abiotic and

biotic disturbance forces, diminishing light levels, and

changing phyletic dominance accompanied by shifting

tradeoffs in competitive abilities occurs along the bathymetric

gradient.

CHARACTERIZATION OF FORAGING AND INTER-NESTING

HABITAT FOR THREE HAWKSBILL SEA

TURTLES IN MAUI, HAWAI'I.

Ligon, Allan* and Bernard, Hannah J.. *Hawai'i Wildlife

Fund, P.O. Box 637 Paia, HI 96779 Email: wild@aloha.net

In order to assist in the successful recovery of the

endangered hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) in

Hawai'i, efforts are underway to identify its foraging, nesting

and inter-nesting habitats. Hawai'i Wildlife Fund (HWF) is

beginning to address some of these critically important

recovery actions for the hawksbill sea turtle in Hawai'i,

including the characterization of the coral reef habitat they

utilize during resting and foraging. In Fall of 1999 and Winter

2000, HWF staff performed a series of reef surveys using

techniques compatible with the University of Hawaii's Coral

Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program's (CRAMP) video

transect methodology in order to characterize the reef habitat

utilized by three radio and satellite tagged hawksbill turtles.

The habitats varied dramatically for each of the turtles, ranging

from sand and halimeda beds to rich and diverse coral fields.

It appears, however, that most of the site locations occur across

the edges of habitat boundaries, some defined by dramatic

vertical relief. The boundary edges may incidentally occur at

these same sites, or it could signify active selection by the

turtles. This report identifies and characterizes the foraging

and inter-nesting habitat for three hawksbill sea turtles that

were tagged and instrumented after nesting events on the

islands of Maui and Hawai'i from 1996-1998..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D6: Monitoring Studies

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246

DIVERSITY OF FISH COURTSHIP AND SPAWNING

SOUNDS AND THE APPLICATION OF ACOUSTIC

TECHNOLOGY FOR MONITORING

REPRODUCTION.

Lobel, Phillip S.. *Boston University, Marine Biological

Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA 02543. Email:

Plobel@mbl.edu

It has been known for a long time that many fishes produce

sounds especially during reproduction. Recent studies using a

new system for synchronous audio and video recordings reveal

that several species produce species specific and behavior

specific sounds associated with courtship and the mating act.

Passive acoustic technology has been developed that utilizes

these sounds to remotely monitor the breeding behavior of reef

fishes. This application is being tested as an alternative or

supplement to the traditional methods involving sampling fish

gonads, plankton tows for ichthyoplankton and direct

observation by scuba diving. One problem with these

traditional methods is that they involve destructive sampling,

manually intensive labor, are limited by time that can be spent

by people in the field and the number of sites that can be

sampled simultaneously. The presentation will show a video

with sounds of fishes courting and spawning, will describe

their acoustic characteristics and will describe the system

developed for monitoring these sounds.

STATUS OF CONTAMINANTS IN SEDIMENTS AND

BIOTA AT JOHNSTON ATOLL, AFTER 70 YEARS OF

MILITARY OPERATIONS.

Lobel, Phillip S.*; and Kerr, Lisa M.. *Boston University,

Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA 02543.

Email: Plobel@mbl.edu

Johnston Atoll has been a military base since the 1930's. It is

located about 800 miles SW of Honolulu and has never had an

indigenous population. The US expanded the atoll's island

landmass by dredging from about 50 acres to over 660 acres.

The atoll has been used for nuclear testing, storage of herbicide

(agent) orange (of which 250,000lbs. leaked), airfield

operations, and it is currently the site for the US Army

Chemical Weapon Demilitarization Program. The scientific

challenge has been to define appropriate sampling and

ecological studies which both define the relative impacts from

the various military operations as well as to define the nature

and extent of contamination in the atoll. The main

contaminants of concern include plutonium, dioxins, furans,

PCBs, PAHs, herbicide, and heavy metals. This paper will

describe the concentrations and distribution of contaminants in

sediments and biota as well as present a preliminary

assessment of the ecological impact to the coral reef

ecosysytem.

IN SITU CORAL RESPIRATION MONITORING BY

USING AN UNDERWATER LABORATORY

AQUARIUS.

Okamoto, M. * ; Nojima, S.; and Yamaguchi, Hitoshi.

* JAMSTEC, Yokosuka, Japan. Email:

okamotom@jamstec.go.jp

NOAA's underwater laboratory AQUARIUS IS located at 18

m depth off Key Largo, Florida. We have developed a coral

respirometer and evaluated its working during the AQUARIUS

dive mission (July 1999). This respirometer consisted of

acrylic resin housing, a DO sensor with stirrer, a 4p PAR

sensor, a thruster for seawater exchange and three seawater

driven magnetic stirrers. DO and PAR data of the surrounding

water was logged into AQUARIUS at ten seconds interval.

Two respirometers were fixes at the bottom, one with a settled

Siderastrea siderea and the other without, as a control.

Measurement were made for 24 hrs at 30 minutes interval and

with 10 minutes water exchange cycle. Current, water

temperature, salinity and DO were monitored at this locality.

The results of these experiments showed, in situ measurement

of coral respiration at a particular locality could provide

valuable information on the primary production of that area

where coral distribution is estimated precisely. In addition this

experiments also provided technical information to develop

new in situ coral respirometer.

PLOTTING OF NATURAL BUTTERFLYFISH

DIVERSITY AND ABUNDANCE CLINES ACROSS THE

RED SEA AND INDIAN OCEAN AS A TOOL FOR

CORAL REEF MONITORING.

Ormond, R*; & Chen, T.C. *University Marine Biological

Station, Millport, Isle of Cumbrae, Scotland. Email:

rupert.ormond@millport.gla.ac.uk

Butterflyfishes (Chaetodontidae), because many of them are

obligate corallivores, have often been proposed as convenient

indicator species for monitoring the health of reefs. However

the number of species and their abundance on unimpacted

reefs varies widely between regions as a result of

zoogeographic factors. We have now collated standardised

Underwater Visual Census counts of butterflyfish along

horizontal 200 x 10 m band transects on over 1000 relatively

unimpacted reefs extending from the Northern Red Sea to the

Great Barrier Reef. As a result we are able to plot contours of

butterflyfish diversity and abundance. At 3-5 m depth for

example, total number of species recorded ranges from 6 in the

Gulf of Suez, via 12 in the central Red Sea, and 20 in East

Africa, to 22 in Taiwan and on the Great Barrier Reef.

However mean number of species per transect ranges from 2 -3

in the Gulf of Suez to 9 - 10 in the central Red Sea, and mean

total abundance per transect from 20-40 in the Gulf of Suez to

about 200 in the central Red Sea. In most regions there is a

correlation between mean abundance per species and number

of species per transect. There is however no relationship

between mean total abundance per transect in different regions

and total number of species in those regions, suggesting that

total number of butterflyfish per transect may be a particularly

useful universal indicator of reef quality..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D6: Monitoring Studies

REHABILITATION

247

DEEPWATER CORAL BEDS AS FORAGING HABITAT

FOR THE ENDANGERED HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL.

Parrish F.*; Craig, M.; Abernathy K.; Marshall G.; and

Buhleier, B. *NOAA Fisheries, Honolulu Laboratory, 2570

Dole St., Honolulu, HI 96822 USA. Email:

Frank.Parrish@noaa.gov

Recent plans to commercially harvest deepwater precious

corals in the vicinity of islands populated with monks seals

prompted concerns about impacts to the seals’ forage grounds.

A review of movement data from 33 seals fitted with satellite

tags at French Frigate Shoals (FFS), Hawaii identified two

areas where seals revisited subphotic depths (>300 m).

Submarine surveys of the seafloor at each area revealed beds

of deepwater coral including species of Gerardia and

Corallium. Previous submarine surveys (n=12) conducted

over the wider FFS region, at relevant depths, found no coral

beds indicating the seals were targeting the few areas that

supported deepwater corals as preferred forage habitat (Fishers

exact P=0.01). In an attempt to document seals foraging in the

coral beds five seals were instrumented with a back mounted

video recorder ( CRITTERCAM). None of seals visited subphotic

depths. However, three seals were recorded to visit beds of

filamentous black coral (Cirrhipathes sp.) at moderate depths

(80-100 m) where they fed on resident fish. The vertical relief

afforded by deepwater coral provides shelter superior to

adjacent habitat and thus attracts and supports a fish

community. Proposed is a hypothesis that seals frequent these

coral beds to feed on the associated fish assemblages and

improve their overall foraging success.

ECOLOGY OF OIL PRODUCTION PLATFORMS AND

ADJACENT REEF AREAS IN THE GULF OF MEXICO.

Rodriguez, AA*; and Liddell, WD. *Artificial Reef

Research Institute, 1802 Ennis Joslin #1232, Corpus

Christi, TX, USA 78412. Email: albertor@cbi.tamucc.edu

The Gulf of Mexico is the primary source of offshore oil and

gas production for Mexico and the United States with over five

thousand production platforms currently located within its

boundaries. These platforms create dynamic artificial reef

ecosystems by providing hard substrate which is utilized by

marine flora and fauna. The structures are quickly colonized

by microorganisms, polychaetes, algae, and barnacles, creating

a suitable habitat for secondary colonization by sponges,

cnidarians, molluscs, and crustaceans. The man-made

structures and biofouling community provide prey and shelter

for mobile benthic and nektonic species, many with

commercial value. As such, the platforms may support

commercial and recreational fisheries and sport diving. Five

PEMEX production platforms in the Southwestern Marine

Zone of the Gulf of Mexico and reefs located off the islands of

Arcas and Arenas were chosen to evaluate the effects of the

platforms on the marine environment. For example, what is

the linkage between the artificial and natural reef

environments? What migration of species occurs between the

two? Also, do platforms actually increase production of

valuable fish species or do they simply serve as attractants and

congregate existing fishes, subsequently making them more

vulnerable to fishing pressures? What negative effects, if any,

do the platforms have on the marine environment - chemical

pollution, noise, increased fishing pressure, other? These

questions will be addressed through quantitative assessment of

the composition of sessile and mobile biota, including

plankton, of the platforms and adjacent natural reef areas and

through monitoring of chemical and physical environmental

parameters.

TRACKING CHANGES ON A REEF IN THE US

VIRGIN ISLANDS WITH VIDEOGRAPHY AND

SONAR.

Rogers, Caroline S.*; Miller, Jeff; Waara, Robert J. U.S.

Geological Survey, P.O. Box 710, St. John, USVI 00830.

Email: caroline_rogers@usgs.gov

Living coral cover and cover by other organisms and

substrate were monitored at Newfound Reef, St. John, in

March 1999 and March 2000 using a digital video camera and

an underwater position-locating system. Newfound Reef is

associated with an undeveloped watershed and has little

exposure to anthropogenic disturbance. The objective was to

monitor the lower forereef in a statistically rigorous way, with

the locations of samples (transects) selected without bias

before the divers entered the water. Twenty, independent

transects (10 m long) were selected randomly as a subset of the

"population" of all possible transects based on superimposing a

uniformly spaced 10 m x 10 m (virtual) grid over the study

site. The positioning system uses SONAR signals from fixed

reference units and a mobile unit carried by a diver. Transects

were videotaped a set distance above the substrate. Benthic

components were quantified using random dots applied to

video images. Mean cover of live coral changed significantly,

decreasing from 18.0 + 6.3 (SD) in March 1999 to 13.9 + 6.1

(SD) in March 2000. Mean cover of macroalgae, dead coral

with algal turf, and sand did not change significantly. The

decrease in coral cover may be the result of damage from two

hurricanes in the fall of 1999, although dives on the study site

following these storms suggested only limited, patchy damage.

The decline of 4% coral cover seems small and would be

difficult to detect visually but represents a loss of over 20% of

the coral cover on this reef.

EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS IN CORAL REEFS:

NOVEL BIOSENSORS FOR ON-LINE AND IN-SITU

MONITORING OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS.

Ron, E.Z.; Choresh,O; Biran,I; Babai,R; Biran, D; and

Rishpon, J.. *Department of Molecular Microbiology &

Biotechnology, Tel-Aviv University, Israel, 69978. Email:

eliora@post.tau.ac.il

Early warning systems (EWS) are essential for prevention of

environmental damage. With the growing concern to the

world-wide degradation of coral reefs due to human

perturbations, the development of EWS for efficient

assessment of the health of coral reefs is of great importance.

Ideally, these systems should operate on line and in situ to

report potential problems as they occur. We have developed a

novel biosensing technology, based on electrochemical

monitoring consisting of whole cell biosensors constructed by

molecular fusion of promoters of interest to reporter genes

encoding enzymes that can be assayed electrochemically. The

electrochemical measurements are performed using disposable

screen print electrodes, that allow the simultaneous on-line

monitoring of several pollutants. Using bacterial promoters

that respond to heavy metals or to organic pollutants we

monitor in situ and on line the presence of pollutants such as

cadmium and oil. The high sensitivity of the biosensors

enables the detection of ppb concentrations of the pollutants in

marine environments. We are currently searching for stress-responsive

genes of marine invertebrates and have already

identified such genes from sea anemones and scleractinian

corals. These genes will serve for constructing additional

electrochemical biosensors that will report on various types of

stress to marine organisms. The electrochemical biosensing

enables rapid, specific and quantitative real-time monitoring of

pollutants and stressors in marine environments..9ICRS ASSESSMENT, MONITORING & D6: Monitoring Studies

REHABILITATION

248

TRENDS IN CORAL REEF FISH POPULATIONS:

PRIORITIZING SITES FOR MANAGEMENT BASED

ON A LARGE VOLUNTEER-GENERATED DATA SET.

Semmens, B.X.*; Pattengill-Semmens, C.V.; and Ruesink,

J.L. *University of Washington, Dept. of Zoology, Box

351800, Seattle, WA 98197-1800, Email:

semmens@u.washington.edu

Information is a precious resource in the marine

environment. Due to the high costs associated with fieldwork

and the unpredictable nature of marine conditions, gathering

more than rudimentary information on coral reefs is difficult.

Several volunteer monitoring programs have recently been

established to defray the costs and logistical challenges faced

by scientists and resource managers wishing to gather data on

coral reefs. In 1993, the non-profit organization REEF (Reef

Environmental Education Foundation), began a coral reef fish

monitoring program in the tropical western Atlantic based on

volunteer data collection. Since that time, more than 5,000

volunteer surveys have been conducted in the Florida Keys

National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS). In this paper, we

describe a technique for interpreting the REEF data in terms of

trends in presence and abundance of coral reef fish species.

Rather than relying on long-term trends in single species, we

quantify short-term (6 yr) trends for several taxa at each site.

The results of this analysis highlight a subset of survey sites

throughout the FKNMS that have a proportionally higher

number of species with significant population trends. This

subset of sites is considered in light of past, current, and future

resource use and management actions and options.

RAPID BROAD-SCALE SURVEY TECHNIQUES FOR

MARINE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT AND SEABED

MAPPING.

Skewes, T.D.; Gordon, S.R; Dennis, D.M.; Pitcher, C.R.;

Long, B.G.; Smith, G.P.; McLeod, I.R.; Taranto, T.J.;

Haywood, M.D.E.; Griffin, D.A. *CSIRO Marine

Research. PO Box 120, Cleveland, Q 4163, Australia.

Email: tim.skewes@marine.csiro.au

We demonstrate rapid broad-scale survey techniques for

resource assessment and habitat mapping of shallow reefs

(0–15 m deep) and shoal areas (15–50 m deep) in a 60,000 km 2

area off the Australian north western coast. The study area

contained seven shallow reef systems, including Ashmore and

Scott reefs, totaling 560 km 2 , and 1226 km 2 of shoals (15 to 50

m deep). The fieldwork was done over a 6 week period during

September and October 1998. On the shallow reefs, the

technique used diver transect surveys and visual censuses

(finfish and shark) to collect field data, and remote sensing to

map shallow reef habitats. On the shoals, we used video

camera transects, acoustics and sediment grabs. GIS was used

for designing efficient stratified sample strategies, for data

analysis and reporting. Using data from the survey, we were

able to produce estimates of the marine resources of the

shallow reefs and shoals, including commercial holothurians,

trochus, finfish and shark, with sufficient precision to assess

stock status. We were also able to describe the ecology and

structure of the reefs and shoals, and map representative

seabed types. The survey data was also used to measure the

size and extent of a recent mortality of hard corals on some of

the shallow reefs.

GROWTH RATES OF GREEN SEA TURTLES

(CHELONIA MYDAS) FROM TWO REEF SYSTEMS IN

THE INDIAN OCEAN.

Whiting, Scott D.* and Guinea, Michael. *Faculty of

Science, Information, Technology and Education, Northern

Territory University, Darwin, NT, Australia. Email:

s_whiting@site.ntu.edu.au

Animal growth rates are essential to established realistic

population models and to investigate ecological processes.

Green turtles were captured and tagged from two reef systems

in north-western Australia. These reef systems, separated by

800km, included Ashmore Reef, a shelf-edge platform reef on

the edge of Australia’s continental shelf, and an algal

dominated inshore fringing reef in Fog Bay, near Darwin.

Growths rates were obtained from green turtles that ranged

between 40 and 60 cm curved carapace length (ccl). Green

turtles at Ashmore Reef (mean=3.79 cm ccl, sd=1.34, n=16)

grew 2.6 times faster than those from Fog Bay (mean=1.45cm

ccl, sd=0.75, n=20). Ashmore Reef green turtles had a diet

dominated by the seagrass Thalassia hemprichii while the Fog

Bay green turtles had a diet dominated by the low biomass

algae Laurencia spp , Gracilaria spp and Gelidiella spp. This

difference in diet and the suspected differences in seasonal

abundance of food resources were probably the major

influences in determining growth rates. Genetic factors may

also play a major role but this needs further investigation. The

large difference in growth rates has a significant impact on the

dynamics of each population. To move through the 40-60 cm

size range it would take Fog Bay green turtles approximately

14 years while it would take Ashmore Reef green turtles 5

years. As green turtles from these areas reach maturity at

approximately 100 cm ccl, the age at maturity for each

population may differ by decades. Such differences in growths

rates indicate that population and harvest models produced for

some areas are not applicable to all populations.

VARIATIONS IN SEAGRASS PARAMETERS ACROSS

THE CARIBBEAN: THE CARICOMP NETWORK

STATIONS.

Zieman J.C. * and CARICOMP seagrass team. *Dept. of

Environmental Sciences, Univ of Virginia, Charlottesville

VA, USA. Email: jcz@virginia.edu

The CARICOMP program has been collecting seagrass data

on biomass and productivity since 1993 at up to 19 institutions

across the greater Caribbean using standardized protocols and

methodologies. The stations monitored at each site were

selected as representative of lush, well-developed Thalassia

testudinum beds with minimal disturbance. The mean

productivities across the region were 2.7 g . m -2. d and turnover

rates averaged 3.9 % . d -1 . The high turnover rates are a function

of the tropical latitudes of the stations. Shoot densities

averaged 725 sh . m 2 , and total above and below ground biomass

averaged 1507 g . m 2 . Average leaf length and width were 14.4

cm and 10.6 mm, respectively, and leaf area index averaged

3.4 m 2. m -2 . Maximal values were typically 2-3 times greater

then the means, although maximal biomass was five times the

mean. On a regional basis, seagrass biomass showed varying

patterns in the interval 1993-1999 with some stations

increasing by a factor of two (Jamaica), decreasing

precipitously (Bermuda), maintaining a value with little

variation (Mexico), and showing wide variation about a mean

(Belize). C:N:P ratios of the Thalassia leaves were determined

to determine localized nutrient excesses and deficiencies..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E1:Global Change Science

Session E1: Global Climate Change & Coral Reefs, 1. The Science Behind the

Prognostications of Gloom

249

RESPONSE OF CORAL GROWTH TO CLIMATIC CO2

VARIATIONS.

Amat A*, Ruiz-Pino, Suzuki, Poisson, Juillet-Leclerc.

LSCE, Domaine du CNRS, Gif-sur-Yvette, FRANCE.

Email: amat@ccr.jussieu.fr

Atmospheric pCO2 has been strongly fluctuating at different

time scales. During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM,18000

yr BP), pCO2 was 80ppm lower than preindustrial atmospheric

pCO2 (280ppm). Human activities increase today the pCO2 at a

rate of 0.4 % yr -1 . According to the average emissions

scenarios, a value of 700ppm is expected in 2100. This study

investigates the response of Scleractinian corals to atmospheric

pCO2 variations. pCO2 controlled aquarium experiments have

been performed for three coral genus (Acropora, Porites and

Stylophora). Seawater pCO2 was modified by changing the

pCO2 of air used to bubble the aquarium. Three conditions of

pCO2 have been imposed, corresponding to glacial (200ppm),

present-industrial (350ppm) and expected future (700ppm)

concentrations. Simultaneous responses of organic and

inorganic (CaCO3) biomass and metabolic processes

(photosynthesis and calcification) to pCO2 variations were

analysed. For the three coral genus, a non linear relationship

between metabolism, biomass and pCO2 which depends on

pCO2 levels has been obtained. For the LGM change and all

genus, all biomass and metabolic processes increase as a

function of increasing pCO2. For the predicted doubled pCO2

(year 2100) and all genus, inorganic biomass and calcification

decrease even if organic biomass increase. The photosynthetic

response is however genus dependent. Our experimental data

support simultaneously both hypothesis : an increase of coral

biomass and calcification during the LGM transition and a

decrease for the next century.

SOLUTION OF REEF ROCK BUFFERS SEAWATER

AGAINST RISING ATMOSPHERIC CO2.

Barnes D.J.* and C. Cuff. *Australian Institute of Marine

Science, PMB 3, Mail Centre, Townsville Qld 4810,

Australia. Email: d.barnes@aims.gov.au

Rising levels of atmospheric CO2 will increase the activity of

dissolved CO2 in surficial seawater and lower seawater pH. It

has been shown that this will reduce calcification in corals and

other reef organisms, and reduce the ability of reefs to

maintain themselves. Although solution of reef rock by more

acid seawater might return pH towards original values, it has

been suggested that tropical seawater is so supersaturated with

respect to calcium carbonate that such solution will not occur.

We raised CO2 in seawater to levels likely to be reached before

2100 and recorded the pH. We then added powdered minerals:

laboratory grade calcite, coral skeleton (aragonite), magnesium

carbonate and skeleton of the red alga, Lithothamnion (high

magnesian calcite). Addition of calcite and aragonite did not

alter the pH of the acidified seawater indicating no significant

solution. However, high magnesian calcite and magnesium

carbonate both returned the pH to values approaching or higher

than its initial value. Interpretation of the results and

consideration of the statistical and kinetic behaviour of high

magnesian calcites leads to the proposition that rising CO2 will

not greatly impact reef systems since any reduction in pH will

be rapidly compensated by dissolution of the high magnesian

calcite components (up to 50%) of reefs rock. Dissolution of

high magnesian calcite will cause the pH to be buffered

between approximately 8.15 and 8.35 depending upon the

overall high magnesian calcite composition. Moreover,

increase in the total alkalinity of seawater due to solution of

carbonates is likely to enhance calcification.

PHOTODEGRADATION OF MYCOSPORINE-LIKE

AMINO ACIDS IN ACROPORA PALMATA AND

PALYTHOA CARIBAEORUM.

García R* and Corredor J. Department of Marine

Sciences, University of Puerto Rico, P.O Box 908, Lajas PR

00667. Email: rochy98@hotmail.com

Mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) are a group of water-soluble

compounds abundant in benthic marine invertebrates

exposed to high fluxes of UV. These compounds have

maximum absorption in the range of 310-360nm,

corresponding to biologically harmful wavelengths of UV and

are consequently thought to provide protection from damaging

ultraviolet (UV). The goal of this project was to quantify

photodegradation rates of MAAs in two species of reef

coelenterates (Acropora cervicornis and Palythoa

caribaeorum) on San Cristobal reef at La Parguera, Puerto

Rico. Samples were extracted in 20% tetrahydrofuran

/methanol, evaporated and re-dissolved in seawater. These

were placed in quartz tubes and exposed to direct sunlight

during 13 days. Aliquots were sampled every three days.

Absorption was recorded between 290 to 400nm using

spectrophotometer. All extracts exhibited exponential loss of

their capacity to absorb UV radiation over the period of

exposure. Differential photodegradation of individual MAAs

was documented by HPLC. MAA photodegradation may

represent a significant metabolic cost to benthic marine

organisms exposed to high UV fluxes. Our work demonstrates

that MAAs are photolabile and indicates that organisms

exposed to high fluxes must continuously renew their pool of

photoprotective MAAs.

WILL REEF SEDIMENTS BUFFER CORALS FROM

INCREASED GLOBAL CO2?

Halley R. B.* and Yates, K. K. U.S. Geological Survey, St.

Petersburg, Florida, USA. Email: rhalley@usgs.gov

Laboratory experiments suggest that increased atmospheric

CO2 will cause a reduction in coral calcification due to a

decrease in aragonite saturation state of seawater. Field

experiments in Hawaii suggest that larger, community scale

experiments, including natural substrates, are needed to more

accurately examine the effects of increased CO2 on coral reefs.

We have used an 11.3 m 3 incubation chamber (Submersible

Habitat for Analyzing Reef Quality, S.H.A.R.Q.) to increase

CO2 and measure calcification, photosynthesis, and respiration

of different benthic communities on the reef flat of south

Molokai. Trapping CO2 evolved by respiring organisms

elevates carbon dioxide inside the S.H.A.R.Q. Preliminary

results show that elevated CO2 is accompanied by an increase

in dissolution of associated, magnesian-calcite rich, carbonate

sediments. Dissolution predominates in sand and coral rubble

substrates. Further experimentation of elevated CO2 in natural

reef settings is warranted to examine the degree to which

sediment dissolution may locally limit the lowering of

saturation states as atmospheric CO2 increases..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E1:Global Change Science

250

DECLINE IN CORAL CALCIFIATION RATE OVER

THE LAST CENTURY: PRELIMINARY EVIDENCE.

Helmle, K.P.*, Wellington, G.M., Dodge, R.E., and Swart,

P.K. *National Coral Reef Institute, Nova Southeastern

University Oceanographic Center, 8000 North Ocean

Drive, Dania, Florida 33004 USA. Email:

kevinh@ocean.nova.edu

Recently reported calculations of changing ocean calcium

carbonate (CaCO3) saturation state based on increasing

atmospheric carbon dioxide (pCO2) levels indicated the

potential that calcification rates of calcium carbonate

producing organisms have experienced past declines which

will accelerate in the future. Reef-building coral skeleton cores

from the northern Caribbean, eastern Pacific, and western

Pacific have been collected and analyzed to investigate this

hypothesis. Annual density bands in these coral skeletons

provide a physical record of growth variation over time. X-radiographs

were used to expose density banding, and image

processing densitometry was used to measure three parameters

of coral growth (extension, density, and calcification) over the

last century. Preliminary results indicate historical declines in

annual calcification on the order of 10%. This is consistent

with calculated decreases in calcification resulting from a

reduction in the aragonite saturation state via increasing pCO2.

Further data collection and analysis is underway to assess the

spatial and temporal variability of this trend. Other

environmental variables (including sea-surface temperature)

will be compared to identify possible confounding effects. This

research is aimed at assessing the degree to which coral growth

has been affected by recent atmospheric and ocean chemistry

changes.

INTEGRATED MONITORING SYSTEM FOR CORAL

REEF WATER pCO2, CARBONATE SYSTEM AND

PHYSICAL PARAMETERS.

Kayanne H.*, S. Kudo, H. Hata, H. Yamano, K. Nozaki, K.

Kato, A. Negishi, H. Saito, F. Akimoto and H. Kimoto.

Department of Earth and Planetary Science, University of

Tokyo, Hongo, Tokyo 113-0033 Japan. Email:

kayanne@eps.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp

To monitor changes in reef water carbonate system in

response to community metabolism and global changes, an

integrated monitoring system for pCO2, total alkalinity (TA),

total inorganic carbon (TIC) and related physical parameters

was developed. The system was loaded on a small boat and run

with minimum maintenance. It was set on a coral reef flat and

continued automatic monitoring for one year from September

1998 to September 1999 except for TA and TIC. The

continuous (on-line and flow-through) TA and TIC monitoring

system was also loaded and operated by supplying standard

solutions daily. The pCO2 values between a flow-through type

and a membrane type equilibrators matched within 6 µatm.

The TA and TIC values by the continuous system matched

with those by a precision analyzer with a deviation of 10 µmol

kg -1 . The monitoring results showed that pCO2, TA, TIC,

temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO) and pH in coral reef water

changed diurnally by photosynthesis and calcification during

the day and respiration at night. The system succeeded in

monitoring short-time TA and TIC spikes corresponding to the

other physical parameters, which were difficult to observe by

periodical manual water sampling. These synchronicities

validate the performance of this integrated system. This

system can be applied to coastal zone monitoring and buoy

system in general.

OVERVIEW OF CO2-INDUCED CHANGES IN

SEAWATER CHEMISTRY

Kleypas, Joan* and Chris Langdon, National Center For

Atmospheric Research, Po Box 3000 Boulder Co 80307-

3000, Usa. Email: kleypas@ucar.edu

Anthropogenic increases in atmospheric co 2 are changing

ocean chemistry, and particularly that of the surface mixed

layer. Although total dissolved inorganic carbon (dic, or tco2)

is increasing in response to increases in the partial pressure of

co2, both ph and the carbonate ion concentration ([co3 2- ]) are

decreasing. Several reef-building species and reef

"mesocosms" demonstrate a marked decrease in calcification

rate in response to decreased [co3 2- ], and so it important to

quantify future changes in ocean carbonate chemistry.

Thermodynamic calculations of the co2 system in shallow

tropical water indicate that a doubling of preindustrial pco2

will cause surface ocean ph in the tropics to decrease from

preindustrial values of about 8.15–8.2 to less than 8.00; and

[co3 2- ] will decrease accordingly by more than 30%. This

presentation will review how atmospheric co2 affects carbonate

chemistry in the surface ocean. It will then provide an

overview of both modeled and measured changes in surface

ocean chemistry, including results from global ocean carbon

surveys conducted through the joint global ocean flux study

(jgofs) and the world ocean circulation experiment (woce), as

well as evidence from carbon isotopes. Finally, various

strategies for examining the effects of changing seawater

chemistry on marine calcification will be outlined.

OVERVIEW AND UPDATE ON EFFECTS OF CO2 ON

CALCIFICATION OF REEF BUILDERS

PART 2. THE EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE.

Langdon Chris. Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of

Columbia Uni., Palisades, NY, 10964, USA. Email:

langdon@ldeo.columbia.edu

An overview on the experimental evidence for the sensitivity

of corals and coralline algae to elevated CO 2 will be presented.

Studies range from a single organism in a small tank to simple

assemblages of reef organisms in aquaria ranging from 150 to

2.65x10 6 L. All data sets show that calcification decreases with

increasing pCO2. Most data sets show a linear relationship

between calcification and the carbonate ion concentration or

saturation state, darag, suggesting that saturation state is the

actual controlling variable and that pCO2 is acting on

calcification indirectly through its effect on carbonate ion

concentration. This is supported by the results of the Biosphere

2 study which varied [Ca 2+ ] and [CO3 2- ] and showed that

calcification rate varied in response to changes in the

concentration of either and was linearly related to the ion

concentration product. The slopes of the calcification ddarag

relationship from the various studies show considerable

variability (3 -51% decrease by mid 21 st century). It is not

possible to say at this time whether this range reflects real

differences between species and taxa in their sensitivity to

change in darag or if the range reflects the effect of varying

degree of light limitation or nutrient limitation. Either way it

is clear that darag is an important environmental variable and

that there is reason to be worried that coral growth and

carbonate accretion on reefs may fall to critical levels in the

next century..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E1:Global Change Science

251

ATMOSPHERIC CO2 AND CORAL MESOCOSM

METABOLISM

Leclercq Nicolas*, Jean-Pierre Gattuso & Jean Jaubert

*Observatoire Océanologique Européen, Centre

Scientifique de Monaco, Avenue Saint-Martin, MC98000

Monaco. Email: nleclercq@scientist.com

A coral mesocosm has been used to test the hypothesis that

the anthropogenic increase in atmospheric CO2 partial pressure

(pCO2) might affect the metabolism of coral reefs. We

manipulated seawater pCO2, in the mesocosm, to reproduce the

predictions made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change and achieved short-term (1 day) and long-term (30

days) experiments. Both experiments showed that the rate of

calcification of hard- and soft-bottom communities was

reduced under elevated pCO2 (and the associated reduced

aragonite saturation state, arag). A shift in the pCO2 from 370

µatm (present day) to 700 µatm (year 2100) resulted in a drop

of 10% of the present rate of calcification for a Scleractinian-dominated

community. No change in net primary production

was found after one month of exposure to elevated pCO2,

suggesting that the photosynthetic organisms inhabiting the

mesocosm (mostly Scleractinian corals) are bicarbonate-users.

Also, after its initial decline, the reduction of the rate of

calcification remained constant over 4 weeks, suggesting that

no community acclimation to elevated CO2 occurs. On the

basis of these results, we estimate that the global reef

calcification will decrease by 36% and that the associated

global flux of CO2 will decrease by 20% during the next

century.

CLIMATE CHANGE AND GROWTH OF PORITES.

Lough J.M. * and D.J. Barnes. Australian Institute of

Marine Science, Townsville, Qld 4810, Australia. Email:

j.lough@aims.gov.au

Growth characteristics (extension, density and calcification)

were obtained from annual density banding patterns in >240

similar-sized colonies of massive Porites from 29 reefs along

the length and breadth of the Great Barrier Reef, Australia.

Combined with previously published growth characteristics

from Hawaii and Thailand these data allow examination of the

environmental controls on Porites growth through 20 o of

latitude and an annual average sea surface temperature (SST)

range of 23-29 o C. Calcification and extension are significantly

and linearly related to annual average SST (84% variance

explained) and provide for an increase of 0.33 g.cm -2 .yr -1 and

3.1 mm.yr -1 of calcification and extension, respectively, for

each 1 o C rise in SST. Calcification and extension are more

closely related to annual minimum SST than annual maximum

SST. The sensitivity of calcification rates in Porites to SST

combined with observed 20 th century increases in SSTs on the

GBR suggests that calcification rates in some massive coral

species may, at least initially, increase as a result of global

warming due to the enhanced greenhouse effect. There is

some evidence that the calcification rate of massive Porites on

the GBR has already increased over the present century in

association with observed warming of SSTs.

CORAL RESPONSE TO CHANGES IN ARAGONITE

SATURATION STATE OF SEAWATER.

Marubini, Francesca*, Ferrier-Pagès, Christine and

Jaubert, Jean. Observatoire Océanologique Européen,

Centre Scientifique de Monaco Av. Saint-Martin. MC-98000

Monaco. Email: Francesca.Marubini@csm.monaco

It has been recently established that calcification rate in

hermatypic corals is proportional to the saturation state of

seawater ( Warag). The predicted decrease in Warag over the next

century as atmospheric pCO2 rises, is a potential cause of

concern for coral growth and reef accretion globally. In order

to improve our ability to predict how corals will cope with

future changes we have to improve our understanding of the

mechanisms of calcification and photosynthesis in relation to

Warag. A decrease in Warag is due to a decrease in [CO3 = ],

brought about by a decrease in pH as pCO2 increases. We set

up a growth experiment to test 1) which parameter among

[CO3 = ], pH and pCO2 is the key in the control over coral

calcification rate and 2) if photosynthesis is also affected.

Nubbins of Stylophora pistillata were grown for 4 weeks in

laboratory chemostats (light = 300 mE m -2 s -1 for 12h,

temperature = 26.5°C). By adding solutions of NaOH, HCl and

NaHCO3 to the incoming seawater we maintained 3 different

pH levels (pHSW = 7.6, 8.0, 8.2) at 2 different TCO2 levels

(normal seawater and with the addition of 2mM NaHCO3)

resulting in 6 different Warag treatments (ranging from 1 to 12).

Calcification rate was monitored by buoyant weighing at

weekly intervals and by linear extension. Photosynthetic

parameters (Pmax, alpha, Ik), respiration rates and tissue

characteristics (zooxanthellae population density and protein

content) were measured at the end of the experiment. The

results obtained could constitute the bases for a novel

hypothesis of coral calcification.

REGIONAL VARIATION OF WATER TEMPERATURE

AROUND OKINAWA COASTS AND ITS

RELATIONSHIP TO OFFSHORE THERMAL

ENVIRONMENTS

Nadaoka, K. ; Y. Nihei, K. Wakaki*, R. Kumano, S.

Kakuma, S. Moromizato, T. Oomija, T. Ikema, K. Iwao, K.

Shimoike, H. Taniguchi. Graduate School of Information

Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology,

Email Address: nadaoka@mei.titech.ac.jp

As one of the possible causes of the spatially non-uniform

appearance of the coral mass bleaching, the regional variability

of the water temperature is investigated with the near-shore

temperature monitoring network data taken around the

okinawa islands in 1999 and noaa-sst image data in 1998 and

1999. The network data indicates appreciable regional

difference in the temperature; e.g., At the kerama islands

located in the southwest of the main okinawa island the

temperature in june and july in 1999 is about two degrees

lower than that at the west coast of the main okinawa island.

Similar feature of the temperature difference is observed in

noaa-sst images both in 1998 and 1999, and the degree of the

coral bleaching is found to correlate approximately with this

regional temperature variation. Comparison of the noaa-sst

images with the bottom bathymetry and a numerical

experiment suggests that the presence of a shelf around the

kerama islands may cause the relatively lower temperature;

i.e., The warm water mass from the kuroshio currents may be

extended toward the okinawa island, but it may be blocked at

the shelf edge, resulting in the relatively lower temperature at

the kerama islands..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E1:Global Change Science

252

ANTHROPOGENIC CO2 ADDITION AND FUTURE

TROPICAL SURFACE WATER CHEMISTRY: A

COMPARISON TO THE PAST 70 MILLION YEARS.

Opdyke, Bradley N. * & Robert W. Buddemeier. The

Australian National University, Department of Geology,

Canberra ACT 0200. Email: Bradley.Opdyke@anu.edu.au

It has recently become apparent that rising atmospheric CO 2

concentrations will reduce calcification rates within coral reef

ecosystems around the world. This change will quite likely be

detrimental to these neritic calcifying communities.

Consideration of the probable reductions in the calcium

carbonate saturation state (d) of the tropical surface ocean

during the next century raises the fundamental question: What

were tropical saturation states like on Cenozoic time scales,

over which modern coral reef ecosystems evolved? We

construct a calcium carbonate saturation state envelope that

represents the probable surface water chemistry in which coral

reef communities evolved during the past 70 million years, and

show that predicted near-future conditions may be without

evolutionary precedent.

SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE (SST) VARIABILITY

AROUND OKINAWA ISLANDS.

Sartimbul, Aida* and Momoki KOGA. Fakultas

Perikanan, Universitas Brawijaya, Malang, Indonesia.

Email: aida@malang.wasantara.net.id

Okinawa Islands are the most Southern islands of Japan.

They are an interesting area with their specific characteristics

such as the warm Kuroshio Current and large typhoon intensity

exists. Those characteristics are well known giving large

impact to the SST variability. During 1998, when unusual

climate (ENSO: El Nino-Southern Oscillation) occurred, the

SST around Okinawa had shown the increasing of SST as well.

As the result, most of coral reefs around Okinawa damaged.

The continuous SST observations have been done by the

Physical Oceanography Laboratory, University of the Ryukyus

using 2 (two) ferries service (HIRYU 3 and 21) which cruises

from Nagoya to Taiwan or oppositely. They have yielded a

good tool for knowing the SST fluctuation in relation with the

warm Kuroshio Current, typhoon, and ENSO. The long period

of SST have shown the 1998’s SST was the warmest SST

(increased about 2°C) of the record. The presence of ENSO

and absence of typhoon might cause this condition.

Furthermore, using the correlation analysis has shown the

positive correlation between short period of SST and

meteorological elements. Finally, further study about the

variability of SST around Okinawa Islands will be useful for

studying coral reefs, fisheries, and other biology aspects.

SOUTH AFRICAN CORAL REEFS: A REVIEW OF

THEIR STATUS AND IMPORTANCE IN FUTURE

RESEARCH.

Schleyer Michael H. * and Louis Celliers. *Oceanographic

Research Institute, P.O. Box 10712, Marine Parade,

Durban 4056, South Africa. Email: seaworld@dbn.lia.net

South African coral communities represent the marginal,

southernmost African distribution of this fauna. While soft

coral cover comprising relatively few species exceeds that of

scleractinians over much of the reefs, the coral communities

attain a biodiversity peak at this latitude on the East African

coast. Comparative data are provided in this regard. A long-term

monitoring programme has revealed only small changes

in community structure on the reefs in recent years, despite

consistent increases in mean and maximum temperature.

Insignificant bleaching was encountered during the 1998

ENSO event, unlike elsewhere in East Africa, but outbreaks of

COTS have caused longer term changes in isolated areas. A

study of coral larval dispersal and recruitment has been

initiated to establish the capacity of the reefs to recover from

the latter form of disturbance. The marginal nature of the reefs

is further manifested by corals that generate aseasonal and

atypical natural products and have a reproductive pattern

which conforms with that found on marginal reefs in W

Australia. Calcium deposition on the reefs is also low due to

physico-chemical factors that are related to latitude. Published

projections on the long-term effects of climate change indicate

that more reefs will become marginal as a result of global

warming.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND CALCIFICATION IN

CORALS UNDER VARIABLE SEAWATER

CARBONATE CHEMISTRY EXPECTED FROM

ATMOSPHERIC CO2 INCREASE.

Schneider, Kenneth and Erez, Jonathan*. Institute of

Earth Sciences, Hebrew University of Jerusalem,

Jerusalem 91904 Israel. Email: Erez@vms.huji.ac.il

Colonies of the coral Acropora sp . collected off the

Interuniversity Institute at Eilat, were incubated in a laboratory

respirometer for 1-2 hours. Dissolved oxygen, total alkalinity,

total inorganic carbon (CT) and its d

13 C were measured during

light and dark incubations. Seawaters were treated to keep

either CT, pH or CO2(aq) constant while changing all other

parameters of the carbonate chemistry. Rates of calcification

(light and dark) displayed positive linear slopes with pH of ~

25 % increase for 0.1 pH unit, a value much higher then

previously reported. Light enhanced calcification may be

explained by an internal pH increase of ~ 0.35 units caused by

photosynthesis. The carbonate ion (CO3 2- ) and not necessarily

aragonite saturation level (d), seems to control coral

calcification rate. Atmospheric CO2 increase may have reduced

coral calcification by 25 % and future CO2 doubling may

reduce it by additional 35 %. Hence, the balance between

growth and erosion of coral reefs may be shifted towards net

erosion. Unlike calcification, photosynthesis did not show any

trend with pH, CO2(aq) or CT, however, the overall data set

(including light and temperature experiments) showed a clear

positive correlation between the two processes. CO2(aq) for

photosynthesis may be provided internally from respiration

and indirectly via calcification, which produces protons that

combine with HCO3 - to form CO2(aq). This latter source may

become important at high pH values when CO2(aq) was low, but

calcification rates increased. Independent support for such

mechanisms comes from our observations on the isotopic

fractionations during photosynthesis and respiration..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E1:Global Change Science

253

A COLLABORATIVE INVESTIGATION OF

SETTLEMENT AND RECRUITMENT PATTERNS OF

CORAL ON A REGION-WIDE SCALE IN THE INDIAN

OCEAN

Souter David* and Turner, John. CORDIO, c/o SSPA

Sweden, St: Eriksgatan 121a, 113 43 Stockholm, Sweden.

E-mail: souter@pi.se

During 1998, extreme climatic conditions caused global

increases in sea temperature. As a consequence, coral reefs

throughout the world suffered a mass bleaching event that

some consider the worst ever witnessed. The subsequent

mortality of corals was unprecedented. In the Indian Ocean,

mortality frequently exceeded 75% and sometimes attained

90%. In addition, bleaching occurred in colonies of coral at

depths of 50 m and also in species thought previously to be

tolerant of temperature fluctuations. The potential of a reef to

recover from such a massive perturbation is dependent on a

number of factors, of which, perhaps the most important is the

influx, settlement and recruitment of coral larvae and

subsequent survival of recruits. However, the timing of coral

spawning and patterns of larval dispersal in the Indian Ocean

are poorly known. The dynamic hydrology of the western

Indian Ocean caused by the changing monsoons determines

that patterns of larval dispersal and subsequent settlement and

recruitment of corals are likely to be complex. These patterns

are only likely to be understood by conducting a broad-scale

investigation of coral settlement and recruitment over spatial

scales that transcend country borders. Through collaboration

between marine scientists at institutions from five countries in

the central and western Indian Ocean and international experts,

CORDIO will investigate the spatial, temporal and taxonomic

patterns of coral settlement and recruitment thus, providing

estimates of recovery times and potentially identifying

important sources of coral larvae.

NEW ESTIMATE O F G LO BAL REEF CARBONATE

PRODUCTIO N

Vecsei, A.*. *Geologi sch es In st itu t der Universit ät , Alb ert st r.

23B, 79104 F reibu rg i. Br., G erm an y. Em ail :

adam@perm.geologie.uni-freiburg.de

Reef al carbonate pr oduct ion i s impor tant for global budgets and

cl im ate change, but poor knowledge of t he fore- reef CaCO3 f lux

has been a m aj or pr obl em . E xt ending t o a r egional scal e t he

census- based m ethod, I have calcul ated the aver age gross CaCO3

pr oduct ion of cor al -domi nat ed reef s f rom cor al cover and

extensi on rates by growt h f or m bef ore t he most recent reef

decl ine. The f lux i s est imated usi ng porosit ies of f ramewor k and

bi odetr it al facies. The few known for e- reef dat a are f air ly well

repr oduced. Caribbean fr amework reefs have G = 9 (kg CaCO3

m - 2 yr - 1 ) in 0- 10 m depth, G = 6 in 10-20 m, and G = 2 in 20-40

m. T ypi cal bar rier reef transect s have tot al G = 3.4 (£80 % fr om

the for e- reef) . T he total f lux i n Car ibbean biodetri tal r eefs wi th

low cor al cover i s 1.1 G. T he compari son wit h act ual accr et ion

data (Hubbar d et al . 1998) suggest s ³1/ 2 of the f or e-r eef

pr oduct ion i s com monly export ed. T he Indopacifi c dat a are f rom

fr am ework-domi nat ed reef s. The highest for e- reef flux (G = 11) i s

fr om the Great Barr ier Reef i n 5-10 m dept h. Data for other

regi ons are rare. P aci fi c i sl and slopes have a si mil ar pr oduct ion as

Cari bbean fore-reef s. Indian Ocean fore-reef s have G = 8 in 0- 10

m and G = 2 in 10-30 m . Typical Indopacifi c bar ri er reefs with

acti ve reef- fl at have total G = 2.9 t o 3.1 ( up to 30 % fr om the for e-

reef ). The t ot al Caribbean and I ndopaci fic f luxes for transect s

wi th fr am ework reef s ( excludi ng lagoons) conver ge at G = 3 (30-

80 % fr om the for e- reef) . Usi ng this value and G = 1 f or tr ansects

wi th bi odetr it al reefs, tentativel y equal ar eas f or both facies, and

Spal ding & Grenfell 's (1997) global r eef area, the m odern global

reef pr oduct ion i s ca. 0.5 x 10 9 t yr - 1 ..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E2A: Bleaching - Systematics

Session E2A: Global Climate Change & Coral Reefs, 2. Bleaching

254

INTERSPECIFIC VARIATIONS IN THE

PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES OF CULTURED AND

IN HOSPITE SYMBIOTIC DINOFLAGELLATES TO

ELEVATED TEMPERATURES.

Ayala-Schiaffino, Natalia. T. LaJeunesse, R. K. Trench, R.

Iglesias-Prieto*. Unidad Académica Puerto Morelos

ICML-UNAM Apartado Postal 1152, Cancún Q.R. 77500

México. Email iglesias@mar.icmyl.unam.mx.

The physiological responses of 6 species of cultured

symbiotic dinoflagellates and the algae inhabiting 14 species

of reef-dwelling invertebrates including 12 scleractinians to

brief exposures to elevated temperatures (60 min) were

analyzed using two different chlorophyll a fluorescence

techniques. Comparative analyses of the responses of cultured

symbiotic dinoflagellates and the algae in the intact

invertebrates, indicate the existence of species-specific

sensitivities to elevated temperatures, with up to 4 ºC

differences in the temperature required to inhibit 50% of the

initial charge separation capacity of photosystem II (Tc 50 ).

Analyses of the restriction fragment length polymorphism of

the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene from cultured

Symbiodinium and from the symbionts isolated from the same

colonies use in this study, indicate that the species-specific

Tc 50 can not be correlated with the phylotype of the

symbiont. Comparative studies of the induction of

photoprotective mechanisms under thermally-induced

impairment of photosystem II, indicate that different

symbionts possess different capacities to elicit non-photochemical

pathways to dissipate excess excitation energy.

THE RESPONSE OF MILLEPORA ALCICORNIS TO

TWO BLEACHING EVENTS IN THE MEXICAN

CARIBBEAN.

Banaszak A.T.*, N. Ayala-Schiaffino, A. Rodríguez-Román,

S. Enríquez, R. Iglesias-Prieto. *Unidad

Académica – Puerto Morelos, ICML-UNAM, Apartado

Postal 1152, Cancún 77500 México. Email:

banaszak@mar.icmyl.unam.mx

Two naturally-occurring colonies of M. alcicornis were

monitored during 1997/98, both years in which this species

bleached in the Mexican Caribbean. One colony (HL) was

exposed to a high light environment in front of the pier at the

marine station in Puerto Morelos, México. The other colony

(LL) was exposed to lower light levels due to shadowing for

most of the day by the same pier. During August 1997 sea

water temperatures rose approximately 1 o C above monthly

average. The HL colony bleached (i.e., loss of symbionts or

pigments) following this increase in sea water temperature

whereas the LL colony did not. The HL colony recovered

within several weeks. The following year sea water

temperatures rose approximately 4 o C above monthly average

in August and both colonies bleached. Several experiments

were conducted on these colonies before, during and after the

bleaching events, using quantum yield (QY) of photosystem II

charge separation of the symbiotic algae in intact colonies as

an assay. Exclusion of ultraviolet (UV) radiation indicates that

QY in HL and LL colonies is higher than in colonies exposed

to UV. HL colonies are affected more by exposure to UV than

LL colonies but recover quickly. Monitoring of QY indicates

that HL colonies were affected more than LL colonies during

both bleaching events suggesting that temperature is not the

only factor affecting photosynthetic efficiency in this species.

During 1998 the HL colony bleached earlier than the LL

colony and neither colony recovered its symbionts or

pigmentation.

EFFECT OF TEMPRATURE AND ULTRAVIOLET

LIGHT ON VIBRIO SHILOI BLEACHING OF OCULINA

PATAGONICA.

Banin E.*, T. Israely, M. Fine, Y. Loya and E. Rosenberg.

*Faculty of Life Science, Tel Aviv University, Israel. Email:

eueqene@ccsg.tau.ac.il

Coral bleaching and high seawater temperatures are

corellated. This has led to the hypothesis that bleaching is

stress related. Bleaching of Oculina patagonica in the

Mediterranean Sea is the result of an infection by Vibrio shiloi.

The correlation between elevated seawater temperatures and

bleaching (70-90% of the colonies are bleached in the summer)

is due to the fact that the bacterium becomes more virulent

with increasing temperatures. Adhesion of V. shiloi to O.

patagonica is temperature regulated. When the bacteria were

grown at 16 0 C there was no adhesion to corals maintained at

either 25 0 C or 16 0 C. However, when the bacteria were grown

at 25 0 C, they adhered avidly to corals maintained at 16 0 C and

25 0 C. After adhesion the bacterium penetrates and multiplies

in the coral tissue. The ability of the bacterium to multiply and

maintain itself inside the coral tissue was also found to be

temperature regulated. In addition, toxins which inhibit

photosynthesis, bleach and lyse the zooxanthellae are produced

at much higher levels when the bacterium is grown at elevated

temperatures. Colonies in shallow-water show little (2-15%)

bleaching, even though they are exposed to higher

temperatures than the deeper water corals. When O.

patagonica were infected with V. shiloi in laboratory aquaria

and subsequently exposed to sunlight, the intracellular bacteria

were rapidly killed, aborting the infection and preventing

bleaching. When infected corals were protected from UV light,

the intracellular V. shiloi multiplied and the coral bleached.

Thus UV radiation can prevent bacterial bleaching.

DIFFERENCE IN STRESS SUSCEPTIBILITY AMONG

ZOOXANTHELLAE ISOLATED FROM DIFFERENT

CORAL HOSTS.

Bhagooli, R.*, Kanemoto, H. and. Hidaka, M.

*Department of Chemistry, Biology and Marine Science,

Univ. of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, 903-0213

Japan. Email: hidaka@sci.u-ryukyu.ac.jp

The purpose of the present study is to detect differences in

susceptibility to environmental stress among zooxanthellae

derived from different coral hosts. Coral tissue was removed

with a WaterPik and zooxanthellae were isolated by

centrifugation. Zooxanthellae in suspension or collected on

Millipore filters were treated with a combination of high

temperature and various intensities of light. Photosynthetic

efficiency (Fv/Fm) of the zooxanthellae collected on Millipore

filters was measured using a MINI-PAM after a dark

adaptation of 20 min. In some experiments, rapid light curve

and photochemical and non-photochemical quenching (qP and

qN) were also measured. Light intensity during heat stress

treatment affected the photosynthetic efficiency of isolated

zooxanthellae: the photosynthetic efficiency decreased with

increasing light intensity during the heat treatment. The

decrease in photosynthetic efficiency was greater in

zooxanthellae isolated from Pachyseris rugosa than those

isolated from Galaxea fascicularis. Photosynthetic efficiency

of zooxanthellae isolated from Montipora species was very

low and became almost zero after stress treatment. The present

results suggest that there are considerable differences in stress

susceptibility among zooxanthellae isolated from different

coral hosts..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E2A: Bleaching - Systematics

255

“JELLYFISH LAKE”, PALAU: DISTURBANCE BY

AND EARLY STAGES OF RECOVERY FROM THE

1997/8 EL NIÑO-LA NIÑA.

Dawson, M.N*, L.K. Penland, E. Basilius, L.E. Martin,

and L.J. Bell. Coral Reef Research Foundation, Koror,

Box 1765, Palau. Email: mikend@ucla.edu

Palau is one of the most popular dive destinations in the

Western Pacific because of its splendid coral reefs. A slightly

more heterodox beauty is found in a perennial swarm of 1.5

million golden-medusae (Mastigias sp.) crowded into the land-locked,

marine, “Jellyfish Lake”. Both ‘natural wonders’

contributed to a 500% increase in tourism in Palau between

1986 and 1997. Both natural wonders also suffered

considerably during the El Niño-La Niña of 1997-98. Here we

describe the disappearance of 1.5 million medusae from

Jellyfish Lake and document the early stages of the lake’s

recovery. Field measurements and laboratory-based

experiments indicate the disappearance of golden-medusae

was due to dramatic warming and stratification of Jellyfish

Lake, which probably began during the 1998 El Niño-induced

drought. Stratification was reinforced during early- to mid-1999

when water temperatures rose as high as 35 o C. Since

then, stratification has weakened and the lake has cooled, but

recovery is slow. In January, 2000, the first golden-medusae

re-appeared. Since then, the medusae have grown and matured

and there have been further strobilation events. However, as

of April 2000, Jellyfish Lake still is warm, stratified, and

depauperate in golden-medusae.

THE ROLE OF WATER TEMPERATURE AND UV

RADIATION IN THE RECOVERY OF THE

EXPERIMENTALLY BLEACHED CORAL Pocillopora

damicornis FROM THE EASTERN PACIFIC OCEAN

(PANAMA).

D’Croz L* and Maté JL. Smithsonian Tropical Research

Institute, Box 2072 Balboa, Republic of Panamá. E-mail

address: dcrozl@naos.si.edu

Field observations and experiments have amply

demonstrated that elevated water temperature in the eastern

Pacific Ocean induce to bleaching in the coral Pocillopora

damicornis. However, the effect of UV radiation is not that

clear, particularly during their recovery. To study the coral-zooxanthellae

symbiosis during simulated post-ENSO

scenarios, colonies of P. damicornis were exposed to elevated

water temperature and natural UV radiation until they

bleached. The significant decline of zooxanthellae and

photosynthetic pigments occurred after 5 weeks of exposure.

Bleached corals were then exposed to experimental conditions

to test the effect of increased exposition to natural UV

radiation and slightly elevated water temperature, and

monitored for 7 weeks. Corals kept under ambient water

temperature regained their density of zooxanthella and

concentration of chlorophylls, regardless of the exposition to

UV radiation. Corals under slightly elevated water

temperature and reduced UV radiation remained pale. The

condition of corals exposed to slightly elevated water

temperature and increased UV radiation continue to decline in

time. Results indicated that the time of exposure to slightly

elevated water temperature, increased exposition to natural UV

radiation, and their interactions hampered the recovery of

experimentally bleached corals.

A COMPARISON OF PRODUCTION EFFECTS

BETWEEN CORALS AND MACROALGAE AT

INCREASED SEAWATER TEMPERATURE.

T., M. Tedengren*. *Department of Systems Ecology,

University of Stockholm, Sweden. Email:

michaelt@system.ecology.su.se

The last decade, there have been numerous reports on

macroalgae overgrowing coral reefs, especially from the

Caribbean region. Most phase shifts described to date involve

dramatically increased mortality rates of scleractinian corals

and subsequent overgrowth by macroalgae. In this study we

investigate whether a temperature increase by 3°C may have

different effects on the physiological performance (net-production,

respiration and GP/R ratios) of coral and

macroalgae. Four species of macroalgae (two brown algae

Turbinaria sp. and Sargassum sp., one red algae Laurencia sp.,

and one green algae Dichtyosphaeria sp.) and one of the most

abundant coral species Porites porites were collected at

Glovers Reef Atoll, Belize. The general trend in our study was

that GP/R ratios increased for the algae species and decreased

for the coral, although the coral maintains a net producing

state. Since the macroalgae seem to benefit from the

temperature increase it can be hypothesized that the relative

competitive abilities have been altered and that this might lead

to an increased algal overgrowth although the coral component

is still in a physiologically fit state. This could contribute to

changes in ecosystem structure and function without dramatic

bleaching events or increased coral mortality as warning

signals.

TAPHONOMIC ALTERATION OF BRANCHING

CORAL SKELETONS FOLLOWING A MASS

MORTALITY EVENT IN THE ARABIAN GULF

(DUBAI, UAE).

Greiss, Mourad*, Riegl Bernhard. *Institut für Geologie

und Paläontologie, Karl- Franzens-Universität Graz,

Heinrichstrasse 26, 8010 Graz, Austria,

mourad.greiss@kfunigraz.ac.at

In the aftermath of a coral mass mortality in the southern

Arabian Gulf (Dubai, UAE), taphonomic alteration in death

assemblages of the coral genus Acropora were investigated.

Between May and August 1996, sea-surface temperatures in

the study area were elevated by 2 degrees above average which

led to widespread coral death in an area previously covered in

dense Acropora growth. In November 1999, samples of dead

Acropora corals were taken and compared to samples of the

same species collected in October 1995, when still alive. Early

constructive (encrustation, cementation) and destructive

(micro- and macroboring, grazing) diagenetic processes and

their influence on framework formation were studied. A

sequence of encrustation was found: after death, the skeletons

were rapidly colonized by a layer of bivalves (Chama spp.)

which were later replaced by coralline red algae and other

bivalves, particularly Spondylus spp. This latter encrustation

added significantly to the carbonate mass of the branches. The

earliest destructive processes were associated with sea-urchin

grazing, which led to erosion of external structures. Later,

boring by clionid sponges and boring bivalves caused

dissolution and ensuing mechanical weakening of the

skeletons. Three years after the mass mortality, the

constructive processes were volumetrically still more

important than destructive processes. The latter, however, are

expected to become increasingly important with time..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E2A: Bleaching - Systematics

256

THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS: INTEGRATING

CLIMATE MODEL PROJECTIONS AND THE RECENT

BEHAVIOUR OF CORALS AND THEIR

DINOFLAGELLATES.

Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove*, *Centre for Marine Studies,

University of Queensland, St Lucia, 4072. QLD, Australia.

Email: oveh@uq.edu.au

Concern is increasing as to how coral reefs will fare under

climate change. All major climate models concur that current

rates of temperature change in the world’s oceans (1-2 o C per

century) will continue over the next 100 years if atmospheric

greenhouse gases increase. This scenario, together with the

explicit link between coral bleaching, mortality and sea

temperature, leads to the prediction that coral bleaching is

likely to become an annual feature of coral reef environments

in the 21 st century. This paper reviews the rationale behind

these predictions and explores how coral reefs might respond

to an increased frequency and intensity of coral bleaching.

While some workers suggest that corals-dinoflagellates will

adapt fast enough to the changes in sea temperature, the data to

support these opinions is scant or non-existent. Most evidence

suggests that corals and their symbiotic dinoflagellates will not

change fast enough to prevent major changes in coral reef

ecosystem distribution and function. Simple ecological

surveys done after a bleaching event reveal little about the

long-term decadal trends and may even serve to confuse

managers and policy makers who seek guidance in this

important debate. Two issues are central to a better

understanding of how reefs will respond to climate change.

These are: (a) the rates of genetic change (adaptation) under

extreme selection regimes and (b) the source of genetic

variability on coral reefs. The latter also suggests that a

greater knowledge of gene flow and connectivity between

reefs is crucial. Work on these issues is surprisingly limited

and must be a priority over the next few years.

THE ROLE OF PLANKTIVORY IN THE BLEACHING

OF 5 CORAL SPECIES FROM THE EASTERN

PACIFIC, PANAMA

Hueerkamp C.* and D’Croz L. *Center for Tropical

Marine Ecology ZMT, Bremen, Germany. Email:

chrhueerkamp@hotmail.com

Reef-building corals contain endosymbiotic zooxanthellae,

which account for a high percentage of the coral’s nutrition.

Corals have in addition a further source of energy and nutrients

from the zooplankton captured by their tentacles. Under

conditions of increased water temperature, such as during

ENSO events, the corals show a decline in the density of their

symbionts and in the concentration of photosynthetic

pigments. When this occurs, the corals loose not only their

color (bleach) but also their main nutritional source. The main

5 reef-building coral species of the eastern Pacific coast of

Panama were experimentally exposed to elevated temperature

to compare their responses under fed and unfed conditions.

The corals fed with nauplii of Artemia salina generally

bleached later than the unfed ones. The massive corals Pavona

clavus and P. gigantea with larger tentacle sizes exhibited the

smallest decrease in the density of zooxanthellae, and in the

concentration of chlorophyll, when compared to the branched

corals Pocillopora damicornis and P. elegans with smaller

polyp sizes. This work provides further evidence to the

hypothesis that corals with larger tentacles can quantitatively

catch more prey and therefore can better compensate the loss

of energy due to the decline of the zooxanthellae during sea

warming episodes.

DARK METABOLIC DYSFUNCTION: TRACING THE

ORIGINS OF STRESS IN REEF-BUILDING CORALS

AND THEIR SYMBIONTS.

Jones Ross, and Hoegh-Guldberg Ove, *Centre for Marine

Studies, University of Queensland, St Lucia, 4072. QLD,

Australia. Email: oveh@uq.edu.au

Stress in reef-building corals and related symbioses can arise

for a number of reasons yet the outcome can often appear

identical (bleaching = loss of symbionts). In this paper, high

temperature and high cyanide concentrations are compared. In

both cases, damage to or over-loading of the dark reactions of

symbiont photosynthesis leads to an increased sensitivity to

photoinhibition, making the extent of damage during stress

light sensitive. This matches field observations during thermal

stressed related mass bleaching in which the top (most sunlit)

sides of coral colonies are damaged the most. These laboratory

and field observations suggest a physiological model for stress

that begins with the failure of the dark metabolism of the

symbiotic dinoflagellates. We have further extended these

ideas by exploring how stress tolerant symbiotic

dinoflagellates might operate. Two general observations fall

out of the model. Clearly, as light stress increases, shading

dinoflagellates using host-based pigments or tentacle retraction

(deep tissues like Porites) will reduce the damage induced by

these types of stresses. The second observation is that

symbiotic dinoflagellates that are able to handle high light

environments will have a greater tolerance of situations in

which there is an over-supply of excitations stemming from the

light reactions.

GLOW IN THE DARK: PHYSIOLOGICAL CONTROL

AND BIOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF

FLUORESCENT PIGMENTS IN Montipora digitata.

Klüter A.* & Hoegh-Guldberg O., *Centre for Marine

Studies, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072.

Email: a.klueter@mailbox.uq.edu.au

The often brilliant colours of reef-building corals are

amongst the most conspicuous elements of a living coral reef.

These animal based pigments fluoresce under irradiation with

ultra-violet light, producing either blue or green light. At

present, the structure and function have not been fully

described. Preliminary studies suggest that the pigments are

related to light stress and may have an important role in

photoprotection and hence the survival of reef-building corals

in conditions of high light and temperature that cause coral

bleaching. Recent episodes of mass coral bleaching have

sparked new found interest in these pigments, with the

suggestion that they may function to reduce the influences of

high temperature stress. We have been examining the biology

of the reef-building coral Montipora digitata at Heron Island

(Great Barrier Reef) which occurs as two morphs (differing

spatially and physiologically) based on their ability to

fluoresce. Interestingly, the fluorescent morph of this species

lives in the extreme shallows where temperature exceed 36 o C

during the summer months, yet bleaching does not occur. We

are currently investigating how M. digitata is able to resist

these high temperature conditions and are exploring if the

production of fluorescent pigments can impart greater

bleaching tolerance..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E2A: Bleaching - Systematics

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EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE, LIGHT, AND

NUTRIENTS ON PIGMENTS OF ZOOXANTHELLAE

FROM THE CORAL MONTASTRAEA FAVEOLATA.

Macri Erin*, Strom Suzanne, Bright Kelley, and Peterson

Emily. *Western Washington University, Shannon Point

Marine Center, 1900 Shannon Point Rd., Anacortes, WA

98221 USA Email: macrie@hotmail.com

In this study we compared pigment content and composition

of zooxanthellae retained by the host (AZ) and expelled (EZ)

after exposure to stress. Our goal was to determine pigment

changes associated with temperature and light stress and to

gain insight into the condition of cells being expelled. Plugs of

Montastraea faveolata were collected from Lee Stocking

Island, Bahamas from 15m (± 1m) in July of 1998 and 1999.

Plugs were placed in an outdoor incubator covered with screen

and Mylar to create the desired light treatments and exposed to

either ambient reef or elevated (+2°C) temperature. In addition

corals were exposed to various light regimes (including

enhanced ultra-violet B) and inorganic nutrient additions (2, or

10 µM). Analysis by HPLC showed AZ pigments

(chlorophylls and carotenoids) decreased (per cell) in corals

exposed to elevated temperature alone but not in corals

exposed to elevated light alone. The difference in overall

pigment content between AZ and EZ was greatest at elevated

temperatures and light. Pigment decreases at elevated

temperature and light were sometimes alleviated by nutrient

additions. In general, pigments changed proportionally, and

large variations in pigment composition were not seen.

CHANGES IN PHOTOGRAPHIC R, G, AND B VALUES

QUANTITATIVELY REFLECT DECREASE IN

PIGMENTS AND OF ZOOXANTHELLAE DURING

BLEACHING OF PORITES ASTREOIDES

Maguire Bassett, Jr., Gleason Daniel F., Mojica Raymond,

and Mojica Elizabeth C. *Dept. Zoology, University Texas,

Austin, Texas, USA. Email: b.maguire@mail.utexas.edu

Quantitative measures of coral bleaching are much needed; a

description of a photographic method of obtaining such data

noninvasively is provided. Portions of eight Porites astreoides

colonies were transplanted from 17 to 2 m depth and the rapid

and severe bleaching thereby induced was documented through

both photographic/computer analysis and quantification of

zooxanthella densities and concentrations of the chlorophylls

and carotenoids. Time series data during bleaching showed a

strong positive relationship between exponentially decreasing

coral Red, Green, and Blue (RGB) reflectance densities,

concentrations of algal pigments, and numbers of

zooxanthellae. This shows that simple, noninvasive

photographic/ computer methods can provide data which serve

as good proxies for the more fundamental pigment

concentrations and zooxanthella numbers of this scleractinian

coral. This technique was used again later, but photographs

were taken much more frequently, and approximately half of

each colony was shaded in such a way that water currents

could freely pass through the 2 to 4 cm “slot” between the

shade and the colony. The shaded portions of the colonies did

not bleach but the sunlit portions did, and they did so with an

exponential decline which was surprisingly continuous

regardless of whether it was dark (night) or light (day).

BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF THE 1995 -1996

BLEACHING EVENT ON MONTASTREA ANNULARIS

IN JAMAICA.

Mendes Judith M.,* & Woodley Jeremy D.. *Centre for

Marine Science, University of the West Indies, Mona,

Kingston 7, Jamaica. Email: jmendes@uwimona.edu.jm

Fifteen colonies of Montastrea annularis were monitored for

growth, gonad development, density band formation and polyp

tissue depth for one year prior to the 1995 - 1996 bleaching

event. Monitoring was continued for the duration of

bleaching, and for two years following the bleaching event.

During the bleaching event seven of the monitored colonies

did not bleach, six were mildly bleached (two months or less)

and two were severely bleached (more than four months). This

natural experiment revealed the long-term effects of bleaching

on the biological parameters mentioned above. The immediate

effects were a reduction in polyp tissue depth and a cessation

of growth (measured as skeletal extension) that was

proportional to the length of time the colonies remained

bleached. In the year following bleaching there was a

reduction in the number and size of gonads in mildly bleached

colonies, and a failure to complete gametogenesis and

spawning in severely bleached colonies. With respect to

density banding, the width of the 1995 annual dense band

increased in both mild and severely bleached colonies, while

no distinct annual density band formed in the year following

bleaching in severely bleached colonies (i.e. those that did not

complete gametogenesis). These effects support the newly

proposed Growth Depression Model of density band

formation.

THE EFFECTS OF HIGH IRRADIANCE AND

TEMPERATURE ON TISSUE LEVELS OF UV-ABSORBING

MAAS IN SOFT CORALS. NO EVIDENCE

FOR THERMAL LABILITY OF MAAS.

Michalek-Wagner Kirsten * . *Departments of Marine

Biology and Chemistry, Cooperative Research Centre Reef,

James Cook University, Townsville, Qld, 4811, Australia,

Email: kirstenm@gbrmpa.gov.au

Mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) are believed to be an

important component of a coral’s biochemical defence system

against high irradiance, and thus could play a role in their

protection against light stress during coral bleaching episodes.

This study investigates the role of temperature and UV

radiation (UVR) alone and in combination on levels of MAAs,

using manipulative bleaching experiments and data collected

during a natural bleaching episode. UVR and temperature

were found to act synergistically in the bleaching process in

soft corals. The long standing notion that MAAs are thermo-labile,

and thus chemically degraded during a thermal

bleaching event, however, could not be confirmed. To the

contrary, MAA levels in-creased in response to simultaneous

exposure to elevated temperature and UVR, in experimentally

and naturally bleached colonies, suggesting in-creased

resource allocation towards photo-protection in corals already

experiencing thermal stress. Subsequent studies with high and

low MAA-acclimatised soft corals, which examined whether

increased investment into MAAs results in reduced bleaching,

revealed that there was no ecological advantage in high MAA

acclimatised colonies when bleaching was solely triggered by

increased temperature. When solar radiation alone, or in

combination with temperature, act as stress factors, however,

increased MAA levels do translate into higher protection

against bleaching in soft corals..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E2A: Bleaching - Systematics

258

NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE ACTIVITY AND

ANTIOXIDANT STATUS IN THE CNIDARIAN

AIPTASIA PALLIDA DURING AN ARTIFICIALLY

INDUCED THERMAL BLEACHING.

Morrall C E*, Depledge, M H, Galloway, T S, Trapido-Rosenthal

H G. BBSR, Ferry Reach, St George’s, GEO1,

Bermuda.

Email: cmorrall@bbsr.edu

Cnidarian bleaching involves the breakdown of the intimate

symbiotic relationship between cnidarian host and

zooxanthellal symbiont, and oxidative stress has been

implicated in bleaching events. Nitric oxide (NO), a multi-functional

messenger implicated in the control of many

fundamental cellular processes is formed by the action of nitric

oxide synthase (NOS). NO may exhibit both pro- and anti-oxidant

properties depending on the availability and

concentration of potential reaction partners. Antioxidants serve

to ameliorate or prevent damage posed by oxidative stress. We

examined the effect of a stress that induces bleaching on the

capacity of host organisms to both generate NO and to

generate antioxidants. Responses of Aiptasia pallida to whole

organism exposure to temperatures between 25-35°C were

investigated. Anemones maintained at 35°C for 48 h had

reduced levels of chlorophyll and reduced numbers of

symbionts per host (respectively, 44% and 88% of control

values). Host protein concentration was also dramatically

lower (66% of control values). However, on a per animal

basis, NOS activity and antioxidant capacity remained

unchanged relative to control values, although when expressed

on a per unit of protein basis, these parameters were

significantly increased relative to controls. Thus, even under

conditions of heat stress that lead to the expulsion of

zooxanthellae, the host organism maintains its capacity to

generate both NO and antioxidants.

SIGNIFICANT DROP OF FERTILIZATION OF

ACROPORA CORALS IN 1999. AN AFTER-EFFECT OF

THE HEAVY CORAL BLEACHING OUTBREAKS?

Omori, M.*, H. Fukami, M. Hatta, and H. Kobinata.

*Department of Aquatic Biosciences, Tokyo University of

Fisheries, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8477, Japan Email:

makomori@tokyo-u-fish.ac.jp

In June l999 after devastating coral bleaching outbreaks in

l998, laboratory fertilization of Acropora nasuta, one of the

most abundant reef-building corals in Okinawa, Japan,

decreased significantly from usual rates (>90%) to an average

of 42% at a sperm concentration of 10 5 ml -1 . Similar decreases

were observed in 5 other mass-spawning acroporid corals.

Sperm motility was reduced and, we consider that the low

fertilization was an after-effect of coral bleaching. A series of

laboratory experiments to determine the effects of gamete

dilution on fertilization rates revealed that sperm concentration

of l0 7 ml -1 was needed to obtain a rate of more than 60%.

Fertilization in the laboratory of A. nasuta and A. tenuis

reached a maximum approximately 1 hr after spawning.

Sperm concentration in surface seawater during mass

spawning was highest within the first 1.5 hr after spawning but

decreased sharply thereafter. These results suggest that gamete

dilution plays an important role in limiting the fertilization of

coral eggs in the sea. As successful fertilization appears to

have been much lower in 1999, we suspect that production of

new coral polyps was reduced greatly after bleaching. Coral

reefs are severely threatened by current and future sea-temperature

increases.

CO2 RISE IS A MAIN BLEACHING FACTOR.

Pêcheux, Martin*. Nice University, 15bis rue des Roses,

06100 Nice, FRANCE. Email : martinpecheux@minitel.net

Bleaching is the major threat to reefs. The Global Warming

is generally invoked. Never examined, the CO2 rise from 280

to 360ppm is the only other possible global cause

(www.essi.fr/~sander/article/Misc /Coral_Reef.html). Current

works converge to indicate that it originates in symbiont

photoinhibition. best measured by chlorophyll fluorescence. I

used its fast kinetics with a PEA. First, seven long term

bleaching experiments were conduced at four CO2 levels (85,

230, 560 and 1270ppm) on the coral Stylophora pistillata and

the large foraminifers Amphistegina. Bleaching occured under

the high CO2 conditions (not always in short term shock

experiments) at Fv/Fm around 0.275. With 100 000

fluorescence data, the origin of bleaching is discussed at the PS

II (Qa-Qb), the Rubisco, or the bicarbonate pumps. Secondly,

tentacles of Anemonia viridis were incubated for 1 hour under

4 lights, 5 temperatures and the 4 CO2 levels. CO2 has a

strong effect on photochemistry, and very similar to

temperature. This allows to establish an equivalence between

them. The actual CO2 rise corresponds to an warming of

0.4°C, more probably 1.2°C. The future CO2 level (500-700

ppm) will be equivalent to a tremendous stress of 2.8-4.5°C, in

addition to Global Warming. I surmise that reefs as they are

known today will disappear. Reef scientists must urgently call

for a strong mitigation of anthropogenic CO2.

CORAL BLEACHING: WHAT CAN BE LEARNED

FROM REEF CONNECTIVITY?

Ridgway, T.*, Hoegh-Guldberg, O. *Centre for Marine

Studies, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD

4072, Australia. Email: tyrone@mailbox.uq.edu.au

Coral bleaching has had a major influence on the state and

health of coral reefs around the world. A great deal of effort

has been given to the physiology and mechanisms behind the

bleaching phenomenon, but as yet, the implications and

management of these bleaching events are not fully

understood. Rates of recovery of affected reefs are largely

unknown. Differences in the connectivity of reef systems and

the life histories of corals are crucial for determining patterns

of recovery or decline. Recent work has shown that coral

populations may be self-seeding despite the high levels of

genetic connectivity and this therefore challenges the notion

that reefs may be rapidly repopulated after the removal of

adults following disturbance. Thus, there is an urgent need for

information relating to the connectivity and relatedness of reef

systems around the world’s oceans. Connectivity studies using

DNA sequence and RFLP analysis of mtDNA of populations

of Pocillopora damicornis and P. verrucosa have been

examined at different scales in an attempt to assess the relative

connectivity and relatedness of corals from different ocean

systems. Preliminary results, coupled with future directions

and implications related to the management of reefs post-bleaching

are discussed..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E2A: Bleaching - Systematics

259

THE ROLE OF FLUORESCENT PIGMENTS:

EVIDENCE OF ENHANCED RESISTANCE TO

BLEACHING IN FLUORESCENTLY PIGMENTED

CORALS.

Salih A*, Cox G, & Larkum AWD. *The School of

Biological Sciences A08 and the Electron Microscope Unit,

University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia. Email:

anya@emu.usyd.edu.au

The most common coral-host pigments are the fluorescent

pigments (FPs), so-called because they glow intensely under

UV-blue light. While the photoenhancing function of FPs in

reef-building corals growing under light-limited conditions is

well known, their function in corals from sun-lit habitats was

previously poorly understood. We have recently shown that

FPs may also function in photoscreening of the algal

symbionts. Since sunlight is of major importance in mediating

mass coral bleaching during periods of elevated seawater

temperature, we hypothesised that FPs may confer increased

resistance to corals during bleaching events. We measured the

degree of bleaching in selected common fluorescent and non-fluorescent

corals immediately after the 1998 mass coral

bleaching event on reefs of the Central Great Barrier Reef,

Australia. Microalgal numbers remaining in coral tissues were

normalised to the amount of tissue FPs, the latter analysed by

confocal microscopic imaging. While the degree of bleaching

susceptibility was found to be highly variable, fluorescently

pigmented coral genera and species were significantly less

bleached then the non fluorescent ones. This study provides

new insights into the understanding of some of the observed

differences in the inter- and intraspecific susceptibilities of

corals to bleaching.

EFFECTS OF THERMAL STRESS ON CLOSELY-RELATED

REEF FAUNA: ASSOCIATIONS-DISSOCIATIONS

AS EARLY WARNING SIGNALS?

Syed-Ibrahim, S.N.*. *Centre for Marine and Coastal

Studies (CEMACS), Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800

Penang, Malaysia. Email: nora_ibrahim@hotmail.com

The previous El Nino phenomenon which contributed to

increased sea surface temperature resulted in massive coral

bleachings world-wide. Thermal stress also induces other

forms of dissociation prior to zooxanthellae dissociation from

host corals, which may serve as an early warning system.

Thus, this study was undertaken vis-à-vis responses to thermal

stress in reef animals that may occur prior to coral bleaching.

An ascidian and its associated flatworms (Clavelina sp. and

Cycloporus sp.) and an octocoral and its associated poychaetes

(Heliopora coerulea and Polydora armata) were investigated

when subjected to thermal stress. In the former, experimental

results show that a) in preference tests, the flatworms 100%

preferred an unstressed host ascidian, and b) the flatworms

dissociated from thermally-stressed (>30°C) ascidians.

Similarly in the latter, the polydorids dissociated from inside

its stressed octocoral host prior to coral bleaching.

Dissociations from their stressed hosts may also affect the

flatworms and polydorids survival via increased visibility to

predators, etc. Thus, the interspecies close associations of

ascidian-flatworm and octocoral-poychaete may have greater

implications e.g. unaccounted loss of biodiversity due to global

warming. Knowledge on association-dissociation can also

increase the relevance of biomonitoring and biodiversity

studies. Moreover, these association-dissociations can

potentially be used as a local and regional early warning signal

of reef stress. Thus, they are potentially predictors of

impending coral bleaching and biodiversity loss to prompt

biodiversity managers into action.

EFFECTS OF THERMAL STRESS ON DEFENCE

CAPABILITY OF THE TUNICATE CLAVELINA

FECUNDA.

Syed-Ibrahim N * . School of Biological Sciences, Universiti

Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia. Email:

nora_ibrahim@hotmail.com

This marine chemical ecology study on the ascidian

Clavelina fecunda at Pulau Payar Marine Park (Kedah,

Malaysia) found that its crude extracts seem to have defence

properties (e.g. anti-feedant). Based on field and laboratory

investigations, it is found that induced thermal stress (>30°C)

on the C. fecunda affect its defence capability. The affected

defence capability pose great implications vis-à-vis the species

long-term survival in view of global warming. Currently, work

continues on the effects of thermal stress on other properties of

this ascidian’s secondary metabolites e.g. anti-fouling.

THERMAL-INDUCED DISSOCIATIONS PRIOR TO

CORAL BLEACHINGS: AN EARLY WARNING

SYSTEM?

Syed-Ibrahim N . Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies,

Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang,

Malaysia. Email: nora_ibrahim@hotmail.com

Thermal stress may also induce other dissociations prior to

zooxanthellae dissociation from host corals, which may serve

as an early warning system. Dissociations between an ascidian

and its associated flatworms (Clavelina sp. and ?Pseudoceros

sp.), and an octocoral and its associated polychaetes

(Heliopora coerulea and Polydora armata) were investigated

when subjected to thermal stress. In the former, experimental

results show that a) in preference tests, the flatworms 100%

preferred an unstressed host ascidian, and b) the flatworms

dissociated from thermally-stressed (>30°C) ascidians.

Similarly in the latter, the polydorids dissociated from inside

its stressed octocoral host prior to bleaching. Dissociations

from their stressed hosts may also affect the flatworms and

polydorids survival e.g. increased visibility to predators. Thus,

these associations-dissociations may have greater implications

e.g. greater potential biodiversity loss due to global warming,

and potential use as a local and regional early warning signal

of reef stress. Further studies to determine the threshold levels

for dissociations, identification of heat shock proteins (hsps)

and other ‘biomarkers’, and associations between other species

are suggested to widen the potential of an early warning

system..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E2A: Bleaching - Systematics

260

CHANGES IN THE LIPID CONTENT AND TISSUE

THICKNESS VARIATION IN THE MASSIVE CORAL

PORITES DURING NATURAL AND EXPERIMENTAL

BLEACHING EVENTS.

True, James*. *School of Marine Biology and

Aquaculture, James Cook University, Townsville, Q4811,

Australia. Email: James.True@jcu.edu.au

Pre-bleaching or sub-bleaching responses to stress in

scleractinian corals are seldom quantified or reported. In this

study, variation in the thickness of the tissue layer and the lipid

content of the tissue layer were investigated as possible

precursors of the bleaching response. Variation in the lipid

content of the tissue layer versus variation in tissue layer

thickness of massive Porites corals was measured during

natural and experimental bleaching events. The first phase

was an investigation of tissue loss and lipid variation during

the mass bleaching event of 1998. Colonies of Porites were

sampled at the start of the bleaching event, when the more

vulnerable species were exhibiting profound colour loss, and

one month later, when even the Porites were bleached. In the

experimental phase, colonies were kept in aquaria under

conditions of elevated temperature and sunlight until they

bleached. In both studies, those colonies with low lipid levels

in the tissue layer lost significant amounts of tissue biomass

before bleaching. Those colonies with initially high levels of

lipids in the tissue lost significant amounts of lipid before

bleaching at low tissue thickness. A threshold combination of

low lipid and low tissue thickness was identified below which

all colonies bleached. When only one parameter fell below the

critical level, bleaching was not assured. Energy reserves in

these corals may be stored either as lipids or as somatic tissue,

depending upon the overall health of the colony.

CORAL BLEACHING: DIFFERENTIAL SURVIVAL

EXPLAINED BY PASSIVE DIFFUSION AND WATER

FLOW.

van Woesik, Robert*. *Dept. Chemistry, Biology and

Marine Science, The University of the Ryukyus, Senbaru 1,

Nishihara, Okinawa 903-0213, Japan. Email:

b984138@sci.u-ryukyu.ac.jp

Massive and sub-massive coral colonies were more tolerant

than branched colonies to the high sea surface temperatures

ssts (and unseasonably calm conditions) in the northwest

pacific during july-september 1998. Differential effects of

passive diffusion (i.e., Not involving energy) and water flow

may explain differential coral survival. Since high ssts and

high solar irradiation cause photoinhibition of zooxanthellae

and a probable accumulation of toxic byproducts, removing

such byproducts is essential for colony survival. When two

colonies have the same sized boundary layer, which is the

narrow zone between the surrounding (bulk) water and the

coral, the rate of diffusion will increase as the interstitial space,

between the boundary layer and the colony's surface, is

reduced. This is apparent as colonies approach massive

(hemispherical) morphologies. The rate of passive diffusion is

reduced as corals become more intricately branched, within a

given boundary domain. If we combine these ideas with

newton's law of viscosity we can predict that passive diffusion

rates increase in accordance with the square of the flow rate.

Thus, passive diffusion and water flow theory suggest that

under a unit flow regime, branched corals should disperse

fewer metabolic toxins than massive corals, and indeed should

be more susceptible to mortality at high ssts. Likewise, small

colonies should theoretically survive.

CORAL BLEACHING REDUCES REPRODUCTION OF

SCLERACTINIAN CORALS AND INCREASES THEIR

SUSCEPTIBILITY TO FUTURE STRESS.

Ward, Selina* Harrison, Peter; and Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove

*Centre for Marine Studies, University of Queensland,

4072 QLD Australia. Email: selinaward@bigpond.com

Extensive bleaching of corals occurred at Heron Island Reef

(Great Barrier Reef, Australia) in 1998. This study

investigated how reproduction and long-term survivorship

would be affected by a “natural” mass bleaching event.

Bleached colonies of all sampled species had reduced

symbiotic dinoflagellates, chlorophyll a and total lipid per

surface area compared to unbleached colonies. There were

significantly fewer eggs, significantly fewer polyps containing

eggs and testes and smaller eggs in most species of bleached

than unbleached colonies. By July 1998, 23% of the sampled

colonies had died. Many of the bleached colonies had

regained their colour by this time, suggesting (visually) that

they had recovered however, in November 1998, previously

bleached colonies still had fewer eggs and reproductive polyps

than previously unbleached colonies. In July 1999, in the

middle of the Australian winter, many of the corals that had

bleached the year before bleached again and many died. In

contrast, none of the previously unbleached colonies bleached

or died at this time. In November 1999, just prior to the

spawning period, there were large areas of coral on the reef

slope that were noticeably pale and almost entirely devoid of

eggs. These data suggest that bleaching has an adverse and

long-lasting effect on coral reproduction and that previously

bleached colonies are more susceptible to future stress.

SEASONAL FLUCTUATION IN THE

PHOTOSYNTHETIC EFFICIENCY OF REEF

BUILDING CORALS.

Warner, M.E. *, Fitt W.K., and Chilcoat G.C.. Department

of Botany, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, 30602,

USA. Email: mwarner@dogwood.botany.uga.edu.

Previous studies of photosynthesis of reef building corals

have typically been conducted over relatively short time scales.

In this study, the photosynthetic efficiency, as measured by

chlorophyll fluorescence analysis, of two species of

predominant Caribbean reef building corals, Montastrea

annularis and Montastrea faveolata, was monitored for more

than five years in the Bahamas. Replicate colonies were

measured at three different depths at least three times per year.

Significant seasonal fluctuations in the quantum yield of

photosystem II (PS II) were found in both species at all depths,

with the highest photosynthetic efficiency consistently

recorded in the mid-winter to early spring and the lowest PS II

quantum yields occurring in the mid to late summer. Corals

residing in shallow depths of 1-2 meters showed the greatest

fluctuations in photosynthetic efficiency, while deeper corals

(14 m) had consistently higher PS II quantum yields.

Fluctuations of photosynthetic efficiency showed a strong

correlation to water temperature and, to a lesser extent, light.

Seasonal patterns of photosynthetic efficiency will be

discussed in relation to biochemical processes within

symbiotic dinoflagellates as well as the implications for

monitoring the immediate and long term stability of reef

building corals..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E2A: Bleaching - Systematics

261

GLOBAL CLIMATE PATTERNS BEHIND THE 1997/98

MASSIVE CORAL BLEACHING AND MORTALITY

EVENT.

Wilkinson, Clive R.* *Australian Institute of Marine

Science PMB No. 3, TOWNSVILLE MC QLD 4810,

AUSTRALIA Email: c.wilkinson@aims.gov.au

The largest recorded coral bleaching and mortality event

occurred during the major 1997/98 El Nino and La Nina

swings in global climate. There was severe bleaching in the

wider Indian Ocean under El Nino (March- June, 1998) in

Kenya, Tanzania, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Western Australia,

India, Oman and Socotra; and similarly under La Nina

(August-October, 1998) in Bahrain, Qatar, UAE, Eritrea and

Saudi Arabia (Red Sea). In Pacific, there was major El Nino

bleaching (May-December 1997, to February 1998) along the

Pacific coasts of Colombia, Mexico and Panama and in the

Galapagos, and on the Australian Great Barrier Reef; whereas

there was La Nina associated bleaching in Federated States of

Micronesia and Palau in September-November, 1998. In South

East and East Asia, bleaching started with El Nino (January-May,

1998) in Indonesia, Cambodia, Thailand and East

Malaysia; then followed by La Nina bleaching (July-September,

1998) in Singapore, Sumatra, Indonesia,

Philippines, Vietnam, Japan and Taiwan. In the Atlantic and

Caribbean Sea there was El Nino associated bleaching off

Brazil in April, 1998; and La Nina bleaching from August-October,

1998 in Florida, Bahamas, Bonaire, Bermuda,

Barbados, BVI, Caymans, Colombia, Honduras, Jamaica and

Mexico. Thus the coral bleaching and subsequent mortality

was strongly correlated with the degree of ENSO (El Nino

Southern Oscillation) climate fluctuations, with the extent of

bleaching directly dependent on the degree of Southern

Oscillation Index shift, provided that this coincided with local

marine summer (1 to 1.5 months after solar zenith). The major

La Nina pattern has continued with major bleaching events in

previously unaffected parts of the Pacific; more can be

predicted prior to October 2000, if this pattern is sustained.

PHOTIC STRESS AS A CAUSE OF BLEACHING IN

THE REEF-DWELLING FORAMINIFER

AMPHISTEGINA GIBBOSA.

Williams, D. E.*, Hallock P., And Talge H. K.. *University

Of South Florida, Department Of Marine Science, 140 7 th

Ave. S., St. Petersburg, FL 33701 USA Email:

dew@seas.marine.usf.edu

Reef-dwelling larger foraminifers share many characteristics

with reef-building corals: both groups are prolific producers of

calcium carbonate, both groups are physiologically dependent

upon algal endosymbionts, and both groups have exhibited

stress symptoms, including symbiont loss (bleaching),

worldwide in recent decades. Bleaching symptoms have been

observed in populations of Amphistegina, the most widely

abundant larger foraminiferal genus, since 1991. Peak

bleaching years for both foraminifers and corals in the 1990’s

were 1991 and 1998. The key difference between bleaching in

corals and foraminifers is that bleaching in corals correlates

most consistently with elevated sea surface temperatures, with

solar radiation having a synergistic role, while bleaching in

Amphistegina appears to be a symptom of photic stress alone.

Oxidative stress, which can be caused by elevated

temperatures and/or photoinhibition in the zooxanthellae, has

been linked to bleaching in corals. Laboratory experiments

with Amphistegina gibbosa reveal: (1) symbiont loss similar to

that seen in field populations can be produced by exposure to

elevated intensities of PAR and UVB; (2) these protsists are

positively phototactic; and (3) light intensities at depths

sampled are orders of magnitude greater than necessary for

optimum growth rates and for symbiont loss. Changes in

spectral quality and intensity of solar insolation at depth are

influenced by both atmospheric conditions and water

transparency. Together these factors potentiate the conditions

for photoinhibition that may cause bleaching and related

symptoms in Amphistegina. Recognizing the similarities and

differences between these two physiologically similar, though

taxonomically very different symbiotic organisms may

facilitate understanding the global decline of coral reefs..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E2B: Bleaching - Status

Session E2B: Global Climate Change & Coral Reefs, 2. Bleaching Geographic

Perspectives

262

PATTERNS OF RECOVERY OF BLEACHED REEFS IN

THE PHILIPPINES: THE IMPORTANCE OF

MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES.

Arceo, H.O.*, Quibilan, Miledel Christine C. and Aliño,

Porfirio M. *Marine Science Institute, University of the

Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City 1101, PHILIPPINES.

Email Address: hazel@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

Varying levels of susceptibility to bleaching were observed

on different reefs in the Philippines during the 1998 mass

bleaching event. Monitoring surveys done in four localities

with permanent sites provided pre- and post-bleaching benthic

conditions, while more recent surveys revealed the status of

the same reefs two years after the bleaching event.

Preliminary results indicate that differences in recovery among

the reefs, from near total recovery in Tubbataha to little or no

apparent recovery in Bolinao, Pangasinan were greatly

influenced by the level of susceptibility of the reefs to

bleaching. Also, sites in different areas that exhibited similar

susceptibility patterns showed different recovery rates. This

suggests that the same natural and anthropogenic factors that

influence the susceptibility of the reefs to stress are key factors

for potential recovery. In some cases, the more badly affected

but relatively less disturbed sites showed better signs of

recovery. Thus anthropogenic stresses could exacerbate the

effects of natural stresses and slow down recovery. This

information highlights the importance of management

measures in reducing the impacts of natural catastrophic

events.

A MILLENNIAL-SCALE PERSPECTIVE ON THE 1998

MASS BLEACHING IN BELIZE.

Aronson, Richard B.* and William F. Precht. *Dauphin

Island Sea Lab, 101 Bienville Boulevard, Dauphin Island,

Alabama 36528, U.S.A. Email:

raronson@jaguar1.usouthal.edu

Bleaching has become more frequent on coral reefs

worldwide over the past two decades. Although mass coral

mortalities related to bleaching have occurred several times in

the Indo-Pacific, bleaching in the Caribbean had until 1998

been followed by substantial recovery of the affected

populations. In 1998 the highest sea surface temperatures ever

recorded, related both to the 1997-98 El Niño—Southern

Oscillation and to global warming, caused severe coral

bleaching worldwide. In the central sector of the Belizean

Barrier Reef, sea temperatures rarely exceed 29 °C, but in

1998 they were >30 °C (maximum 31.5 °C) from 10 August to

14 October. These high temperatures caused complete

bleaching and nearly 100% mortality of the dominant coral on

lagoonal reefs, Agaricia tenuifolia. Complete bleaching and

heavy mortality were also observed in almost all large plate-and

head-forming species in the central lagoon, from 1 m

depth down to the lagoon floor at 21 m. High water turbidity in

this environment and the broad depth range over which the

effects occurred implicate temperature, rather than solar

radiation, in the bleaching episode. The 1998 event was the

first bleaching-induced mass mortality of scleractinian corals

observed in the Caribbean. Cores extracted from the affected

reefs showed that the event was unprecedented in at least the

last 3,000 years in the Belizean lagoon. Our results corroborate

the prediction that continued global climate change will lead to

increasing coral mortality as a result of severe bleaching

episodes.

PATTERNS OF RECOVERY FOLLOWING MASS

BLEACHING OF CORALS ON THE GREAT BARRIER

REEF.

Baird, A.*, Marshall, Paul *School of Marine Biology &

Aquaculture, James Cook University, Townsville, Q 4811,

Australia. Email: andrewbaird@ozemail.com.au

Considerable variation in the response to bleaching between

colonies of the same species, and between species is

characteristic of even the most severe bleaching events. The

fate of tagged colonies of five common coral species was

followed to determine how bleaching influenced colony

survivorship and to compare patterns of response and recovery.

Acropora hyacinthus was most susceptible to bleaching with

88 % mortality compared to 32 % in A. millepora, 13.3 % in

Platygyra daedalea, 7.5 % in Seriatopora hystrix and no

mortality in Porites lutea. However, while whole colony

mortality was low, most non-acroporids suffered some partial

mortality with 44.0 % of the tissue lost in the population of P.

daedalea, 32.8 % in S. hystrix and 10.7 % in P. lutea. In

contrast, partial mortality was rare in the acroporids. In the

acroporids, mortality was highly dependent on the severity of

bleaching. Few severely affected colonies recovered and most

moderately affected colonies survived. In contrast, the extent

of partial mortality was independent of the severity of

bleaching in the other species. Striking difference were

apparent in the time it took for the different species to bleach

and in the patterns of recovery. The massives, P. daedalea and

P. lutea took longer to bleach, longer to recover and longer to

die. Thus the observed patterns of species susceptibility and

the extent of bleaching within assemblages, will depend

critically on the time since the stress a census is conducted.

TIME-INTEGRATED THERMAL BLEACHING

THRESHOLDS OF CORALS AND THEIR VARIATION

ON THE GREAT BARRIER REEF.

Berkelmans, R.*. *Australian Institute of Marine Science,

PMB 3, Townsville Q4810, Australia. Email:

r.berkelmans@aims.gov.au

Defining levels of environmental variables which are likely

to cause bleaching in reef corals is important to enable a risk

assessment of potential climate change effects on coral reefs to

be conducted and for providing an early warning of future

mass bleaching events. This study identifies sea temperature as

the primary proximate cause of coral bleaching from a suite of

four environmental variables, including temperature, solar

radiation, wind speed and barometric pressure, using 10-12

years of weather station data at two locations on the Great

Barrier Reef (GBR). Predicted bleaching response curves are

constructed from high resolution in-situ temperature records

and historical observations of coral bleaching and presented

for 13 locations on the GBR. These bleaching curves

approximate reef-wide stress response limits for bleaching of

thermally sensitive (and often dominant) coral species. The

results indicate that there are distinct spatial patterns in the

thermal sensitivity of coral populations that correlate with

shelf position and, for mid- and outer-shelf reefs, with latitude.

As members of the genus Acropora (most of which are highly

sensitive to bleaching) consistently form the dominant coral

cover on the GBR, these patterns suggest that considerable

thermal adaptation has taken place over small (10’s km) and

large (100’s – 1000’s km) spatial scales. Bleaching curves for

inshore reefs do not correlate with latitude and are more

variable in shape reflecting local-scale variation in temperature

regimes..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E2B: Bleaching - Status

263

VARIABILITY IN CORAL BLEACHING AND

RELATED MORTALITY AT WITHIN-REEF SCALES,

SOUTHERN SEYCHELLES, WESTERN INDIAN

OCEAN.

Bradshaw, C*, Spalding MD, Teleki, KA and Spencer, T.

*Port Erin Marine Laboratory, University of Liverpool,

Port Erin, Isle of Man, IM9 6JA, UK. Email:

cbrads@liverpool.ac.uk

One component in an improved understanding of the

dynamics of coral bleaching and related mortality is an

appreciation of the spatial variability of bleaching impacts at

within-reef scales. The reefs of the Seychelles, western Indian

Ocean, were severely affected by the exceptional 1997-1998

warming event, with widespread coral bleaching and mortality

reported from many localities. However, coral reef surveys in

the southern Seychelles, focussed on the reefs of Alphonse

Atoll and St Pierre during March-April 1998 and March 1999,

showed high variability in the extent of coral bleaching, related

mortality and subsequent reef recovery. Quantitative

assessments of bleaching impacts, using the Line Point

Intercept (LPI) method and videographic imagery, revealed

within-reef variation in these impacts: between different coral

taxa; at varying water depths; and between reef zones. These

are thought to have been partly driven by different water flow

regimes, residence times and localised upwellings. It was clear

that even with mass bleaching events, the presence of small

pockets of surviving corals may be crucial for reef

regeneration and recovery. This is likely to be particularly

important on isolated oceanic reefs like the southern

Seychelles which otherwise rely on recruitment from ocean-borne

larvae.

SEA-LEVEL ANOMALIES IN THE EASTERN INDIAN

OCEAN AND CORAL BLEACHING.

Brown B.E.*, N. Phongsuwan, R.P.. *Dept Marine

Sciences, University of Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne.

UK. Email: 101515.1267@compuserve.com

Coral reefs in the eastern Indian Ocean are exposed to annual

fluctuations in sea level, solar radiation and sea-temperature

(ST). During Jan-March corals experience the highest solar

radiation of the year and rising ST which maximises in May.

Densities of coral symbiotic algae follow these annual ST and

solar radiation cycles. During Feb-March shallow reef corals

are susceptible to solar bleaching when water levels are low on

neap tides at midday or when reefs are aerially exposed on low

spring tides. Solar bleaching occurs primarily as a result of

damaging high irradiance (PAR; 400-700nm). Later in May

corals may suffer a second bout of bleaching if ST is

anomalously high. Extensive bleaching was caused in this way

in 1991 and 1995, but not in 1998 when STs were also high.

Superimposed on these factors in 1994-5 and 1997-8 were

anomalous sea-level depressions resulting from coupled ocean-atmosphere

dynamics in the Indian Ocean. During 1994-5 sea

level was depressed by 20cm in Feb 1995 while in 1997-8

negative sea anomalies exceeded 10cm in February 1997 and

30cm between August 1997 and April 1998. Community

analysis of local reefs over the last 20y has shown that shallow

reef flats are sensitive to sea level depressions. Solar bleaching

and coral mortality were associated with lower sea levels,

whilst recovery and rapid growth were detected during

anomalously high sea levels in late 1996 and 1998. For corals

surviving solar bleaching, exposure to high solar radiation in

Jan-March appears to confer some tolerance (through

improved photoprotective defences) to elevated sea-temperatures

later in April-May.

BLEACHING IN A WESTERN INDIAN OCEAN

ISLAND, LA REUNION : A MULTI-SCALE

APPROACH

Conand C.*, Larue M., Quod JP., Conand F. & Turquet J.

Laboratoire Ecologie marine, Université de La Réunion, 97

715 Saint Denis cedex, France. Email: conand@univ-reunion.

fr

The last bleaching event (1998) has stimulated a joint study,

to better understand the causes, patterns and consequences of

the phenomenon in La Réunion, an island of the Western

Indian Ocean, where the phenomenon had not been

precedently studied in depth. Temperature maxima and high

mean monthly values have been shown to be correlated with

the onset of bleaching. Three scales were considered in this

study. (1) At small scale i.e. the entire island, using the

NOAA-AVHRR satellite data, various thresholds have been

analyzed, discussed and compared with subsurface

temperatures recorded each hour since 1993. (2) At the

medium scale of the local reefs and colonies of different

species, data have been collected from observations and

through enquiries to better follow the stages of the bleaching,

their progression and the different sensibility of the species.

An « Alert form » has then been prepared. (3) At the largest

scale, following the death of corals ( Pocillopora for example),

different stages of colonisation by filamentous algae have been

identified and characterised, in order to identify the epiphytic

succession of the microalgae assemblage. Their prevalence is

favourable to the growth of toxic dinoflagellates and an

increase of ciguatera may occur as a possible consequence of

bleaching. These complementary approaches provide the

necessary tools, which were lacking, for a better understanding

and prevision of future events.

CORAL BLEACHING OCCURED IN THE SUMMER

OF 1998 AROUND SOUTHERN JAPAN.

Fujiwara, Shuichi.* *Marine Parks Center of Japan, 1-3-1

Atago, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan 105-0005. Email:

marpark@blue.ocn.ne.jp

There were severe coral bleaching events ever observed

around southern Japan in the summer of 1998. To clarify

magnitude of the events, author researched it using

questionnaire to 97 municipalities in June 1999. Bleaching was

observed from the Ryukyu Islands to Hachijo Island located

south of Tokyo through the Amami Islands, the southern part

of Kyushu, Shikoku and the southern tip of Honshu. These

areas are influenced by the Kuroshio Current. However no

bleaching was observed in the western Shikoku, Miyake Island

and Ogasawara Islands that are also located in the Kuroshio

region. Most bleaching started in August and then July. An

earlier start was seen in February in the Okinoerabu I. and in

April in Tanegashima I. Although bleaching faded out between

October and December at many places, it continued to

February 1999 in Kushimoto and in March in Kikaijima I.

Beaching at the deepest place was found at a 38m depth in

Tokunoshima I. Coverage of the bleached coral was between

40 and 60% in Nansei Is. Koshikijima Is., western Kyushu,

eastern Shikoku and Kushimoto had under 20%, but Hachijo I.

suffered 30 to 40 % (the most severe area in Hachijo I. was 80

to 90 %). The damage ratio on bleached coral was 70 to 90 %

south from Yoron I. and 30 to 60% north from Yoron I. The

surface water temperature in the summer of 1998 was about 2

degrees centigrade above normal in the Ryukyu Is. and over 3

degrees centigrade above normal in Yoron I., Amami I.,

Tanegashima I. and Hachijo I..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E2B: Bleaching - Status

264

INCREASED CORAL AND FISH SURVIVAL ON

MINERAL ACCRETION REEF STRUCTURES IN THE

MALDIVES AFTER THE 1998 BLEACHING EVENT

Goreau, T.J.*, Wolf Hilbertz, & A. Azeez A. Hakeem

Global Coral Reef Alliance, 324 Bedford Road,

Chappaqua, NY 10514 USA Email: goreau@bestweb.net

Electrolytic Mineral Accretion (MA) reefs were compared

with adjacent natural coral reefs from repeated video records in

the Maldives before, during, and after the 1998 bleaching

event. Massive corals on MA had higher survival (~80%) than

those on natural reef (~1-5%), but almost all branching

Acropora and Pocillopora died in both habitats, indicating that

electro-protection was insufficient to overcome thermal stress

to the most affected species. MA reefs now have much higher

live coral cover, coral growth rates, and coral recruitment than

natural reefs. MA reefs have higher proportions of normal reef

fish (e.g. butterflyfish, anthias, oriental sweetlips, triggerfish,

groupers, and moray eels) than natural reefs (now dominated

by algae-eating parrotfish, surgeonfish, rabbitfish, and

damselfish), making them an oasis of coral reef biodiversity.

However they have also attracted surviving coral-eating

Drupella and Acanthaster from surrounding reefs with high

coral mortality, requiring control measures. Electro-protection

of coral reefs may become the only way to maintain in-situ

coral reef biodiversity and ecological function if global

warming continues.

AN OVERVIEW OF THE EFFECTS OF THE 1997-1998

EL NIÑO-SOUTHERN OSCILLATION ON EASTERN

PACIFIC CORAL COMMUNITIES AND CORAL

REEFS.

Glynn, Peter W.*. *Division of Marine Biology and

Fisheries, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric

Science, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker

Causeway, Miami, Florida 33149-1095 USA. Email:

pglynn@rsmas.miami.edu

The effects of two recent, extremely strong El Niño-Southern

Oscillation (ENSO) events on eastern Pacific coral

communities are compared. In magnitude (+3-4 o C anomalies)

and duration (3-4 months), the 1997-98 ENSO was comparable

to the previous record-setting ENSO event of 1982-83. Both

events caused widespread bleaching and mortality of

zooxanthellate corals over the entire eastern tropical Pacific

region. Direct observations and post-mortem evidence

indicate that high coral mortality occurred from 16 o N (southern

México) to 2 o S (Ecuador, including the Galápagos Islands and

mainland) in 1982-83, and from 24 o N (northern México) to 2 o S

in 1997-98. The timing and severity of coral bleaching were

closely correlated with positive sea surface temperature

anomalies obtained by remote sensing and in situ recorders.

Some areas severely impacted in 1982-83 were unaffected in

1997-98 and vice versa. Coral community recovery since

1982-83 has been reversed in many areas. Certain rare corals,

e.g. two species of Millepora and Leptoseris papyracea,

suffered extreme reductions in abundance to local extirpations

in 1997-98. Delayed disturbances, such as coral reproductive

activity, recruitment, corallivory, spatial competitive

interactions and rates of bioerosion, are presently under study

at several eastern Pacific sites.

CORALS ON THE EDGE IN THE RED HOT SEA:

TEMPERATURES AND ANNUAL BLEACHING ON

NEARSHORE REEFS IN ERITREA.

Guillaume, M.M.*, J.H. Bruggemann, A. Heruy, M. Futwi.

*Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, ESA 8044 CNRS,

Biologie des Invertébrés Marins, 55 rue Buffon, 75005

Paris, France. Email: guillaum@mnhn.fr

The southern Red Sea is one of the hottest ocean basins in

the world. The effects of extreme temperatures on growth and

survival of corals have been monitored on 3 reefs in Massawa

Bay (Eritrea), and sea temperature (ST) has been recorded in

situ from 1996 - present at 3m depth. Monthly mean ST ranges

from 27.5°C in January to 33.5°C in September. Every

summer, ST exceeds 33°C during 2 months or longer.

Temperatures on protected inshore reefs are on average 0.4°C

higher than on nearby open-water reefs in the bay, while ST on

shallow but submerged reef flats close to the shore reaches

41.9°C in summer. In 1998, a year of very high temperatures

in tropical seas partly related to severe ENSO, the temperature

difference between protected and open-water reefs reversed in

spring, summer ST in the bay exceeded 33°C for almost 3

months, and even exceeded 34°C during 10 days in August.

Coral bleaching was reported for 1998, but also occurred

during 1996, 1997 and 1999, and appears to be a yearly event

on these reefs from summer to fall. Growth experiments with

coral nubbins of Stylophora pistillata, Montipora sp. and

Porites spp. cross-transplanted between protected and open-water

reefs, demonstrate that corals coming from open-water

conditions can grow on protected reefs, except in summer

when the extra 0.4°C temperature elevation turns fatal. In

conclusion, reef corals in Massawa Bay yearly face a critical

period when extreme summer temperatures come very close to

the limits of their temperature tolerance.

DEVELOPMENT OF A SPATIAL INDEX FOR CORAL

BLEACHING THRESHOLDS IN THE GREAT

BARRIER REEF.

Guinotte,J.*, Skirving, Lewis, and Berkelmans. Australian

Institute of Marine Science, PMB 3, Townsville,

Queensland 4810, Australia.

Email: j.guinotte@aims.gov.au

The unprecedented 1998 global bleaching event caused

severe coral mortality on several inshore and mid-shelf reefs

within the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) Marine Park. There is

legitimate concern among environmental scientists and GBR-based

industries that widespread death and bleaching of corals

caused by extremely high temperatures during 1998 may occur

more frequently in the GBR region if global climate change

unfolds as expected. Fortunately, high-resolution AVHRR

satellite data were collected throughout the 1998 bleaching

period for the GBR region. The sea surface temperatures,

derived from these AVHRR data, were combined with coral

bleaching temperature threshold curves and Great Barrier Reef

Marine Park Authority aerial survey results to derive a coral

bleaching index for the GBR. This paper describes how the

coral bleaching index was developed and how it can be used to

map coral bleaching on the GBR. Results demonstrate that

regional-scale coral bleaching can be identified using this

methodology and could potentially be applied to other regions

of the world’s oceans where coral reefs exist. Future

application of the index using real-time AVHRR data may aid

in identifying regions prone to coral bleaching..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E2B: Bleaching - Status

265

EASTER ISLAND: REEFS AND BLEACHING WHERE

THEY AREN’T SUPPOSED TO BE?

Hubbard, D.K.*, Garcia, M., *Dept of Geology-Oberlin

College, Oberlin, OH, USA, 44074. Email:

dennis.hubbard@oberlin.edu

Located at 27° 8’ S, 4,500 km from the closest major land

mass, and surrounded by waters that generally range from 20

to 25°C, Easter Island is understandably a site of low coral

diversity (11 species). However, coral abundance is

surprisingly high (avg. cover >50%; 100% over large areas)

and is restricted to leeward shores away from the dominant

approach of oceanic swell. The occurrence and distribution of

corals around Easter Island fly in the face of traditional coral-reef

dogma. Recent events have shown the fragility of the

coral community, regardless of high coral abundance. The

1982-83 El Niño removed much of the local shallow-water

algal community. The newly opened space was rapidly

occupied by Pocillopora verrucosa which, until recently,

dominated shallow leeward sites in dense coral carpets. Cover

was so complete that local reef enthusiasts lamented the

“unhealthy” character of the system now dominated by corals

– in marked contrast to the popular and technical reef

literature. In March of 2000, water temperatures reached 27°C

and remained at that level for a protracted period. While

temperatures were lower than those associated with other

bleaching events, expulsion of zooxanthellae was nearly

complete in P. verrucosa shallower than 10 meters. Porites

lobata at greater depths were variably impacted. The events at

Easter Island infer that bleaching will occur at any temperature

above “normal” for a particular area rather than at a universal

temperature threshold.

BROADSCALE SPATIAL VARIABILITY OF THE 1998

INDIAN OCEAN CORAL BLEACHING EVENT

THROUGH CONSIDERATION OF THE LOCAL

SCALE VARIABILITY OF THREE CASE STUDY

AREAS.

Klaus, R.*, Turner J.R., Hardman, E., and West, F.

*Ecology and Epidemiology Group, Department of

Biological Sciences, University of Warwick CV4 7AL, UK.

Email: bexklaus@aol.com

The extent and severity of damage caused by the Indian

Ocean 1998 coral bleaching episode varied at both the local

and the regional scale. Post-bleaching surveys have revealed

that coral cover has been reduced by over 50% in many areas

whereas other areas were little affected. Identification of areas

that survived the event and the reason why is important from

both a regional and biogeographical perspective, since they

may be important sources of recruits for recovery. In this

paper we investigate the variation in broad scale bleaching

damage by consideration of local scale variation, within and

between three case study areas. The areas are well distributed

throughout the Indian Ocean and include the Yemeni islands of

Socotra (NW Indian Ocean), the granitic islands of the

Seychelles (central Indian Ocean) and Mauritius (SE Indian

Ocean). Surveys were conducted post-bleaching and each area

suffered to varying degrees during the bleaching event. In situ

observations are compared with climatic and oceanographic

parameters derived from both high and low resolution remote

sensing data, to explain the complex spatial variability of

bleaching damage found within and between the sites.

IMPACTS OF 1998 BLEACHING ON THE

MESOAMERICAN REEF SYSTEM.

Kramer, Philip A.*, Kramer, P. R. Rosenstiel School of

Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami,

4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL, 33149. Email:

pkramer@rsmas.miami.edu

The Mesoamerican Reef System (MRS) extends 1000 km

along Yucatan, Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras.

During 1998, unprecedented levels of coral bleaching

coincided with high sea-surface temperature anomalies. To

assess the extent of transient and lethal impacts of bleaching

on scleractinian corals, we conducted a large-scale rapid

assessment of 78 shallow (1-3 m) and 72 deep (10-18 m) fore

reef sites throughout the region between March and June 1999.

Our survey revealed significant spatial variability in remnant

bleaching and recent mortality, explained primarily by

geographical differences in temperature and interspecific

differences in susceptibility to temperature stress. Significant

remnant bleaching (44%) was observed at nearly all of the fore

reefs sites up to 10 months after the initial bleaching; and was

accompanied by high incidences (10%) of coral disease,

especially on Belize shallow reefs and Honduran fore reefs.

Coral mortality from bleaching averaged slightly higher on

shallow (18%) than deep sites (13%), with highest levels in

southern Belize (54%). The compounded effects of white band

disease and coral bleaching in 1995, 97, and 98 resulted in

high total coral mortality for the entire region (49% -shallow,

33% -deep reefs). The extensive loss of certain coral species

(e.g., Agaricia tenuifolia, Millepora complanata, Montastraea

annularis) is of particular concern given their roles as major

reef builders. A complete understanding of the long-term

ecological consequences of this bleaching event will depend

on the complex interactions between recovery and degradation

processes.

SIZE ISN’T EVERYTHING: A TALE FROM TWO

BLEACHING EVENTS

Mumby, PJ*, JRM Chisholm, CD Clark, AJ Edwards, J

Jaubert. *Centre for Tropical Coastal Management

Studies, Ridley Building, The University, Newcastle upon

Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK. Email: p.j.mumby@ncl.ac.uk

The 1997/8 ENSO event is widely regarded to be the most

severe in recorded history and to have elicited unprecedented

levels of coral bleaching world-wide. Here I report on patterns

of bleaching-induced coral mortality in two contrasting coral

communities. The first is Glovers Atoll, Belize (Central

America) where mortality was investigated for juvenile corals

with a diameter of 2 mm - 20 mm. The second is Rangiroa

Atoll, Tuamotus (French Polynesia) where mortality was

documented in massive Porites colonies with an average

diameter of 3 m and age exceeding 300 y. Surprisingly,

bleaching had no net effect on either juvenile density or

community structure in Belize although larger corals

experienced ca 20% mortality. In French Polynesia, bleaching-induced

mortality in massive Porites was observed for the first

time. At one site, 25% of colonies, or 44% of the pre-bleaching

cover of living Porites, experienced whole-colony mortality.

At the two other sites, recently-dead Porites accounted for

41% and 82% of the pre-bleaching live cover. The

implications of these results for the recovery of coral reefs are

discussed together with a meteorological analysis of causative

factors..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E2B: Bleaching - Status

266

CORAL BLEACHING, THE VIEW FROM SPACE.

Patzert, William C.*. *Caltech's Jet Propulsion

Laboratory, 300-323 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA

91109 USA. Email: wpatzert@pacific.jpl.nasa.gov

Coral bleaching throughout the tropics during the '97 and '98

El Niño to La Niña event was of international extent and great

concern. Throughout the tropics, >29% of all reef sites

surveyed experience significant bleaching. Coral mortality

ranged up to 95%, with a total of 20% destruction of live

corals around the tropics. These El Niño and La Niña induced

events clearly demonstrated that corals are highly sensitive to

natural interannual climate variability, as well as continuing

short-term anthropogenic environmental damage (like

pollution, mismanagement, misuse, etc.). Using NOAA's

Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer sensor derived

sea surface temperature products and NASA's

TOPEX/Poseidon sea level height data, the oceanic "coral

bleaching" environment was documented throughout the

tropics. These satellite data showed that during the El Niño of

1997, and into 1998, more ocean area in the tropics

experienced exceptionally high sea surface temperatures ("hot

spots") and both high and low sea levels than have been

observed in any full year since the El Niño of 1982. Using

these data, available for all oceans for the first time, and REEF

CHECK in situ data data, the development of the '97-'98

"bleaching explosion" is mapped in time and space.

Preliminary results indicate that high sea surface temperatures

(thought to be the prime trigger for coral bleaching) are not

always accompanied by higher sea levels. In the western

tropical Pacific and SE Asian waters, during some long

episodes of high sea surface temperatures, sea levels were

anomalously low. These results provide a new dimension to

our understanding of coral reef sensitivity to present and future

climate changes.

REPEATED CORAL BLEACHING IN THE ANDAMAN

SEA, THAILAND, DURING THE LAST DECADE.

Phongsuwan, Niphon * and Hansa Chansang. Phuket

Marine Biological Center, P.O. Box 60, Phuket, 83000,

Thailand, Email: pmbcnet@phuket.ksc.co.th

Coral bleaching events due to sea surface temperature rising

were observed in 1991, 1995 and 1998 on the fringing reefs

ranging from the near-shore islands to off-shore islands near

continental shelf, in the Andaman Sea. The coral bleaching in

1998 was very variable and not widely extending as those of

first 2 events, due to the cool up-welling. The results from

fixed line intercept assessment on 30 sites revealed that coral

bleaching could cause death of coral ranging from about 0-

65% relative to live coral cover. Total of 94 species of hard

coral were found to be bleached completely or partially. Most

of the Acropora spp. were the most susceptible species. The

adaptation of corals for tolerating bleaching after repeated

bleaching was not obvious. In some places the living bleached

corals could recover almost completely. The variation of

intensity of bleaching and recovery of living bleached corals

depends on localities which were different in 1) coral species

composition leading to different in bleaching susceptibility 2)

influence of the local environment on coral survival. Recovery

of the reefs after death of coral varied from place to place and

different zone of the reef. Competition from other organisms

for space and human disturbances apparently inhibited the

recovery of the reefs at some certain sites.

ECOLOGICAL AND FRAMEBUILDING

CONSEQUENCES OF THE 1996 CORAL MASS

MORTALITY EVENT IN THE ARABIAN GULF

(DUBAI, UAE).

Riegl, Bernhard.* *Institut für Geologie und Paläontologie,

Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz, Heinrichstrasse 26, 8010

Graz, Austria. Email: bernhard.riegl@kfunigraz.ac.at

Between May and August 1996, sea-surface temperatures in

the southern Arabian Gulf were elevated by 2 degrees above

average and led to widespread coral death. The consequences

for coral fauna, frame-building potential, coral diseases and

coral regeneration were studied between Jebel Ali and Ras

Hasyan. In the study area, all 6 Acropora species suffered total

mortality, thus the coral fauna was reduced from 34 species to

28. The nearest areas with surviving Acropora were 30 km to

the east (Deira) and 20km to the west (Al Jazira). The

Acropora overkill turned 7.8 km_ (19.7% of total coral

covered area) of previously lush coral gardens into a dead

framework that was increasingly bioeroded. Acropora

recruitment only started in 1998, average recruit size in 1999

was 7±3 cm, and recruits were rare. Presently, bioerosion is

faster than recruitment, and the coral framework will likely be

eroded before a new generation of framebuilders is present.

Since historical data suggest that such mortality events are

recurrent, the observed destruction of the framework and slow

regeneration explains the absence of lasting coral frameworks,

i.e. reefs. Massive coral species suffered negligible mortality,

and slowly increased in space cover. Prior to the mass

mortality event, coral diseases were common and seasonal

(14±5% of corals, mainly Acropora, affected in summer, in

winter 7±6%, mainly massives), after the mortality event

seasonality was lost and infection remained on winter-levels

(6±5%, only massives infected).

SATELLITE SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE AND

CORAL BLEACHING: THE 1998 GBR STORY.

Skirving, William*, Guinotte, John and Done, Terry.

*Australian Institute of Marine Science, PMB No. 3,

Townsville M.C., Qld., Australia. 4810. Email:

w.skirving@aims.gov.au

In February, 1998, the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) suffered its

largest bleaching event on record. This was also the best

documented bleaching event on the GBR. A combination of

field observations and measurements, aerial surveys and

satellite data collected at the Australian Institute of Marine

Science (AIMS), Townsville, Queensland, has helped us piece

together a more complete bleaching story than ever before.

This paper will concentrate on the oceanographic story as told

by the satellite sea surface temperature (SST) data. Three-daily

and monthly composites were used to generate

animations of satellite SST. The monthly animations cover

January 1997 through to December 1999. This animation

clearly shows that the GBR was dominated by relatively high

SSTs during the bleaching period. The three-daily averages

are then used to explain the detailed SST story associated with

the bleaching event..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E2B: Bleaching - Status

267

EXTENT AND SEVERITY OF THE 1998 MASS

BLEACHING EVENT FROM SATELLITE SST

“HOTSPOT” MAPPING.

Strong, A.E.* Toscano, M.A. Guch, I.C..

NOAA/NESDIS/ORA/ORAD E/RA3, 5200 Auth Road, Rm

711, Camp Springs, MD 20746 USA. Email:

astrong@nesdis.noaa.gov

During 1998, the strongest El Nino event and warmest ocean

temperatures recorded up to that time resulted in the bleaching

and mortality of reef corals worldwide, on a scale and level of

severity unprecedented by previous events. NOAA/NESDIS

satellite-derived SST HotSpots identified areas where SSTs

exceeded climatological maximum summertime mean SSTs

and predicted most occurrences of coral bleaching worldwide.

Numerous field reports confirmed the areas affected by

bleaching, as predicted by HotSpot mapping. Retrospective

Degree Heating Weeks (DHWs) thermal stress accumulations

for 1998 indicated that bleaching corresponded to areas of

long-term, elevated SSTs (>16 DHWs in most cases).

Correlation between satellite-derived indices and field-verified

bleaching and mortality in 1998 was very high, indicating that

the combination of HotSpot mapping and DHWs indices

represents a reliable early warning system for bleaching

events. Although 1999 was a year of near-normal ocean

temperatures (apparently associated with the cooler waters

accompanying La NiZa), in 2000 several reefs in the south

central Pacific had experienced near record levels of bleaching

by April. Updated SST trends for all reef areas for the last 16

years (of satellite data) suggest continuing warming and future

thermal stress for most coral reef ecosystems.

LARGE-SCALE OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE DYNAMICS

OF THE INDIAN OCEAN AND CORAL BLEACHING.

Teleki, K.A.* and T. Spencer. Cambridge Coastal

Research Unit, Cambridge University, Cambridge CB2

3EN, UK. Email: kat1003@cus.cam.ac.uk

Large-scale ocean-atmosphere dynamics underlie complex

patterns of ocean warming and cooling. Sea surface

temperatures (SSTs) from the MOHSST6D database, reveal

regional variations in the timing, peak magnitude and duration

of warm episodes in the Indian Ocean in 1997-98 which, in

turn, aid improved explanation of bleaching incidence at

different reef locations. Longer-term analysis of the

GISST2.3b and the MOHSST6D datasets for the southern

Seychelles and Mayotte, Comores Archipelago show that the

1997-98 warming was exceptional (absolute temperatures and

temperature anomalies) for the last 37 years; arguments have

been made to link this event to one of the strongest El Niño

warmings this century. The relatively sparse documentary

evidence of previous SST-related bleaching episodes in the

Indian Ocean confirms that such episodes are associated with

El Niño years but only in general terms, giving credence to

arguments that oscillations in SSTs, precipitation and winds

between the eastern and the western Indian Ocean - a tropical

dipole mode - are the result of internal ocean - atmosphere

dynamics and not a direct response to external ENSO forcing.

Coral bleaching may thus occur even in the absence of ENSO

extrema. Such a focus on ocean-atmosphere dynamics has

further, important implications for the dispersal of coral

planulae and thus for the regeneration and recovery of

bleached Indian Ocean reefs.

IMPROVED PREDICTION OF CORAL BLEACHING

USING HIGH-RESOLUTION HOTSPOT MAPPING

AND DHWs.

Toscano M.A.,* A. E. Strong, I. C. Guch, and K. S. Casey.

*NOAA/NESDIS/ORA/ORAD E/RA3, NOAA Science

Center Rm 711, 5200 Auth Road, Camp Springs,

Maryland, 20746 USA. Email: mtoscano@nesdis.noaa.gov

NOAA/NESDIS 50-km HotSpot maps have proven

successful in documenting tropical-ocean warming and

identifying areas of coral bleaching. The 50-km HotSpot

resolution may underestimate SST anomalies within reefs if

the pixel temperatures derive from offshore, among other

factors. Current HotSpot mapping uses nighttime-only

satellite SSTs and a nighttime-only Maximum Monthly Mean

(MMM) climatology to calculate HotSpot anomalies, ignoring

daytime heating of shallow waters. Because most reef systems

occur on smaller spatial scales, as do the temperature

anomalies that directly affect reef corals, an increase in

HotSpot mapping resolution is warranted. Using

NASA/NOAA AVHRR 9-km Pathfinder best SST data and a

new day+night 9-km MMM climatology, 15.5 years (1985-

present) of high resolution HotSpot and Degree Heating

Weeks (DHWs) charts have been computed. Retrospective 9-

km time series of Pathfinder SSTs, in situ temperatures,

HotSpot indices, and DHWs for several sites are combined

with field verification of timing, severity, and duration of

bleaching, to determine the number of DHWs which force

bleaching and mortality. The 9-km day+night approach is also

evaluated against the original nighttime-only criteria to define

the most robust and realistic predictive capability.

CORAL BLEACHING AND RECUPERATION IN

PUERTO RICO: THE EXCEPTION TO THE RULE OR

THE COMMON PATTERN?.

Weil, Ernesto*. *Department of Marine Sciences,

University of Puerto Rico, PO BOX 908, Lajas PR 00667.

Email: eweil@caribe.net

There seems to be wide local and geographic variability in

the dynamics and outcome of coral bleaching events. Mass

mortalities of reef organisms are not the end result most of the

time. The 1998-99 World-wide bleaching event had

catastrophic consequences for many reefs in the Indo-Pacific.

However, only a few reef areas in the Caribbean were severely

affected. The bleaching-recovery dynamics of 386

tagged/mapped colonies from 18 scleractinian species was

monitored for 7 months (1998-99) and 5 months (1999-00)

during and after bleaching events in southwestern Puerto Rico.

Bleaching and recovery were estimated using the percent

bleached area of each colony and their changes through time.

Many colonies were totally bleached for over 150 days before

recovering completely. Only three (0.8 %) small colonies died,

14 (3.6 %) suffered partial tissue mortality, 357 (92.4 %)

recovered by February 1999, and 12 (3.1 %) remained pale

until March of 1999. A significantly lower number of the

tagged colonies (59 or 15 %) bleached again in September of

1999. Compared with the previous year, water temperatures

were lower, bleaching was less intense with mostly pale

colonies, no partial tissue mortality was observed, 80 % of

bleached colonies recovered by December 1999, and all by

February 2000. These results, and observations in other areas,

indicate that the dynamics (onset, organisms responses, length,

and outcome) of these events are complex and vary widely

between colonies of the same species, between species, across

reefs, across geographic locations and on a temporal scale..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E3: Global Climate Change:Planning

Session E3: Global Climate Change & Coral Reefs. 3. Socio Economic Impacts and

Planning

268

LINKING CORAL BLEACHING TO GLOBAL

WARMING: THE NEXT STEPS FOR CORAL REEF

MANAGEMENT.

Causey Billy D.*. *Florida Keys National Marine

Sanctuary, P.O. Box 500368, Marathon, FL, USA 33050.

Email: Billy.Causey@noaa.gov

Three decades of coral reef observations in the Florida Keys

clearly indicate a pattern of intensification in coral bleaching

events. The geographical and temporal extent of coral

bleaching episodes have been recorded since 1980. Coral

bleaching episodes in 1980, 1983, 1987, 1989, 1990, 1997, and

1998 have been documented in the Florida Keys. While

locally these bleaching episodes have shown patterns of

increased duration with each new event, they have also

exhibited a pattern of geographical expansion that raises

concern for coral reef managers. The synchronization of the

coral bleaching events offers evidence that coral reefs are

responding to global warming or global climate change. While

this is only one perturbation that coral reef managers have to

address in the management of coral reef environments, it is a

major influence on the continued health of coral reefs as they

are known today. The ability of coral reef managers to more

accurately predict coral bleaching over the past decade has

helped raise the public’s understanding of this phenomenon

and increase their confidence in coral reef science. These are

among the first steps in gaining the attention of our global

leaders that they need to address global climate change. The

future of coral reef management lies at the local, regional, and

global scales. While documentation of the decline of coral

reefs must continue, science must also serve to focus the

management actions of coral reef managers.

FIRST EVALUATION OF THE 1998 CORAL

BLEACHING EVENT TO FISHERIES AND TOURISM

IN THE PHILIPPINES.

Cesar H. * , Lida Pet-Soede, Imelda V. Bacudo, Herminia

Francisco, Porfirio M.Aliño, Miledel Christine C. Quibilan,

and Hazel O. Arceo. * Linnaeuspakweg 96 1096 EJ

Amsterdam, The Netherlands,. Email:

herman.cesar@ivm.vu.nl

The impact of the 1998 mass coral bleaching event on the

fishery and tourism sectors was studied from two cases. The

case studies focused on Bolinao, Pangasinan, where local

communities are highly dependent on reef fisheries and in El

Nido, Palawan, which is not only a renowned destination for

reef-related tourism, but also supports a considerable fishing

community. Declining fish catches in Bolinao seem related to

the event and have a relatively large impact on the fishers as

there profits were already marginalized and at the subsistence

level. According to local tourism operators, the number of

tourists that have visited El Nido has also declined since 1998.

Besides coral bleaching, other factors such as the Asian

financial crisis, El Niño and the passage of major tropical

cyclone are deemed to have contributed to the decline in

tourism in the area. Considering the difficulty of differentiating

between the causative factors, costs of the bleaching event to

the Bolinao and El Nido local society are estimated.

THE SCIENCE BEHIND CORAL BLEACHING:

PRIORITIES FOR RESEARCH AND MANAGEMENT

Gomez, Edgardo D. *The Marine Science Institute,

University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City 1101,

Philippines. Email: edgomez@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

The 1998 mass bleaching that occurred on the Indo-West

Pacific coral reefs called attention, once again, to the gravity

and urgency of the problem, of which we have rather limited

scientific understanding. The symbioses among clades or

species of zooxanthellae and hundreds, if not thousands, of

species of invertebrates no doubt undertake different modes

that may have arisen independently along several host taxa. If

this is the case, there is no shortcut to understanding the nature

and consequence of bleaching. Scientific approaches are

necessarily numerous, with the obvious need to start to identify

the physical and chemical factors at different spatial scales that

initiate the dissociation of host and symbiont. Organismal or

physiological processes on the part of the host and of the

symbiont need to be better studied. The attendant mortality of

associated, non-symbiotic species on the occasion of bleaching

events needs to be adequately understood, as this will

contribute to the understanding of the morbidity of the hosts of

the zooxanthallae. In addition, the ecosystem effects and

responses related to bleaching are just beginning to be

investigated, but are no less important than the organismal

reactions. Managers and decision-makers often call for

interventions when disaster strikes. In the case of bleaching, is

the science well enough established to justify significant

investments of time and resources? Both short-term and long-term

responses are considered briefly.

THE VALUE OF DIVING AND THE IMPACTS OF

CORAL BLEACHING IN PALAU.

Graham T.*, Idechong, Noah; Sherwood, Kristin. *Palau

Conservation Society, PO Box 1811, Koror, Palau 96940.

Email: tomgrahampw@yahoo.com

Dive tourism is the most important industry in Palau,

Micronesia. Two hundred visiting scuba divers and snorkelers

(together called “divers”) were interviewed in 1997 and 2000.

Contingent valuation questions, using a hypothetical permit fee

as a proxy for net value, were used to estimate the net value to

divers of their dive experiences. The average willingness-to-pay

(WTP) for a dive permit was US$34 among scuba divers

and US$26 among snorkelers. With 50,000 divers visiting

Palau each year, these figures suggest an industry consumer

surplus of about $1.6 million. WTP statements were not very

responsive to various contingency scenarios. For example,

70% of the year-2000 respondents would not have been willing

to pay more if the reefs of Palau were in better condition. Fifty

eight percent of the year-2000 respondents claimed knowledge

of the coral bleaching event of 1998-1999 and 52% noticed its

effects in Palau. Among those that noticed, 42% said it had a

“slightly negative” impact on their experience, 29% said the

impact was “very negative,” and 16% said it had “no impact.”

The impact was significantly greater for return visitors than for

first-time visitors. The effects of the bleaching event appeared

to also be reflected in comparisons of satisfaction scores

between 1997 and 2000. Average scores for the attributes

“beauty/condition of corals,” the “number/diversity/appeal of

fishes,” and “value of the dive experience” were significantly

lower in 2000 than in 1997. These and other findings are

useful for policymaking, such as determining permit fee levels

that would optimize the share of net value transferred from the

consumers to the producers, the people of Palau..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E3: Global Climate Change:Planning

269

CORAL BLEACHING AND MORTALITY: A CALL

FOR SCIENCE-POLICY SYMBIOSIS.

Reaser, Jamie K.* and Peter O. Thomas. U.S. Department

of State, OES/ETC, Room 4333, Washington, DC 20520

Email: sprgpeeper@aol.com

The geographic extent, increasing frequency, and regional

severity of the mass coral bleaching events in 1998 were a

consequence of a steadily rising baseline of marine

temperatures, associated with regionally specific El Niño and

La Niña events. Global warming compounds the effects of

more localized anthropogenic factors that already place reefs at

risk and threatens human populations dependent on reef

services marine biodiversity, fisheries, and shoreline

protection. There is an urgent need for programs to reduce

localized stressors, curtail greenhouse gas emissions, research

the projected and realized impacts of global climate change,

and monitor coral reef ecosystems. The International Coral

Reef Initiative (ICRI), Convention on Biological Diversity

(CBD), and Framework Convention on Climate Change

(FCCC), represent through fora through which scientists and

policy makers can work together to develop policies and

initiate funding mechanisms to address the causes and

consequences of coral bleaching. Here we review the role of

science in informing policy recommendations on coral

bleaching and mortality and discuss opportunities for the

scientific community to engage in further policy development

and implementation. If we do not communicate and heed the

warning of climate-induced ecosystem collapse provided by

mass coral bleaching, similar catastrophic events will surely

follow throughout variety of marine, freshwater, and terrestrial

systems.

MITIGATING THE IMPACT OF CORAL BLEACHING

THROUGH MARINE PROTECTED AREA DESIGN.

Salm, Rodney V.*, Peter Mous and Jos Pet. *Director Asia-Pacific

Coastal Marine Program, The Nature Conservancy,

923 Nu’unu Avenue, Honolulu, HI 96817, USA Email:

rsalm@tnc.org

The 1998 El Niño-1999 La Niña bleaching event produced

some clear patterns in coral bleaching and related mortality.

This raises the question of whether these patterns yield useful

information that might be incorporated into the design of

marine protected areas (MPAs) for coral conservation to help

mitigate the impact of bleaching events. We believe that the

elevated sea water temperature induced bleaching and

subsequent mortality patterns at four sites (Komodo National

Park), Palau Rock Islands, Kisite Marine National Park and

Chumbe Island Coral Sanctuary) provide insights into the

factors influencing these patterns and show us a way to

increase the resettlement of corals in communities sustaining

near complete mortality. We present some preliminary ideas

here for discussion and solicit guidance from participants in

this special session on how to use MPA design to enhance

recovery of coral communities sustaining high levels of

mortality linked to elevated seawater temperature induced

bleaching. Our goal is to enhance the survival prospects for

coral communities in the MPAs in which we work and, if

effective, to provide guidelines for MPA selection and design

that could require a review of all coral reef MPAs globally.

MANAGEMENT OF BLEACHED AND SEVERELY

DAMAGED CORAL REEFS.

Wells, S. M.*, S. Westmacott, and J. M. West. IUCN-The

World Conservation Union, Eastern African Regional

Office, P. O. Box 68200, Nairobi, Kenya. Email:

SMW@iucnearo.org

The 1997/98 coral bleaching event caused extensive reef

damage in many regions of the world. Countries in severely

impacted regions such as the Indian Ocean (where coral

mortality reached over 90% in some areas) are now at serious

risk of losing this valuable ecosystem and associated economic

benefits from fisheries and tourism. If average baseline

temperatures continue to increase due to global climate

change, then corals will be subjected to more frequent and

extreme bleaching events in the future. Thus, crucial

management questions must be addressed, and potential tools

for mitigating bleaching must be analyzed. While more

scientific information is needed for precise recommendations,

there is also an immediate need to adapt current knowledge

into general management guidelines for use as a rapid response

measure. Drawing on data from the CORDIO (Coral Reef

Degradation in the Indian Ocean) program and from other

studies, we have developed a management handbook that: 1)

summarizes current scientific opinions on the causes and

consequences of bleaching; 2) discusses precautionary and

response measures to be taken in light of the bleaching threat;

and 3) suggests some positive actions that might aid reef

recovery. The analysis is based on specific case studies, but

the recommendations are of global applicability.

ASSESSING THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF

THE 1998 CORAL BLEACHING EVENT IN THE

INDIAN OCEAN.

Westmacott, Susie*, Herman Cesar, Lida Pet Soede.

*University of Newcastle upon Tyne. Mailing address: 33

Old Priory Close, Hamble, SO31 4QP, UK. Email:

s.westmacott@ncl.ac.uk

Coastal populations in the Indian Ocean have been adversely

affected by coral reef mortality resulting from the bleaching

event in 1998. Assessing the socio-economic impacts focused

on the two main coastal activities in the region, tourism and

fisheries. Anticipating the full impacts will be vital to enable

these countries to adapt and manage the situation. The study

found in many cases, the full impacts of the reef degradation

are still to be seen. The impacts are also variable across the

region, as was the extent of the bleaching. Impacts on fisheries

will become apparent as changes occur to the reef structure. In

places where the reef structure breaks down, the reef fisheries

could collapse affecting millions of small-scale fishermen. The

importance of reef fisheries in terms of provision of food and

employment was established. Tourism creates both direct and

indirect employment for these coastal populations and in many

of these countries is an important source of foreign income.

The economic costs of the coral bleaching in the Maldives was

estimated at US$3 million in 1998-1999, with welfare losses

reaching US$63 million. Estimates of the financial cost of the

bleaching in Mombasa should dissatisfied tourists not return,

was estimated at US$13-20 million and in Zanzibar was

estimated at US$3-5 million. Understanding and anticipating

tourist behaviour will enable Governments and Tourism

Boards to take timely precautions, changing marketing

strategies and retaining their tourism industry. The full socio-economic

impact of the bleaching will become apparent in the

near future..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E4: Global Change-Sea Level

Session E4: Global Climate Change & Coral Reefs. 4. Response to Projected Sea

Level Changes

270

SOME CONSIDERATIONS FOR VULNERABILITY

ASSESSMENT OF REEF ISLANDS TO IMPACTS OF

CLIMATE CHANGE AND SEA LEVEL RISE.

Ali, Mohamed. Environment Research Center, Ministry of

Home Affairs, Housing and Environment, Male’, Maldives.

Email: em_alee@yahoo.com

Low-lying reef islands such as that found in the Maldives

have been considered to be amongst the most vulnerable to the

impacts of climate change and sea level rise. Vulnerability

assessments of reef islands and of their natural capacity to

cope with the expected impacts of climate change, including

accelerated sea level rise, depend upon many reef and island

characteristics, and the extent of human impacts on the natural

system associated with reef and island. In an atoll-wide study

of all uninhabited islands in the Maldives, the morphometric

characteristics were measured and the dynamics aspects of the

islands were examined. In order to assess the short-term

changes, beach profiles were surveyed over two seasons, while

the medium-term changes were examined through comparative

mapping of 1969 and 1999 aerial photographs. Vegetation and

soil depth patterns, with radiocarbon dating of sediments were

used to infer the long-term (Late-Mid-Holocene) development

of the islands. When vulnerability assessments of reef islands

are carried out, ‘internal’ factors such as the location, size and

shape of the island, the proportion of the reef platform

occupied by an island, and island elevation, etc., need to be

considered. Such aspects will help to determine how islands

will respond to sea level rise. The study establishes that all reef

islands are not equally vulnerable and that vulnerability will

vary according to a number of factors. The data also confirm

that the notion of ‘stable’ and ‘unstable’ islands as identified

from island dynamics like island growth and island

‘movement’ is also a useful ‘guide’ in vulnerability assessment

of reef islands in the Maldives.

MODELLING ATOLL ISLAND RESPONSE TO RISING

SEA LEVEL: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATION OF

THE MODIFIED SHOREFACE TRANSLATION

MODEL.

Cowell P.* and Paul Kench. *Coastal Studies Unit, School

of Geosciences, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.

Email: cowell@extra.ucc.usyd.edu.au

Existing principles for perched beaches and rock truncated

shorefaces are used to modify Bruun-type concepts in

developing principles for prediction of atoll island response to

sea-level rise. These principles incorporate the effects of a

non-erodable reef surface and its influence on island profile

movements, with an appropriate modification to the key

concept of closure depth (the elevation of the reef surface).

These principles are incorporated into the existing profile-based

computer model: the Shoreface Translation Model

(STM). The modified STM was applied to selected islands in

the Maldives using a range of sea-level rise scenarios. In all

simulations islands exhibited shoreline displacement away

from the reef edge and overwash processes allowed the island

margin to vertical build at the same pace as sea-level rise.

Model results indicate that islands will undergo a range of

different modes of response to sea level rise (standard Bruun

response – Barrier rollover) depending on subtle variations in

initial island morphology. Differences in mode of response are

shown to control the magnitude of shoreline displacement and

stability of reef islands.

ENSO IMPACTS ON CARBONATE SEDIMENT

PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT ON FRINGING

REEF ENVIRONMENTS IN SAMOA

Goodwin, I. * * School of Geosciences University of

Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2380 Australia Email:

Ian.Goodwin@newcastle.edu.au

Episodes of carbonate sand accretion on beaches along the

southern Upolu coast of Samoa are preserved as beachrock

cemented berms. These beachrock berms have been exposed

by storm erosion in the last decade. Radiocarbon ages of coral

clasts sampled from the beachrock yield clustered ages

spanning decadal to multi-decadal ranges. It is interpreted that

the carbonate sand in each beachrock berm was

contemporaneously eroded from the reef crest and flat, and

subsequently deposited as a sand slug, rather than from a

mixed age sand reservoir. Comparison of the age ranges and

the historical record of El Niño events (Quinn et al. 1987)

indicates that sediment-producing reef-erosion episodes may

occur during prolonged El Nino events. Relative sea level

(RSL) falls by 0.2 to 0.25 m in Samoa during prolonged El

Niño events. The lower sea level and hence, greater diurnal

sub-aerial exposure, warmer sea surface temperatures (SST)

and changes in wind and wave climate result in enhanced

erosion of the reef crest and flat. The beachrock berms are

aligned with the longshore transport driven by the south-east

trade winds, whereas the present eroded beaches are aligned

with shore-normal or swash transport. This morphology

suggests that coastal erosion is dominant during El Niño events

whilst accretion may be enhanced during La Niña events.

VARIATIONS IN SEDIMENT PRODUCTION AND

IMPLICATIONS FOR ATOLL ISLAND STABILITY

UNDER RISING SEA LEVEL.

Kench, Paul * and Peter Cowell. *International Global

Change Institute, The University of Waikato, Private Bag

3105, Hamilton, New Zealand. Email:

p.kench@waikato.ac.nz

The physical response of atoll islands to sea-level rise is

dependent on both physical readjustment of existing island

materials but also on changes in the rate of sediment

production and transfer to island shorelines. Sediment

production is likely to change significantly as coral reef flat

surfaces attempt to respond to changing climate and sea-level.

This study combines scenarios of possible changes in sediment

production with morphological simulations of shoreline

response on a sand island in the Maldives, using the Modified

Shoreface Translation model. Results underscore the critical

importance of reef flat sediment production to island stability.

Of note, small negative changes in sediment supply promote

significant island instability and shoreline displacement. Total

depletion of sediment supply promotes island destruction. In

contrast, increased sediment supply may enhance shoreline

stability and lead to island accretion. While STM modelling

shows that physical mechanisms allow islands to adjust to sea-level

rise, results demonstrate the sensitivity of island response

to small changes in sediment budgets and stress the importance

of enhanced understanding of rates and controls on reef

sediment production..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E4: Global Change-Sea Level

271

REEF GROWTH AND SEDIMENT PRODUCTION ON

THE SOUTHERNMOST PACIFIC REEFS.

Kennedy David* and Colin Woodroffe. *School of

Geosciences, University of Wollongong, NSW 2522,

Australia. Email: dkennedy@uow.edu.au

Lord Howe Island, a basaltic island, has the southernmost

Pacific reef enclosing a shallow lagoon on the western shore.

North of Lord Howe there are two atolls, Middleton and

Elizabeth Reefs, in a linear chain of islands/seamounts. There

are significant differences in the morphology and sediment

characteristics between the volcanic islands of the Lord Howe

group and the atolls. On Lord Howe there is a broad shelf

covered in calcareous sediments with a temperate composition

dominated by rhodoliths and calcareous algae. The fringing

reef has been built in mid Holocene from flourishing branching

corals, but the lagoon that it encloses is predominantly

composed of calcareous algal sediments. By contrast

sediments within Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs, and in deeper

water around the atolls, are dominated by a tropical carbonate

assemblage, although Middleton has been decimated by

crown-of-thorns infestation.

VOLUMETRIC CHANGES OF SAND CAY BEACH

SEDIMENT AND ITS IMPLICATIONS WITH SEA

LEVEL RISE:

Riyaz, Mahmood* *Environment Research Centre, Male`,

Maldives. Email: Riyaz5@hotmail.com

This study intends to assess the response of beach sediment volume

of low-lying reef islands to projected sea level rise. Standard levelling

technique for profiling was used on a vegetated island and an

unvegetated sand cay in the Maldives. “Surfer ® ” was used to

calculate the volumetric changes of beach/cay sediment during the

study period. The study was conducted during the onset of the

western monsoon. The results showed that there were significant

changes in sediment volume, in response to the seasonal

wave/current changes, which induce sediment movements around the

island/cay. The estimated beach volume changed on the island in

June was 7.8% less than the volume calculated in May, while on the

sand cay, which is more dynamic, the change in beach volume was

66% of that calculated in May. Given the proportion of reef platform

occupied and the age of beach sediments, it is assumed that fresh

sediment input to the beach is limited on the island. Based on this, it

is expected that under the projected sea level rise scenario, the island

is likely to loose more sediments in the future. The unvegetated sand

cay is more dynamic under seasonal wave/current variations, hence

they are likely to be more dynamic in response to sea level rise. The

study indicated that island geomorphology such as the location of the

island in relation to the reef, the type of sediment, presence or

absence of beachrock on islands, island morphometry, in addition to

the status of vegetation, are significant aspects in assessing the likely

changes and dynamics associated with reef islands in the short term.

These aspects also influence the extent and magnitude of subsequent

response of reef islands to projected sea level rise in the long term.

REEF-ISLAND SEDIMENTATION ON INDO-PACIFIC

ATOLLS AND PLATFORM REEFS.

Woodroffe, Colin*. *School of Geosciences, University of

Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia. Email:

colin@uow.edu.au

Indo-Pacific reefs responded to Holocene sea-level change,

with rapid vertical reef growth during early Holocene sea-level

rise and reef-flat consolidation and readjustment during mid

and late Holocene when the sea was slightly above present

level. Reef islands, comprising sand cays on platform reefs

and motu on atolls, formed during this latter period.

Radiocarbon dating of reef islands indicates variation between

islands, and around the margin of individual islands. In the

Cocos (Keeling) Islands reef-island accumulation occurred

over the past 3500 years; on Little Makin Island in the central

Pacific foraminiferal sands accumulated over the past 2500

years; whereas on Warraber Island in Torres Strait discrete

episodes of accretion occurred between 4000 and 2000 years

BP. Sediment source and transport processes, in addition to

changes in sea-level, provide important constraints on reef-island

sedimentation.

SENSITIVITY OF CORAL REEF FLATS TO SEA-LEVEL

CHANGE.

Yamano, H.*. Social and Environmental Systems Division,

National Institute for Environmental Studies, Onogawa,

Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan. Email: hyamano@nies.go.jp

The most conspicuous geomorphological feature of modern

reefs is the reef flat. In many areas, it is composed of two

distinct zones: a seaward zone dominated by coral growth and

framework development, and a landward zone dominated by

the accumulation of reef detritus. Studies of the development

of reef flats have mostly concentrated on the coral growth and

framework development and less is known about the nature

and origin of the sediment accumulation. In the Pacific region,

reef flats have formed under a relatively stable sea level since

ca. 6000 yBP, and so are very sensitive to sea-level

fluctuations. This sensitivity makes understanding their past

history and development a prerequisite for prognosing their

future response to sea level changes, especially considering

that back-reef sediment production also controls the

development of densly-populated reef islands. Here I analyse

sediment production in both framework and sediment zones of

a modern back-reef structure and document its development

over the last 6000 years. I conclude that the sea-level

stabilization and the subsequent relative sea-level fall had a

significant effect on the topographical and ecological structure

of the reef flat. This response indicates that any future sea-level

rise could substantially alter the structure of coral-reef

flats..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E5: Land Based Pollution

Session E5: Pathways for Land Based Sources of Pollution and Subsequent Impacts

on Coral Reef Environments

272

CHANGES OVER 23 YEARS IN A CORAL

COMMUNITY AT A SEWER OUTFALL IN A FAST-CURRENT

AREA OF PALAU.

Birkeland, Charles*. *Hawaii Coop. Fish. Research Unit

2538 The Mall, Edmondson Hall University of Hawaii at

Manoa Honolulu, Hawaii 96822. Email:

charlesbirkland@hotmail.com

Permanent coral-reef transects at the site of a sewer outfall

were surveyed in 1976, before the outfall was constructed, and

again in November 1993 and July 1999, after the outfall had

been in operation for 17 and 23 years. Living coral cover was

50 – 100%, higher than on most healthy reefs. In 1976,

Acropora spp. was 47% of the living coral cover on the reef

margin, 7.5% in 1993 and nearly absent in 1999. Although

there were 46 other species of stony corals along the transects,

the space was dominated (96% of living cover) in 1999 by

Porites spp.

TERRESTRIAL DISCHARGE IN THE GREAT

BARRIER REEF (GBR) - 1. DISTRIBUTION OF

RIVERWATERS AND POLLUTANT CONC-ENTRATIONS

DURING FLOOD PLUMES.

Brodie, Jon * and Devlin, Michelle. *Great Barrier Reef

Marine Park Authority, PO Box 1379, Townsville. Q.

Australia. Email: jonb@gbrmpa.gov.au

A key research area of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

Authority is assessment of river pollutant input into the GBR,

the importance of flood plumes as a source of nutrients and

sediments and the impact of flood plumes on nearshore reefs.

Most catchments draining into the GBR are used for

agriculture and have been extensively modified since European

settlement, leading to concerns on the impacts of terrestrial

pollutants on the GBR Since 1991 plume movement has been

mapped by aerial flyovers. Plume distribution and pollutant

concentrations are controlled by a number of factors, including

particularly wind direction and speed. South-easterly winds are

dominant, pushing plume water north and close to the coast.

High concentrations of sediments and nutrients are initially

present in the plume, however sediments tend to settle out

rapidly close to the shore. Dissolved nitrogen and phosphorus

are transported further offshore into the area of the nearshore

reefs.

TRENDS IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF WATER

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS IN

THE LAGOON OF NEW CALEDONIA : ASSESSING

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF TERRIGENEOUS AND

ANTHROPOGENIC INPUTS.

Chifflet S*, Fichez, Ferraris, Gérard, Douillet. Centre IRD,

BP A5, Nouméa, New Caledonia. E-mail:

chifflet@noumea.ird.nc

Coral reef lagoons around high islands are naturally subject

to terrigeneous inputs but increasing anthropogenic activities

on these islands generate direct and indirect discharges which

modify the equilibrium of tropical coastal environments. The

study presented in this paper determines the distribution of

physical and chemical parameters in the lagoon waters

surrounding the city of noumea, new caledonia, and examine

the forcing parameters responsible for that distribution. 36

stations were visited monthly from october 1997 to january

1998 and a statistical analysis was conducted on the data set

including vertical profiles (temperature, salinity,

photosynthetic available radiance, nephelometry, in situ

fluorometry) and discrete sub-surface concentrations (no3+no2,

nh4, po4, si(oh)4, total dissolved n and p, suspended particulate

matter, chloropigments, particulate organic c n and p). Results

show that, during most of the year, water circulation

constrained terrigeneous and anthropogenic inputs close to the

coast. Chronic sewage effluent discharge resulted in significant

but very localised eutrophication signatures in two urban bays.

The use of statistical analysis further allowed to combine the

complex and extensive data set to extract indexes specifically

identifying the respective contribution of the main input

sources (oceanic, terrigeneous, anthropogenic).

ASSESSING THE EFFECTS OF RUN-OFF FROM

LOGGING ON CORAL REEFS IN SOLOMON

ISLANDS.

Cooper, T. F.*; Lincoln-Smith, M. P.; Bell, J. D., and Pitt,

K. A. *The Ecology Lab Pty Ltd, 4 Green Street,

Brookvale, NSW 2100, Australia. Email:

projects@theecologylab.com.au

The fauna of bays at the mouths of rivers in Western

Province, Solomon Islands, is being studied to quantify the

effects of alternative logging operations on coral reefs. These

operations are harvesting of plantations on Kolombangara

Island and logging of virgin forests on Vangunu Island. The 4-

year study aims to identify effects of run-off on fringing coral

reefs by comparing abundance, diversity, growth, survival and

recruitment of corals under the influence of actively logged,

previously logged and unlogged catchments. Results from a

pilot study, which compared diversity and abundance of corals

adjacent to actively logged and unlogged catchments, indicated

that effects of run-off on corals did not always conform to

predictions, and differed between islands. For example, there

was more dead coral adjacent to logged catchments at

Vangunu, whereas at Kolombangara more live coral occurred

adjacent to actively logged catchments. The comparison of

bays under the influence of actively logged, previously logged

and unlogged catchments over 4 years is expected to provide a

robust test of the effect of run-off on diversity and abundance

of corals, and the nature of recovery from any such effects.

Sentinel colonies will be used to assess any effects of run-off

on growth and survival of corals, whereas any effects on

recruitment will be gauged using standard settlement plates..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E5: Land Based Pollution

273

COPPER CONCENTRATIONS IN CORAL GROWTH

BANDS: TRACING THE IMPACT OF A MINE

TAILINGS SPILL IN MARINDUQUE ISLAND,

PHILIPPINES.

David C.P.C.*. *Department of Geological and

Environmental Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford,

CA 94305-2115. Email: cdavid@pangea.stanford.edu

In 1996, a mine tailings spill occurred in the island of

Marinduque, Philippines. An approximate 1.6 million cubic

meters of tailings sludge was released into the Boac River,

which subsequently reached the near-shore marine

environment along the western coast of the island. Bulk

geochemical analyses of marine sediments revealed elevated

trace metal concentrations particularly for Cu (>700ppm) and

Zn (>100ppm). The tailings in the ocean fanned out from the

mouth of the river distributing more than 1cm tailings material

within 1km radius. However, sediment contamination is still

detected outside of this range. The two nearest reefs are the

Ihatub-Caganhao Reefs (2km south of Boac) and Ulan Reef

(5km north of Boac). Five core samples of Porites sp. from

these reefs were collected in 1998 and 1999. Annual growth

bands were established from density banding observed in x-radiographs.

Preliminary results from one Ihatub coral show

high Cu concentrations (>7.3ppm) in the upper 12mm of the

coral, most likely representing the period 1996-1998. Except

for an unexplained copper concentration spike (7.5ppm) in the

section from 15-18mm (1994), background Cu values are less

than 2ppm prior to 1996. Additional analysis of corals from

Ihatub and Ulan Reefs as well as the refinement of growth

band sampling and GFAAS techniques for trace metal analyses

in carbonate samples will further constrain whether metal

contamination of the marine environment can be traced in the

geochemistry of coral growth bands.

TERRESTRIAL DISCHARGE IN THE GREAT

BARRIER REEF (GBR). – 2. THE INFLUENCE OF

RIVER WATERS ON POLLUTANT

CONCENTRATIONS AT INSHORE REEFS

Devlin, Michelle.* and Brodie, Jon. *Great Barrier Reef

Marine Park Authority, PO Box 1379, Townsville. Qld.

4810 Australia Email: m.devlin@gbrmpa.gov.au

An understanding of flood plume interactions with gbr

lagoon waters is essential to understanding the influence of

river discharge on the nutrient status of coral reefs in the gbr.

Monitoring of flood plumes provides insight into how extreme

water quality conditions influence aquatic processes and

ecosystems in the gbr. Flooding rivers adjacent to the gbr

cause elevated concentrations of nutrients and sediments in the

inshore regions of the gbr lagoon. By measuring flood plume

distribution and pollutant concentration, reef hot spots can be

identified. These are areas where the reefs are likely to

experience extreme water quality conditions associated with

flood plumes on an annual basis, in close proximity to

catchments with greatest pollutant export. Inshore reefs are

subjected to concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus up to

100 times greater than ambient in these events. These

concentrations exceed those known to cause damage to coral

reef ecosystems.

NUTRIENT CONTENT OF MACROALGAE WITH

DIFFERING MORPHOLOGY MAY INDICATE

NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY

Fong, Peggy*; Kamer, Krista; Boyer, Katharyn E.; and

Boyle, Karleen A. *University of California, Los Angeles,

621 Circle Drive South, Box 951606, Los Angeles, CA

90095-1606, Email: pfong@biology.ucla.edu

To investigate whether algal tissue N and P content reflects

processes controlling nutrient availability we collected 5

species of algae from 18 stations in southwestern Puerto Rico.

Stations were either inshore or offshore with 3 stations/area as

nutrient “hot spots”. Acanthophora spicifera had higher N

inshore, and both A. spicifera and Hypnea musciformis had

higher N and P in “hot spots”. This suggests algae with upright

thalli and open branches have small nutrient-depleted

boundary layers and thus a more direct relationship with water

column nutrients than other forms. Turf or mat forming algae

(Dictyota dichotoma and D. cervicornis) may require high

rates of advection to replace nutrients within a mat. The mat-forming

species had higher tissue N and P content offshore,

where stronger currents can penetrate dense mats and replenish

nutrients. H. incrassata, a rhizophytic form with access to

sediment nutrients, had greater tissue N inshore and in some

hot spots, perhaps reflecting areas of higher sediment nutrients.

We conclude that, with careful consideration of other

environmental factors, we may be able to develop the tissue N

and P content of macroalgae as an indicator of nutrients

available to coral reef algae.

THE USE OF REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE-PCR

VIRAL ASSAYS TO DETECT HUMAN WASTE

CONTAMINATION OF CORAL REEF WATERS.

Griffin, Dale W.*; Gibson, Charles J. III; Lipp, Erin K.;

Riley, Kelley; Rose, Joan B.; and Paul, John H.

*University of South Florida, Department of Marine

Sciences, 140 7 th Avenue South, St. Petersburg, Florida

33701. dgriffin@seas.marine.usf.edu

In order to determine if human waste products are impacting

water quality in the Florida Keys, water samples were screened

for the presence of human specific viral pathogens and

bacterial indicators. Sample sites were located throughout the

Florida Keys and included sites in the Dry Tortugas. In

contrast bacterial indicator results that indicated acceptable

water quality in one group of samples (19 sample sites - Key

Largo to Key West), 95 percent of the sites were positive for

human viruses. Human viruses were also detected in another

group of samples taken around the perimeter of Key West and

Fort Jefferson in the Dry Tortugas (12 sites, 75% positive). Of

8 samples taken around Key West, 6 were positive for

enteroviruses. Enteroviruses were also detected around Fort

Jefferson (3 of 4) in samples located in close proximity to

septic tanks (one staff and one visitor septic tank) or the

anchorage site (~100m offshore of the fort). These results

indicate the screening marine water samples for the presence

of human viruses is a useful tool in determining if human

wastes are being released into the water column. They also

indicate that inadequate waste disposal systems in use in reef

environments may pose a risk to both public health

(recreational use) and reef health (nutrient loading of the water

column)..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E5: Land Based Pollution

274

NUTRIENT DYNAMICS IN A COASTAL CORAL REEF

LAGOON: THE RELATIVE SIGNIFICANCE OF

SEDIMENT REMINERALIZATION AND

GROUNDWATER INPUTS.

Johnstone, Ron * , *Johan Hast. Centre for Marine Studies,

University of Queensland, St Lucia, 4072. QLD, Australia.

Email: rnje@uq.edu.au

Globally, coral reef lagoons are commonly being subjected

to elevated nutrient loads from different anthropogenic

sources. In an attempt to understand the significance of

internal benthic remineralization processes in a fringing coral

reef lagoon, this study examined sediment nutrient dynamics

and the input of nutrients via groundwater. Porewater nutrient

profiles, sediment chlorophyll content, and calculated

sediment-water column nutrient fluxes all fell within the

ranges reported for similar coral reef sediments, with the

highest chlorophyll levels being observed nearest to

groundwater outlets. Elevated sediment chlorophyll levels also

coincided with the occurrence of the macroalgae, Ulva sp.,

which was only found at sites of high groundwater input.

Nutrient budget calculations suggested that micro-phytobenthos

was capable of accounting for any diffusive

release of DIN from sediment porewaters and, in general

terms, the sediments appeared to play a conservative role with

respect to inorganic nutrient release. In contrast, some areas

showed strong groundwater release and this contained DIN

concentrations that were orders of magnitude higher than that

of the overlying lagoon water. Estimates of groundwater input

during the wet season suggest that groundwater represents a

significant source of DIN to the lagoon and that it may be

significant for coral reefs exposed to this water on outgoing

tides. Groundwater nutrient levels are largely attributed to

human activities associated with coastal aquifers, and this

poses clear implications for the management of the lagoon and

groundwater resources.

HEAVY METALS IN THE SOFT TISSUES OF

BIVALVE MOLLUSKS IN THE GULF OF TONKIN.

Khristoforova N.K. *; Latypov, Yu.Ya.; Xuan Tuyen,

Nguyen; Tien, Dam Duc. Zhuravel, E.V. *Far East State

University, Vladivostok, 690600, Russia. Email:

nadezhda@tigdvo.marine.su

Chemical assessment of the environmental situation in the

shallow water of the north part of the gulf of tonkin did not

reveal a significant pollution of this basin with anthropogenic

and technogenic toxicants. The aim of this investigation was to

check obtained data with the using of biological indicators,

namely bivalve mollusks.the most common in the coral reef

communities in observed area were three species: septifer

bicoloratus, barbatia amylgdalumtostum and isognomon

isognomon. Concentrations of zn, cu, pb, cd were determined

(two first and two second metals characterize anthropogenic

and technogenic presses respectively). Obtained data showed

that station von boi is differ from other places with the lowest

human activity, but stations hang trai and bo hung are

characterized as areas with more heavy influence of both types

of man’s impact on the environment. Among four metals zn is

notable for more high concentrations and pb distinguish with

lower concentrations. I. Isognomon is a zn accumulator, b.

Amylgdalumtostum a is a cd accumulator and s. Bicoloratus

accumulates high cu amounts.

LAND-BASED SOURCES OF POLLUTION AND THE

INITIATIVES OF UNEP IN THE EAST ASIAN SEAS

REGION.

Kirkman, Hugh * . *East Asian Seas Regional Coordinating

Unit, 10 th Floor UNESCAP Building, Rajdamanern Av.,

Bangkok 10200 Thailand. Email:

kirkman.unescap@un.org

The East Asian Seas are the marine borders of at least 12

countries. These countries are rapidly developing and their

populations increasing. The resultant disturbance to the land

and vegetation has obvious and deleterious effects on coastal

ecosystems. The main ecosystems that are considered are

seagrass meadows, coral reefs and mangroves, all of which are

seriously depleted due to human activity. Sewage, industrial

waste, sediment runoff from engineering activities and

agriculture all enter the sea but poor monitoring and

incomplete inventories of the flora and fauna do not allow

objective or complete assesment of the damage. A recent study

has integrated the sources and effects of land based activities

which pollution the marine environment. The need for

integrated efforts by all concerned including valid

Environmental Impact Assessments for new development and

sensible, enforceable legislation to manage and protect the

environment are required. The effects of land-!!based activities

are summarised in this paper and the role of the UNEP East

Asian Seas Regional Coordinating Unit in coordinating and

initiating projects to ameliorate, restore and manage marine

environments is explained.

LAND-BASED NUTRIENT INPUTS AND THEIR

ECOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES ON CORAL REEFS

IN THE NEGRIL MARINE PARK, JAMAICA.

Lapointe B.E., Thacker, Katy, Getten, Linval; Black,

Courtney; Frame, Everton; Gabbidon, Webster; and Gill,

Everett. HBOI, 5600 US 1 North, Ft. Pierce, FL 34946.

Email: lapointe@hboi.edu

We performed a study throughout a monitoring network that

included groundwaters, rivers,and coastal waters to assess

nutrient linkages from the watershed to fringing reefs in the

Negril Marine Park (NMP) during 1998. DIN was enriched

year-around in groundwaters and rivers at the watershed sites

compared to SRP that increased significantly during the

summer wet season. On reefs, DIN averaged > 1.0 uM, was

significantly higher on shallow vs. deep reefs, and did not vary

seasonally. SRP concentrations were also higher on shallow

vs. deep reefs, and increased significantly in the summer wet

season coincident with massive blooms of the filamentous

green macroalgae Chaetomorpha. Macroalgae averaged > 60

% cover on reefs in the NMP and their d

15 N values were above

values for nitrogen fixation and closely matched watershed

nitrogen sources that included fertilizers, peat, and sewage.

Sea urchin density correlated positively with tissue N of

macroalgae and negatively with coral cover, suggesting that

land-based nitrogen inputs exerted significant "bottom-up"

control on reef community structure..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E5: Land Based Pollution

275

DETECTION OF HUMAN FECAL CONTAMINATION

IN NEARSHORE CORALS AND WATERS OF THE

FLORIDA KEYS.

Lipp, E.K.*, Griffin, D., Jarrell, J.L., Lukasik, G.,

Jacukiewicz, J., and Rose, J.B. Center of Marine

Biotechnology, U.Md., Baltimore, MD Email:

elipp@seas.marine.usf.edu

Results of recent studies have indicated that nearshore

waters of the Florida Keys are impacted by current waste-water

management practices. Previous work has also

demonstrated that coral mucus can serve as a reservoir for

bacteria and potentially for viruses in the marine environment.

The present study was undertaken to document preliminary

evidence of human fecal contamination in nearshore corals by

assessing concentrations of indicators/pathogens in coral

mucus and the surrounding waters. Various species of coral

were sampled at four nearshore sites. Both water and coral

mucus were assayed for the following microorganisms: fecal

coliforms, enterococci, Clostridium perfringens, and

Coliphage. Water column samples were found to have 0-2.5

CFU (colony forming units) /100ml. Mucus samples had

significantly higher levels of indicator organisms ranging from

0-1000 CFU/100ml. RT-PCR was utilized to identify

enteroviruses present in the mucus samples and cell culture

was used to assay for enteroviruses from water column

samples. To date, all cell culture results are negative.

However, RT-PCR indicates enteroviruses were present in at

least 4 of the 15 coral mucus samples. This preliminary data

indicates that assays using coral mucus could allow for the

detection of land-based inputs into reef environments even if

water column samples show little or no evidence of such

pollution.

THE ROLE OF ADVECTION IN TRANSPORTING

NUTRIENTS TO THE FLORIDA REEF TRACT.

Pitts, Patrick A*. *Harbor Branch Oceanographic

Institution, 5600 U.S. Hwy.1 North, Ft. Pierce, Florida,

USA. Email: Ppitts@HBOI.edu

Current meter, wind and dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN)

data from a 1992-93 study are used to describe the advection

of nutrients from the Florida Keys to the reef tract, where

elevated nutrient concentrations have been shown to adversely

affect reef corals. Results indicate a long-term net across-shelf

near-bottom flow toward the reef tract at a study site over the

middle shelf that averaged 2 cm s -1 during the 13-month study.

Applying the average flow rate to a cross-sectional area of 1

m 2 and combining a representative DIN concentration of

15µM yields an average DIN transport rate of 55 µmole m -2 s -1

seaward past the study site. Low-frequency, nontidal across-shelf

flow was toward the reef 80% of the time and a mean of

6.3 days was required to transport nutrients 3 km seaward

across mid shelf (r.m.s. = 9.5 days, median = 1.7 days). By

comparison, tidal ebbs and floods play a relatively minor role

in transporting nutrients across mid shelf. Analyses of currents

and local winds show an inverse relationship between across-shelf

currents and across-shelf winds indicating an upwind

return flow in near-bottom layers.

SOURCES AND TRANSPORT OF NUTRIENT-RICH

GROUND WATER TO CORAL REEF

ENVIRONMENTS, FLORIDA KEYS, USA.

Reich, Christopher*; Shinn, Eugene; and Hickey, Don.

United States Geological Survey, 600 Fourth Street South,

St. Petersburg, Florida 33701, USA, Email:

creich@usgs.gov

Growing concerns in the Florida Keys over coral reef

mortality have prompted State and Federal agencies to seek out

probable contaminant sources that could impact water quality

and hence coral reef health. Hydrogeological examination of

the Key Largo Limestone has provided information suggesting

ground water is transported in a net direction from the Florida

Keys toward the reef tract at ~2md -1 . Two circular clusters of

nested monitoring wells (6 and 14 m below rock surface), one

cluster on each side of Key Largo, were installed and a dye-tracer

study was conducted to determine rate and direction of

groundwater flow. Ground water contains high concentrations

of N and P as well as other pollutants due to numerous

wastewater injection, cesspools, and septic-tank sites

throughout the Keys. Flushing rates, a result of tidal pumping,

are relatively high and therefore propagate the nutrient-rich

groundwater from onshore to offshore. Horizontal and vertical

groundwater movement was observed with greater rates on the

Florida Bay side of Key Largo. The primary driving force is a

higher bay water level that is controlled both by

meteorological conditions and physiographic boundaries

surrounding Florida Bay.

MONITORING SEDIMENT ACCUMULATION AND

WATER QUALITY TO LINK REEF DEGRADATION

WITH LAND-USE CHANGE: ROATAN, BAY ISLANDS,

HONDURAS

Young, Robert S.* and Mehrtens, Charlotte J., *Dept. of

Geosciences and NRM, Western Carolina Univ.,

Cullowhee, NC,28723, Email: ryoung@wcu.edu

The island of Roatan is the largest of the Bay Islands, a chain

of islands in the Caribbean roughly 60 km off the north coast

of Honduras. Roatan, itself, is approximately 40 km long and

usually no more than 3 km wide. It is surrounded by fringing

reef, in places directly attached to the shore. Thusfar, the Bay

Islands have escaped the intense development that has covered

many other Caribbean Islands. This is changing. Roatan now

has an international airport with direct flights to the United

States, and recently, the Inter-American Development Bank

has initiated a multi-million dollar water and management

project that will increase the "carrying capacity" of the Island

of Roatan. In response to the certainty of increased

development, a long-term monitoring program was initiated in

the summer of 1998. This program involves the monitoring of

sediment accumulation and spatial distribution, fecal coliform

bacteria, water quality, and maintaining photo transects.

Monitoring stations were established near developed

watersheds, watersheds in the process of development, and at

remote, control sites. Initial results suggest that reef mortality

is more closely tied to increases in sedimentation rather than

degradation of water quality. Sedimentation rates show a

strong seasonality with the maximum coming during the

September through December rainy season. Increases in

sedimentation can be directly related to the following

practices: 1) road building, 2) dredging and beach

construction, 3) mangrove removal, 4) land clearing, and 5)

intense, recreational usage of some areas by cruise ship

passengers..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E6: Destructive Fishing

Session E6: Destructive Fishing Practices: Towards a Global Understanding of

Causes Effects and Management Solutions

276

COMMERCIAL-SCALE FISHING ON PHILIPPINE

CORAL REEFS

Abesamis, Rene A.*; Jocson, Domingo; and Aliño, Porfirio

M.. * Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines

Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines. Email:

rabesamis@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

Coral reefs contribute 15-30% of the total fisheries yield of

the Philippines. These habitats are fished using a variety of

gears, but none is as effective as the large-scale, drive-in

fishing technique referred to as ‘pa-aling’. This method was

developed to replace ‘muro-ami’, which was banned in the late

1980s due to the damage it brought to coral reefs. Prior to its

approval as an alternative, pa-aling was found to incur minimal

physical damage to corals. However, the technique was

considered overly efficient and concerns about the

sustainability of the fishery were aired. To this date, however,

the operation of pa-aling continues in reefs of the South China

Sea and the Sulu Sea, in the vicinity of Palawan. This paper

reports the first-ever analyses of its three-year catch data

gathered from over six hundred records of the commercial reef

fishery. Initial findings show an overall annual decline in

catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE). Although regulatory measures

have been installed to regulate pa-aling fishing, the results

suggest that operators of the gear are simply catching ‘too

much, too fast’. The present regulatory measures are also

deemed inadequate and difficult to apply, hence, either Pa-aling

should be banned entirely or the concept of establishing

marine reserves in key areas is proposed.

THE EFFECT OF FISH TRAPS ON BENTHIC

HABITATS OFF LA PARGUERA, PUERTO RICO.

Appeldoorn, R.S.*; Nemeth, M.; Vasslides, J.; Scharer, M.

*Department of Marine Sciences, University of Puerto

Rico, Mayagüez, Puerto Rico 00681-9013 USA. Email:

r_appeldoorn@rumac.uprm.edu

Wire-mesh fish traps are an important gear in coral reef

areas. Traps may damage habitats due to setting, subsequent

movement due to wave surge and dragging, and grappling for

lost traps. Off La Parguera, Puerto Rico, the potential habitat

damage from commercial traps (1.1 m 2 ) was assessed by

determining the distribution of traps relative to different

habitat types, and by quantifying the damage to benthic

organisms from trap setting and hauling on coral reefs or

colonized hard bottom. Of 100 observed traps, 54% were on

soft sediment or sand associated habitats; 44% were on hard

bottom or reef. All traps observed were set individually. In

hard bottom or reef habitats, 23% of the coral colonies (29 cm 2

damage/colony; 70 cm 2 total area), and 34% of the gorgonian

colonies (2.8 cm 2 of damage/ colony ; 56 cm 2 total area) were

damaged. Sponges were less prevalent, but 30% of observed

colonies were damaged. Habitat damage from hauling

averaged 12.6 cm 2 /trap for coral and 4 cm 2 /trap for gorgonians.

Estimated total annual damage (116.4 m 2 for all organisms)

represents less than 0.001% of living habitat.

THE INDO-PACIFIC DESTRUCTIVE FISHING

REFORM INITIATIVE: RATIONALE, STRATEGY

AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS, 1998-2000

Barber, Charles Victor* *World Resources Institute and

Vaughan R. Pratt, International Marinelife Alliance.

Email: cvbarber@ibm.net

As the trade in live reef fish has grown in volume and

expanded in its geographic reach over the past decade or more,

the use of destructive fishing methods for the capture of both

ornamental and live reef food fish species has been widely

reported across the Indo-Pacific region. The use of cyanide to

stun and capture target species began in the Philippines in the

1960s, has spread throughout Indonesia, and has been reported

in Papua New Guinea, parts of Micronesia, Sabah (Malaysia)

and Vietnam. Another destructive practice, the targeting and

decimation of grouper spawning aggregations, has also been

widely reported from areas where live reef food fish collection

operations have been undertaken. Since the early 1990s, the

International Marinelife Alliance (IMA) has worked in

partnership with the Philippines government to implement a

national Destructive Fishing Reform Program (DFRP), with

the objective of reducing the use of cyanide and making the

live reef fish trade more sustainable. Since 1998, IMA has

worked with a number of partners throughout the region to

carry out a region-wide effort based on the Philippines model.

This paper summarizes the methodology and achievements of

that regional program and discusses the key issues raised in

efforts to eradicate the use of cyanide and move the live reef

fish trade towards sustainability.

SHIFTING THE BURDEN OF PROOF: APPROACHES

TO SUSTAINABLE AND NON-DESTRUCTIVE

COLLECTION OF CORAL REEF RESOURCES.

Best, B.A.* *U.S. Agency for International Development,

Global Environment Center, 1300 Pennsylvania Ave. NW,

Washington, D.C. 20523-3800, USA. Email:

Bbest@USAID.gov

International trade in reef fish, coral, live rock, and other

coral reef animals are activities that contribute to the decline

and degradation of reefs, primarily through the use of

destructive collection practices and overexploitation of

resources. An analysis by the United States Coral Reef Task

Force found that the United States is the number one consumer

of live coral and marine fishes for the aquarium trade and of

coral skeletons and precious corals for curios and jewelry. As

a major consumer and importer of coral reef organisms, a

major player in the world trade arena, and a leader in coral reef

conservation efforts, the United States has a critical

responsibility to address the degradation and loss of coral reef

ecosystems that may arise from commerce in coral reefs

species and products, and to encourage more responsible trade.

The U.S. government is exploring innovative trade measures

that would shift the burden of proof of sustainable use and

non-destructive collection practices onto commercial users.

Proposed trade measures would require importers and

exporters to demonstrate that CITES-listed species were

sustainably managed or maricultured, and to certify that coral

reef products were not taken through the use of destructive

collection practices. Such measures would generate economic

incentives that reward and encourage responsible use of these

precious resources, and discourage destructive practices that

jeopardize the future potential of coral reefs to sustain local

communities..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E6: Destructive Fishing

277

UNNECCESARY COLLECTIONS FOR THE MARINE

AQUARIUM TRADE: SPECIES WITH EXTREMELY

LOW SURVIVAL RATES.

Borneman E.H.* *Microcosm, Ltd. 2222 North Fountain

Valley, Missouri City, Texas, USA, 77459. Email:

EricHugo@aol.com

The marine aquarium trade is being examined as a potential

threat to coral reefs through over-collection of target species,

destructive fishing techniques, growing trade in CITES-listed

species, and a lack of regulation governing the fisheries of both

importing and exporting nations. To date, the impact of

collection is still largely unknown, but initial reports suggest a

minor but growing impact on collected reefs. . In many cases,

target species may be collected disproportionately to their

relative abundance. There is a long-standing view that marine

animals, especially scleractinia, have a poor record of survival

in aquaria. While this is no longer the case, there are large

numbers of species collected which continue to have low to

dismal chances of survival in aquaria. Among these are most

of the azooxanthellate anthozoans, many filter-feeding

invertebrates, and certain fishes. While many issues remain to

be addressed regarding the care and survival of tropical marine

organisms in the collection and transport processes, the

survival of species listed in this report will likely fail despite

best efforts by aquarists. The principle reasons for failure are

mostly related to diet and the inability of aquaria to provide for

sufficient amounts or types of required nutrients. In

conjunction with several reports prepared for the U.S. Coral

Reef Task Force on species survivability,

ACCUMULATION OF DERELICT FISHING GEAR BY

OCEAN CURRENTS THREATENS CORAL REEFS OF

HAWAII.

Brainard R.*; Foley, D.; Donohue, M.; Boland, R. *NOAA

Fisheries - Honolulu Laboratory, 2570 Dole Street,

Honolulu, HI, USA, 96822-2396. Email:

Rusty.Brainard@noaa.gov

Over the past four years, surveys have found considerable

evidence that the accumulation of derelict fishing gear in the

Hawaiian Islands threatens the ecological balance of reef

communities by destroying coral reef habitat, entangling reef

fauna, and potentially accelerating introduction of alien

species. Most of this derelict fishing gear originates from

trawl, seine, gillnet, and other fisheries far removed from the

Hawaiian Islands. Surveys of other Pacific coral reefs have not

reported this level of debris accumulation or the associated

damage. To address the question of why accumulations of

marine debris are high in the Hawaiian Islands and apparently

low in other regions of the tropical Pacific, wind-driven ocean

currents were investigated. Surface wind observations from

satellite scatterometers were used to compute Ekman

convergence/divergence over the Pacific during the period

1992-99. Regions of oceanic convergence indicate areas likely

to accumulate marine debris. The Northwestern Hawaiian

Islands intersect the region of highest mean convergence.

Significant seasonal and interannual variability of both

strength and location of convergence zones are observed.

Mean convergence is highest during the boreal winter (J,F,M)

and weakest during the summer (J,A,S). During strong El

NiZo years (1992 and 1998), the winter convergence zone

extended south to the main Hawaiian Islands, where debris

accumulations increased. Thus, wind-driven ocean currents

can be useful in determining where and when derelict gear is

likely to encounter and damage coral reefs.

CHANGES IN ZOOXANTHELLAE DENSITY,

MORPHOLOGY, AND MITOTIC INDEX IN

ACROPORA MILLEPORA, AIPTASIA PALLIDA, AND

GONIOPORA Sp. EXPOSED TO CYANIDE

Cervino J.M.*, R. L. Hayes, M. Honovitch, T. J..Goreau ,

E. Borneman , D. Thoney, S. Jones, P. Rubec , & G. W.

Smith . *Marine Science Dept., University of South

Carolina, Columbia, SC Dept. of Marine Sciences 29208

Email: cnidaria@earthlink.net

Sodium cyanide (NaCN) is widely used for the capture of

reef fish throughout the Pacific and Southeast Asia. The corals

Acropora millepora and Gonipora sp. and anemones Aiptasia

pallida used in this study were exposed to 50, 100, 300, and

400ppm of NaCN for 1 to two minutes. Concentrations of

NaCN used were much lower than those used by fish

collectors. Exposed corals and anemones immediately

retracted tentacles and mesenterial filaments and discharged

copious mucus containing zooxanthellae. Changes in protein

content were found in both zooxanthellae and host tissue using

gel electrophoresis. Corals and anemones exposed to NaCN

showed an immediate increase in zooxanthellae mitotic cell

division, and decrease in zooxanthellae density. In contrast,

zooxanthellae cell division and density remained constant in

controls. Histopathological changes included gastrodermal

disruption, mesogleal degradation, and increased mucus in

coral tissues. Zooxanthellae show pigment loss, swelling, and

deformation. Mortality occurred at all exposure levels.

Exposed specimens had a significant increase in the ratio of

gram-negative to gram-positive bacteria on the coral surface.

The results demonstrate that exposure to lower levels of NaCN

than used by fish collectors causes mortality to corals and

anemones.

MARKET TRANSFORMATION OF THE LIVE REEF

FISH FOOD TRADE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

Cesar, Herman *; Warren, K.; Sadovy, Y.; Lau, P.; Meijer,

S.; van Ierland, E. *Institute of Environmental Studies,

Free University Amsterdam, Boelelaan 1115, 1081 HV

Amsterdam,The Netherlands. (HCESAR@IVM.VU.NL)

Current practices in the live reef fish trade pose a critical

threat to global marine biodiversity. The trade also imperils the

food security and income provided by traditional reef fisheries

in Southeast Asia. This paper describes today’s trade and its

underlying destructive and unsustainable fishing practices,

which include both the use of cyanide to stun fish as well as

overharvesting of juveniles and spawning aggregations.

Though cyanide use is outlawed for fisheries in most, if not all

countries, high profits and enforcement problems require

policy makers to look for innovative ways to manage the

supply of live reef fish. To this end, the concept of a marine

market transformation is introduced and applied to reef

fisheries. In particular, current wild-caught supply mechanisms

are described and the potential for aquaculture and sustainable

wild-catch are evaluated. Sustainable management of the live

reef fish trade requires active participation from both

importing and exporting economies. However, action to date

has been one-sided, with demand countries shifting

responsibility for environmental damage to supply nations.

The paper provides suggestions as to how this situation can be

remedied and discusses creative market and policy solutions

for achieving transformation of the current trade to one which

is non-destructive and sustainable..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E6: Destructive Fishing

278

DESTRUCTIVE FISHING REFORM IN POOR

COMMUNITIES IN THE PHILIPPINES: ADDRESSING

VILLAGE ECONOMIC ISSUES

Cruz, Ferdinand.* *International Marinelife Alliance,

Manila, Philippines Email: ferdie@gatesway.com

As near-shore fish stocks have declined in the Philippines,

the time-horizon of the local fisherman has shrunk to meetings

the needs of the moment and it has become increasingly

difficult to differentiate between the “illegal” and “legal”

fishermen. Destructive fishing (explosives or cyanide) usually

brings short-term benefits in the form of a larger catch, and the

support of local financiers who supply them with credit,

cyanide or explosives, and food–all “for free” at the outset, in

exchange for a promise of repayment from future catches at

the (low) prices set by the financier. Once pulled into this

system, the illegal fisherman finds himself in a web of never-ending

debt and continuing obligation to this “patron.” Most

continue to live far below the poverty line, but generally insist

that they will not renounce illegal fishing methods unless the

alternative can provide them with a better income. Drawing on

the extensive field experience that has been gained in 10 years

of field work under the International Marinelife Alliance’s

Philippines Destructive Fishing Reform Program, this paper

will document the reality of the daily life of fishermen using

destructive methods in the Philippines, and argue that

reforming destructive fishers is very difficult unless they can

be offered an alternative source of income that can guarantee

food on the table for their families and enough cash income for

basic necessities. The paper will suggest realistic strategies for

addressing this simple economic reality, based on cases from

several areas in the Philippines.

REDUCING HUMAN STRESSES TO CORAL REEFS

THROUGH ALTERNATE EMPLOYMENT IN

SEAWEED FARMING IN THE ISLANDS OF BANGGI

AND BALAMBANGAN, SABAH, MALAYSIA.

De Silva, M.W.R.N.;* Rahman, Ridzwan Abdul; and

Jeropakal, Ainun Jariah. *Borneo Marine Research Unit,

Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah,

Malaysia. Email: arjan@nara.ac.lk.

A build, operate and transfer (BOT) system for seaweed

farming has been adapted as a way of introducing seaweed

farming to the hard-core poor fishing families of the islands of

Banggi and Balambangan, Sabah. Most participants of this

activity have been previously involved in using ‘fish bombing’

of coral reefs as a means livelihood and to sustain their large

families. The BOT system provide hands on training in all

aspects of seaweed farming, provide financial support by

employing participants as casual labour and continuously

monitoring them till they are able to independently manage

and get a desirable income prior to the farms being transferred

to them. The produce is purchased by the project and a small

percentage of the profit is retained by the project for involving

new families. The trials and tribulations of introducing

seaweed farming to coastal communities unused to this activity

are discussed.

DESTRUCTIVE FISHING PRACTICES: TOWARDS A

GLOBAL UNDERSTANDING OF CAUSES, EFFECTS

AND MANAGEMENT SOLUTIONS.

Erdmann, M. *, L. Pet-Soede, Cabanban, A. and Pet, J.

*Univ. of California, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA. Email:

flotsam@manado.wasantara.net.id

Destructive fishing practices (DFP) have been recognized as

important threats to coral reefs on a regional basis for at least 2

decades, yet the global significance of the DFP problem is

perhaps underestimated and continues to take a backseat to

such commonly-cited reef threats as sedimentation,

eutrophication, overfishing in general, and global climate

change. In a number of developing countries, however, DFP is

the most immediate and significant threat to the continued

existence of coral reefs and steps need to be taken to both

eliminate these practices and promote recovery of DFP-damaged

reefs. As a means of both summarizing the findings

produced in other presentations in the DFP minisymposium

and stimulating discussion in the concluding forum, five major

questions are addressed in this paper: (1)How do the various

forms of DFP rank in terms of their contribution to reef

destruction, both among themselves and in relation to other

anthropogenic threats on reefs? (2) How do DFP's differ from

other anthropogenic impacts on coral reefs in terms of both

ecological effects on the reef and especially reef recovery? (3)

Is current reef conservation attention (manpower and funds)

well-directed with respect to DFP or must priorities change?

(4) Are fishers "forced" into DFP under Malthusian

overfishing conditions, or is the adoption of DFP more a case

of greed rather than need? (5) What types of enforcement and

management solutions (including alternative income

generation schemes) have proven effective in combating DFP,

and are these applicable on a global basis?

RECOVERY IN RUBBLE FIELDS: LONG TERM

IMPACTS OF BLAST FISHING.

Fox H.E.*; Pet, Jos S.; Dahuri, Rokhmin; Caldwell, Roy

L.. *Department of Integrative Biology, 3060 VLSB

University of California Berkeley, Berkeley CA 94720-3140

USA. Email: hfox@socrates.berkeley.edu

While the magnitude of the problem of blast fishing has

receivedinternational attention, much less is known of its long-term

ecosystem effects. One of the most serious impacts of

extensive blast fishing is that new coral colonies are slow to

grow back in the shifting rubble fields that result, even when a

damaged area is protected from further blasting. This study

investigates factors that inhibit or enhance coral recovery in

rubble fields in Komodo National Park (KNP) and North

Sulawesi, Indonesia. The extent of blast damage throughout

KNP has been visually assessed at 185 sites every 2 years

starting in 1996. Within 9 rubble field sites monitored since

1998, natural recovery is low, especially in high current areas.

The movement of individual pieces of rubble, the changing

depth of the rubble field overall, and the effect of these on

coral survival is measured. Levels of potential source coral

larvae in the rubble fields and comparison high coral cover

sites are assessed with settlement tiles. Recovery in blast sites

of known age is also being tracked, and is very low. Gaining

an understanding of the prognosis for coral recovery is

essential not only in order to assess the long-term impacts of

blast fishing, but also to inform management decisions about

protection of intact reefs and potential restoration of damaged

areas..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E6: Destructive Fishing

279

THE TRADE IN LIVE REEF FOOD FISH: A HONG

KONG PERSPECTIVE

McGilvray, Frazer* & Thierry T C Chan *International

Marinelife Alliance Hong Kong. Email:

frazer@imamarinelife.org

It is well documented that Hong Kong is the major market

for the trade in live reef food fish. Since 1997, however, very

little has been investigated, and this paper reflects the changes

in the Hong Kong market up to the present time. Often, figures

are quoted that supposedly reflect the high prices food fish

species fetch in Hong Kong. These figures are however, often

either hearsay or based on historical data which is unreliable.

The Hong Kong public is increasingly becoming aware of the

problems associated with reef fish consumption, although this

has a great deal more to do with the recent outbreaks of

ciguatera poisoning rather than the destructive use of sodium

fishing. The Agriculture, Fisheries & Conservation

Department (AFCD) of the Hong Kong Government has

increased its efforts in educating the public as to the potential

health threats of eating certain reef fish species, large

specimens in particular. As a result of AFCD’s activities,

combined with the recent decline in the Hong Kong economy,

the demand for those high priced species has dropped, as have

their market values. In conclusion, the live reef food fish trade

in Hong Kong is in crisis. Overseas markets are still quoting

five year old figures, thereby artificially inflating the prices of

supply side fish. Due to diminishing stocks and political unrest

in certain areas, the local merchants are looking farther afield

for a steady supply of fish. The increased costs of

transportation to the more remote areas of the Indo-Pacific,

coupled with the belief in the source countries that fish prices

are still as they were 3-5 years ago, is creating real problems

for the Hong Kong merchant.

CYANIDE FISHING ON INDONESIAN CORAL REEFS

FOR THE LIVE FOOD FISH MARKET - WHAT IS THE

PROBLEM?

Mous, Peter J. * , Pet-Soede, Lida; Erdmann, Mark; Cesar,

Herman S.J.; Sadovy, Yvonne; & Pet, Jos S. *Indonesia

Coastal & Marine Program, The Nature Conservancy.

Jakarta Office, Jln Hang Tuah Raya 42, Jakarta 12120,

Indonesia Email: pmous@attglobal.net

According to three precautionary estimations, the reef-degrading

capacity of the cyanide fishery for food fish on

Indonesia’s coral reefs, expressed as a % cover change from

the total surface area (%-points), amounts to a loss of live coral

cover of 0.047, 0.052 and 0.060%-points per year. These

estimates for the rate of coral cover loss are low compared to

published rates of natural coral recovery. Differences in

growth rate between species of hard coral will cause coral

reefs to take longer to recover from the effects of cyanide

fishing than a direct comparison of the rate of coral cover loss

with published rates of natural coral recovery would suggest.

Still, the cyanide fishery for food fish may not be as

threatening to Indonesia’s coral reefs as is sometimes assumed,

especially not as compared to other threats such as blast

fishing (responsible for 3.75%-points loss of live coral cover

per year, Pet-Soede, Cesar & Pet 1999), or coral bleaching

caused by global climate change (cf. Hoegh–Guldberg 1999).

Setting the input variables for the estimates at extreme values

did not change these conclusions substantively. The depletion

of grouper stocks by the trade in live reef food fish, however,

is worrying from both fisheries and conservation perspectives.

Strategies to abate the depletion of these grouper stocks should

not only consider cyanide fishing, but also other fishing

methods.

FISH DIVERSITY LOSS AS THE RESULT OF

DESTRUCTIVE FISHING IN EAST MALAYSIA.

Oakley, S.G.*, Mackey, G. and Enderby, S.. *Institute of

Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, University

Malaysia Sarawak, Kota Samarahan, 93400 Sarawak,

Malaysia. Email Soakley@ibec.unimas.my

Coral reefs around the coasts of Sarawak and Sabah East

Malaysia were visually surveyed from 1996 to 2000 using

standardised belt transects and timed swims. There is ongoing

massive damage to reefs by destructive fishing techniques

especially blastfishing and cyanide although trawling also

damaged many reefs in some areas. The reef structure has been

seriously changed and this has had significant impacts on fish

species diversity and populations. Fish species diversity was

seriously reduced on all reefs but especially those subject to

intensive blastfishing. Reefs inside national parks were as

badly affected as reefs outside the gazetted areas. The 39 to 42

butterfly fish species which occur on protected reefs in East

Malaysia were reduced to one species on many fished reefs.

The diversity loss was apparent in all species of reef fish. Fish

populations were reduced with many fewer individuals of each

species as well as a reduction in size of fish. Very few reefs

had breeding sized adults of the larger commercial fish

species, while the fish preferred by the live fish trade and

actively sought by cyanide fishers were only seen at the reefs

protected by ecotourism. These larger fish; the humphead

wrasse, Cheilinus undulatus , the panther grouper Cromileptes

altivelis, the bumphead parrotfish Bolbometopon muricatum,

the chinese grouper Plectropomus laevis, the lyre tailed

grouper Variola louti and the giant grouper Epinephelus

lanceolatus are certainly endangered if not quite regionally

extinct.

REDUCING HUMAN STRESSES TO CORAL REEFS

THROUGH ALTERNATE EMPLOYMENT IN

SEAWEED FARMING IN THE ISLANDS OF BANGGI

AND BALAMBANGAN, SABAH, MALAYSIA.

De Silva, M.W.R.N.;* Rahman, Ridzwan Abdul; and

Jeropakal, Ainun Jariah. *Borneo Marine Research Unit,

Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah,

Malaysia. Email: arjan@nara.ac.lk.

A build, operate and transfer (BOT) system for seaweed

farming has been adapted as a way of introducing seaweed

farming to the hard-core poor fishing families of the islands of

Banggi and Balambangan, Sabah. Most participants of this

activity have been previously involved in using ‘fish bombing’

of coral reefs as a means livelihood and to sustain their large

families. The BOT system provide hands on training in all

aspects of seaweed farming, provide financial support by

employing participants as casual labour and continuously

monitoring them till they are able to independently manage

and get a desirable income prior to the farms being transferred

to them. The produce is purchased by the project and a small

percentage of the profit is retained by the project for involving

new families. The trials and tribulations of introducing

seaweed farming to coastal communities unused to this activity

are discussed..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E6: Destructive Fishing

280

THE NEED TO STOP CYANIDE SMUGGLING THAT

SUPPORTS CYANIDE FISHING.

Rubec, Peter J. * , Pratt, Vaughan R. and Cruz, Ferdinand .

*International Marinelife Alliance-USA, 2800 4th Street

North, St. Petersburg, Florida 33704, U.S.A. Email:

prubec@compuserve.com

Cyanide fishing has spread from the Philippines throughout

Southeast Asia. Cyanide has been shown to kill corals and is

believed to be a major factor contributing to the destruction of

coral reefs. Efforts to stop cyanide fishing need to examine the

means by which cyanide is transported to the collectors.

Companies that buy food fish in Hong Kong claim they are not

involved with promoting cyanide fishing. Collectors in

Indonesia have been observed using cyanide in squirt bottles

mixed with gasoline, kerosene, soap, or colored with a black

die. These agents are not necessary to dissolve the cyanide in

solution, since sodium cyanide and potassium cyanide are

water soluble. The most likely explanation is that cyanide is

being smuggled to other countries mixed with other chemicals.

The vessels involved in the trade of live food fish should be

inspected to determine whether they are transporting fuels or

other chemicals laced with cyanide. The International

Marinelife Alliance (IMA) maintains cyanide detection

laboratories in the Philippines, which can be used to determine

the presence of cyanide. The prosecution of individuals and/or

companies involved with the illegal distribution of cyanide to

fishermen may be the most effective way to stop cyanide

fishing, in order to conserve coral reefs and protect their

associated fisheries.

BLAST FISHING: VARIATIONS OF CAUSES AND

IMPACTS AMONG THREE DIFFERENT REEF

REGIONS IN INDONESIA.

Steffen, Jan Henning*. *KEHATI-The Indonesian

Biodiversity Foundation, Jakarta, Indonesia. Email:

jsteffen@cbn.net.id

Blast fishing represents a major threat for indonesian coral

reefs. It occurs widespread throughout the archipelago and

appeared again to be increasing in several regions of indonesia

during the times of economic crisis in 1997 and 1998.

Comparison among blast fishing incidents and techniques,

socio-economic appraisals and impact assessments on coral

reefs in west-sumatra, east-kalimantan and west-papua reveal

distinct differences among the surveyed sites. Variations

include the social groups involved , the attitudes of local

fishing communities towards surrounding reef areas and

towards the individuals using explosives, the impact on coral

reef communities, the infrastructure and incentives of regional

law enforcing agencies, and finally the reasons for limited

success of law implementation. The comparison shows that the

commonly used paradigm of the “poor fishermen without

alternative income sources and no choice rather than blast

fishing” does often not reflect the reality in the three selected

areas. The experiences made by the stakeholders in west-sumatra,

east-kalimantan and west-papua and the results of the

management approaches, which have been applied so far,

indicate the need for locally adapted, integrated and

stakeholder-based management solutions..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E7: Coral Diseases

Session E7: Coral Diseases: Pathogens, Etiology and Effect on Coral Reefs

281

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL PATTERNS OF

TREMATODE INFECTION ON THE REEF CORAL,

PORITES COMPRESSA, IN HAWAII.

Aeby, GS*, *University of Hawaii, Hono., HI 96744. Email:

GretaSA@aol.com

In Hawaii, the dominant coral genus, Porites , is susceptible

to infection by the digenetic trematode, Podocotyloides

stenometra. Trematode infections are characterized by the

appearance of pink, swollen nodules on the coral colony.

Infection by P. stenometra can result in significant reductions

in colony growth potentially affecting the colony’s ability to

compete for space on the reef. Surveys were conducted to

examine the abundance and distribution of infected colonies on

six reefs in Kaneohe Bay, Oahu. The duration and temporal

pattern of infection at both the reef and individual colony

levels was also examined. All six reefs were found to have

corals infected with P. stenometra. An average of 35% of the

colonies on the reefs were infected. Infected colonies were

found from the reef flat down to the bottom of the reef slope.

Most colonies were lightly infected, with only a small

proportion of the colonies having high levels of infection.

Intermediate levels of coral cover had the highest levels of

infected coral. Infected corals were evident on the six reefs

throughout the duration of the study with no overall change in

proportion of infected colonies through time. However, there

was variability in duration of the infection among reefs. A one

year field survey of individual colonies also showed variability

in duration of infection. No seasonal differences (winter vs.

summer) in level of infection were evident at the reef or

individual colony level.

BIOGEOGRAPHY OF OLD AND NEW CORAL

DISEASES.

Arnfried Antonius. Paleontology, University,

Althanstrasse 14, A-1090 Vienna, Austria.

Email:arnfried.antonius@univie.ac.at

All of the classical, old coral diseases, such as Black Band

Disease (BBD), White Band Disease (WBD), Tissue

Bleaching (TBL), Shut-Down-Reaction (SDR), Lobophora

variegata (LOB), and others, were observed in both Atlantic

and Indo-Pacific zoogeographic areas. Within a time-span of

about thirty years they were registered in many locations of the

Western Atlantic, from Bermuda in the North, throughout the

Caribbean Sea, to Panama in the South. In the Indo-Pacific

they were found in the Red Sea, Seychelles, Mauritius,

Philippines, Papua New Guinea, and Australia. The newer,

recently discovered syndromes appear to be more restricted :

Pneophyllum conicum (PNE), a coral-killing red alga occurs

throughout the Indo-Pacific in moderate quantities, but was

recently observed to destroy an entire reef-crest area in

Mauritius. Another new Corallinacea, Metapeyssonnelia

corallepida (PEY), destroying corals in a very similar way, has

so far been documented in Caribbean waters only. The first

coral-killing ciliate, however, Halofolliculina corallasia

(SEB), was found to be restricted to the Indo-Pacific

zoogeographic region. Future field-research will show

whether these geographic limitations are real, or rather

artefacts of insufficient observation time.

ECOLOGICAL AND PALEOECOLOGICAL

PERSPECTIVES ON DISEASES OF BENTHIC REEF

ORGANISMS.

Aronson, Richard B. * and William F. Precht. *Dauphin

Island Sea Lab, 101 Bienville Boulevard, Dauphin Island,

Alabama 36528, U.S.A. Email:

raronson@jaguar1.usouthal.edu

Since the disease-induced mass mortality of the Caribbean

black-spined sea urchin, Diadema antillarum, in 1983-84,

ecologists and microbiologists have been identifying new

diseases on coral reefs at an alarming rate. A rapidly

expanding roster of pathologies threatens such important

sessile organisms as scleractinian corals, sponges, octocorals,

and coralline algae. White-band disease (WBD), for example,

was responsible for devastating populations of Acropora

palmata (elkhorn coral) and A. cervicornis (staghorn coral)

around the Caribbean from the 1970s through the 1990s. A

critical question is whether humans are promoting disease

outbreaks on coral reefs. Several indirect lines of evidence

from the Caribbean suggest that the answer is yes. First, one

emergent disease, a fungal infection of sea fans, is caused by a

terrestrial pathogen, perhaps introduced through altered

patterns of land use. Second, heavy exploitation of predatory

fishes was at least partly responsible for high population

densities of D. antillarum prior to the dieoff, and these high

densities probably facilitated the spread of the pathogen.

Finally, paleontological data from Belize suggest that the

recent, WBD-induced Acropora kill was without precedent in

the late Holocene (the last 3,000 years). Links between

diseases of reef organisms and land use, pollution, and global

climate change require immediate attention.

PREDATION BY SPARISOMA VIRIDE AND

RELATIONSHIPS WITH CORAL DISEASE.

Bruckner, R.J.* and Bruckner, A.W. *NOAA/National

Marine Fisheries Service, 1315 East West Highway, Silver

Spring, Maryland, United States. Email:

robin.bruckner@noaa.gov

A condition initially termed “rapid wasting disease”(RWD),

characterized by a rapid rate (7.5 cm per day) of tissue

destruction and concurrent “dissolution” of the skeleton, was

subsequently demonstrated to result from predation by initial

phase and terminal phase Sparisoma viride (stoplight

parrotfish). These fish forage using beak-like jaws to scrape

and excavate epilithic and endolithic algae from carbonate

substrates, but they also bite live coral. Most commonly, S.

viride created small lesions (spot biting) that were within a

coral’s regeneration capabilities. Parrotfish also created deep

grazing scars (focused biting), denuding tissue and skeleton

through repeated, methodical biting that progressively radiated

across colony surfaces. Coral destruction occurred only during

daylight, with no additional loss at night; lesions also failed to

increase in size when S. viride were excluded. Tissue and

skeleton removed from areas on colonies affected by active

predation did not induce tissue or skeletal destruction when

attached to apparently healthy corals. In addition, coral tissue

samples collected from the site of injury after predation ceased

exhibited regrowth of coral tissue over damaged skeleton.

After three years large lesions have failed to fully regenerate,

but they have not increased in the absence of continued

predation, and coral growth has occurred at the periphery of

the injury. Additional studies are needed to determine whether

focused biting is related to parrotfish abundance, territorial

interactions, or other factors, and whether fish bites serve as a

portal of entry for secondary pathogens..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E7: Coral Diseases

282

THE PREVALENCE OF CORAL DISEASES ON REEFS

SURROUNDING MONA ISLAND, PUERTO RICO

Bruckner, A.W.* and Bruckner, R.J. *NOAA/National

Marine Fisheries Service, 1315 East West Highway, Silver

Spring, Maryland, United States. Email:

andy.bruckner@noaa.gov

Coral diseases appear to be increasing in frequency in the

western Atlantic, however there is insufficient information to

verify that diseases are equally affecting remote locations. In

this study the condition of reef-building corals was assessed on

reefs surrounding Mona Island, to determine whether locations

with little anthropogenic pollution have a similar level of

disease as do heavily impacted reefs near the Puerto Rico

mainland. Coral diseases, especially black-band disease

(BBD), white plague (WP) and yellow-blotch disease (YBD)

were identified from 0.5-25 m depth. In 1995 and 1996, BBD

affected 8-10% of the brain corals (Diploria spp.) in six back

reef and reef crest environments, with fewer infections

recorded on the fore reef. Yellow-blotch disease was rare,

except in one location; white plague was not identified along

transects or on surrounding colonies. Surveys from 1999

indicate that diseases were more common on the shallow fore

reef (2-20 m depth) than previously observed. Colonies were

identified with YBD on all reefs, affecting up to 50% of all star

corals (Montastraea annularis complex), particularly the

largest colonies. Although fewer colonies exhibited BBD in

shallow locations, this condition was prevalent in the fore reef.

An outbreak of white plague was noted for the first time in

1999, primarily among Colpophyllia natans, Dichocoenia

stokessi, Diploria spp. and Montastraea spp.

GRAZING OF CORAL SURFACES BY THE

STOPLIGHT PARROTFISH SPARISOMA VIRIDE AND

RELATIONSHIPS WITH CORAL DISEASE.

Bruckner, R.J.* and Bruckner, A.W. *NOAA/National

Marine Fisheries Service, 1315 East West Highway, Silver

Spring, Maryland, United States. Email:

robin.bruckner@noaa.gov

Sparisoma viride (stoplight parrotfish) forage using beak-like

jaws to scrape and excavate epilithic and endolithic algae from

carbonate substrates, but they also bite live coral, removing

tissue and underlying skeleton. A condition initially termed

“rapid wasting disease”(RWD), characterized by a rapid rate

(7.5 cm per day) of tissue destruction combined with the

concurrent “dissolution” of the skeleton, was presumed to be

caused by a fungal pathogen. The condition was subsequently

demonstrated to result from repeated, overlapping bites by

initial phase and terminal phase Sparisoma viride. Although S.

viride prey upon at least 18 species of coral, Colpophyllia

natans, Montastraea annularis and M. faveolata are affected

most frequently; parrotfish create grazing scars through

repeated, methodical biting that progressively radiate across

colony surfaces. Identification of S. viride as the primary

causative agent was accomplished by comparing rates of coral

destruction between day and night, by excluding parrotfish

from corals with active signs of predation, and through direct

observations of parrotfish behavior. Tissue and skeleton

removed from areas on colonies affected by active predation

that were attached to apparently healthy corals failed to induce

tissue destruction. In addition, coral tissue samples collected

from the site of injury after predation ceased exhibited

regrowth of coral tissue over damaged skeleton.

THE CONDITION OF SCLERACTINIAN CORALS ON

REEFS SURROUNDING MONA ISLAND, PUERTO

RICO: THE PREVALENCE AND IMPACT OF CORAL

DISEASES IN LOCATIONS REMOVED FROM HUMAN

POPULATION CENTERS.

Bruckner, A.W.* and Bruckner, R.J. *NOAA/National

Marine Fisheries Service, 1315 East West Highway, Silver

Spring, Maryland, United States. Email:

andy.bruckner@noaa.gov

Coral diseases appear to be increasing in frequency in the

western Atlantic, however there is insufficient information to

verify that diseases are equally affecting remote locations, or

whether this apparent increase is related primarily to

anthropogenic disturbances. In this study the condition of

reef-building corals was assessed on reefs surrounding Mona

Island, to determine whether locations with little

anthropogenic pollution have a similar level of disease and

subsequent coral reef deterioration as do heavily impacted

reefs near the Puerto Rico mainland. Coral diseases, especially

black-band disease (BBD), white-band disease (WBD), white

plague (WP) and yellow-blotch disease (YBD) were identified

from 0.5-25 m depth. In 1995 and 1996, BBD affected 8-10%

of the brain corals (Diploria spp.) in six back reef and reef

crest environments, with fewer infections recorded on the fore

reef. Yellow-blotch disease was rare, except in one location;

white plague was not identified along transects or on

surrounding colonies. Surveys from 1999 indicate that

diseases were more common on the shallow fore reef (2-20 m

depth) than observed in previous years. Colonies were

identified with YBD on all reefs, affecting up to 50% of all star

corals (Montastraea annularis complex), particularly the

largest colonies.

DECREASED ZOOXANTHELLAE DENSITIES AND

MITOTIC INDICES IN CORALS AFFECTED BY

YELLOW BAND, DARK SPOT, WHITE BAND, AND

WHITE POX SYNDROMES.

Cervino J.M.*, G. Smith, T. J. Goreau, R. Hayes, S.

Polson, & S. James. Dept. of Marine Sciences., University

of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, e-mail:

cnidaria@earthlink.net.

Yellow band (YB) , dark spot (DS), white band (WB), and

white pox (WP) coral syndromes have become prevalent

throughout the Caribbean. Belt transects in Bonaire, Grenada,

St. John, and Providenciales during 1997-99 showed up to

98% of target coral species affected. Zooxanthellae densities

and mitotic indices (MI, % cells appearing as doublets) were

measured using a hemocytometer. Zooxanthellae densities in

affected tissues were less than in controls: YB-affected tissues

of Montastrea annularis had 50% of normal zooxanthellae

density in the band adjacent to normal tissue and 0.1%

adjacent to the dying edge; DS-affected Siderastrea siderea

had 55.9% of control densities; DS-affected Stephanocoenia

michelinii had 87.3% of controls; WB-affected Acropora.

Cervicornis had 11.99% of controls; and WP-affected

Acropora palmata had 15.33% of controls. Mitotic Indices

also decreased in affected tissues. MI of normal M. annularis

was 1.0%, but 0.18% in YB next to normal tissue and 0.0% in

YB near the dying edge. MI of normal S. siderea was 1.20%

and 0.40% in DS samples. MI of normal S. michelinii was

1.54% and 0.23% in DS. MI of normal A. Cervicornis was

8.0% and 0.44% in WB. MI of normal A. palmata was 8.28%

and 0.48% in WP. Intact zooxanthellae were found in tissue

and mucus of healthy specimens. Affected tissues were

dominated by swollen, vacuolated or disrupted zooxanthellae,

and mucus contained fragmented symbionts..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E7: Coral Diseases

283

CHANGES IN ABUNDANCE, SIZE, AND FUNGAL

INFECTION OF PARROTFISH LESIONS ON

CARIBBEAN CORALS, 1996-1999.

Cervino J.M.*, R. L. Hayes, T. J. Goreau, & G.W. Smith.

Marine Science Dept., University of South Carolina,

Columbia, SC Dept. of Marine Sciences 29208 Email:

cnidaria@earthlink.net

Large white patches of recently excavated coral skeleton

were conspicuous in the Caribbean corals Montastrea species

and Colpophyllia natans in late 1996-1997, affecting 80 to

90% of all colonies at some sites, but were less evident in

1998-99. Low levels of parrot fish white spot biting (PWSB)

has long been known to be caused by Sparisoma virde, the

stoplight parrotfish, but normally healed without scar

formation. During 1996-97, S. viride was observed to inflict

overlapping bite marks on corals, making unusually large,

deep excavations, and frequently returning to the same coral to

inflict additional damage. Transect measurements in Bonaire

showed a decreasing trend with time: 0.5 cases per linear meter

in 1997, 0.075 in 1998, and 0.011 in 1999. The size of the

lesions also decreased, from a range of 3 to 60 cm across in

1997 to 1.3 to 10 cm across in 1999. Microscopic

examinations in 1997 showed fungal hyphae invading coral

epithelia, and the fungus Rhodotorula rubra was isolated from

these tissues. Fungal hyphae were not observed in specimens

collected during 1999. These data suggest that this event

exploded during late 1996 and decreased steadily afterwards.

The dramatic effect on coral morphology suggests that such

events were uncommon or local in the past.

CYANOBACTERIAL DISEASE AFFECTS THE

CRUSTOSE RED ALGAE Peyssonnelia ON REEFS OF

THE CARIBBEAN AND GREAT BARRIER REEF.

Diaz-Pulido G.* *Dept. Tropical Plant Sciences, James

Cook University, Australian Institute of Marine Science

and CRC: Reef Research Centre, Townsville, Qld 4811,

Australia. Guillermo.Diaz@jcu.edu.au.

A previously undescribed disease affecting the calcified

crustose red algae Peyssonnelia spp. has been observed on

coral reefs of the Colombian Caribbean and the central section

of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR), Australia. No pathogens have

been previously recorded for this genus. Named Peyssonnelia

Yellow Band Disease due to its banding appearance and

yellow colour, the disease attacks the algae Peyssonnelia over

a wide depth range, from 6 – 9 m in Trunk Reef, GBR, to 10 -24

m in Santa Marta, Colombia. The disease generally

manifests itself as a more or less distinct yellow band of 0.5 to

4 cm wide, composed of densely interwoven gliding filaments

of the cyanobacteria Schizothrix sp. The yellow band moves

across the surface of the crustose algae, followed by a white

mat of gliding bacteria, possibly Beggiatoa spp., leaving

behind dead algal tissue. Both the invasion process and the

cyanobacterial and bacterial genera involved in the disease are

similar between samples obtained from the Caribbean and

GBR, and seem to represent the same infection. Peyssonnelia

can be the dominant alga in crevices and overhangs of reefs in

both the GBR and the Caribbean, and can play a significant

role in reef consolidation and construction. Although the

disease is apparently currently neither common nor locally

abundant, outbreaks of the disease could potentially have

significant and widespread impacts on reef communities.

DIFFERENTIAL PREVALENCE OF BLACK BAND

DISEASE IN CORAL ASSEMBLAGES FROM THE

GREAT BARRIER REEF.

Dinsdale E.*. *School of Tropical Environment Studies and

Geography James Cook University Townsville 4811

Australia. Email: Elizabeth.dinsdale@jcu.edu.au

Black Band Disease is a common affliction of corals on the

Great Barrier Reef, with at least 24 species in 5 families being

infected. The family Acroporidae, in particular Acropora

hyacinthus, A. intermedia and A. millepora are important host

species for Black Band Disease (BBD). In a survey of

exposed reef crest and back reef corals (depth of 1-3m) at

Lizard Island 2.8% of the 4569 coral colonies were infected

with BBD. Prevalence varied between the exposed crest and

back reef habitats; 3.6% of corals were infected on the crest

and 2.1% corals on the back reef. The prevalence of BBD was

not spread evenly through the coral families. Pocilloporidae

and Acroporidae corals had a higher number of infections and

diseased corals from these families were found in both

habitats. Whereas, Poritidae and Faviidae corals had a lower

number of infections and infected corals were found on the

reef crest only. The differential prevalence of BBD may

influence the coral assemblages within the two habitats.

A NOVEL MOLECULAR BIOMARKER SYSTEM

(MBS) TO ASSESS THE PHYSIOLOGICAL STATUS OF

CORALS.

Downs C.A.*, E. Mueller, S. Phillips, J. E. Fauth and C. M.

Woodley. *Envirion Biotechnologies, Inc., 6319 Mori St.,

McLean, VA 22101 USA. Email:

cadowns@technologist.com

We have developed a novel Molecular Biomarker System

(MBS) to assess the physiological status of corals

(Montastraea faveolata and Montastraea annularis) by

assaying specific parameters of coral cellular physiology,

indicative of a non-stressed or stressed condition. We have

used this new biotechnology to characterize the cellular

pathology of coral bleaching. In laboratory studies, the MBS

was used to distinguish the separate and combined effects of

heat and light on a scleractinian coral and its symbiotic

dinoflagellate (zooxanthellae). Our data provides strong

evidence to support the hypothesis that oxidative stress plays a

central role in the etiology of coral bleaching. We also

employed the MBS to examine field samples from colonies of

M. annularis in the Florida Keys collected March through

November 1999. We discovered a strong correlation between

oxidative stress and coral bleaching. Further, we showed that

the MBS can be used to (1) diagnose whether corals were

physiologically stressed, (2) predict the occurrence of coral

bleaching at least 3-6 months before visual indications of a

bleaching event, and (3) provide evidence that suggests that

the chloroplast small heat-shock protein is a significant

adaptation against coral bleaching. We are currently

expanding the capabilities of the MBS to any coral species and

adapting the relatively inexpensive, yet precise MBS

biotechnology to a high-throughput robotic system to handle

large sample sets..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E7: Coral Diseases

284

PATTERNS IN CORAL DISEASE EPIZOOTIOLOGY.

Green, E.P * . and Bruckner, A. *World Conservation

Monitoring Centre, 219 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge,

CB3 0DL, United Kingdom. Email: ed.green@wcmc.org.uk

Epizootiology, a term equivalent to epidemiology in humans,

is the study of the incidence, distribution and abundance of

disease in animals. If there is a link between human activities

and coral epizootiology then patterns of disease incidence are

unlikely to be uniformly or randomly distributed at regional

scales. An understanding of the global epizootiology of coral

diseases would therefore constitute a first step in examining

whether any relationship exists. Here we present summary

conclusions from a review of in situ observations of coral

disease and associated mortality from more than 150 sources:

(i) a disproportionate amount of disease has been recorded as

occurring in the wider Caribbean region, (ii) only white-band

disease has caused major changes in the composition and

structure of reefs, (iii) only a few studies have quantified the

prevalence of disease, or the mortality arising from disease at

an instant or over time, (iv) therefore certainty over whether

the impact of disease is increasing, or not, is difficult, (v) in

general, reefs are not being devastated by biotic diseases in the

same way that many were affected by bleaching during the

1997-1998 event, (vi) therefore the global implications of

diseases on coral reefs may not be as severe as bleaching, at

this time, (vii) black-band disease and white plague affect a

large number of different sceleractinian corals. The

overwhelming majority of disease in the Caribbean (97% of

locations) has been recorded from coral reefs where human

activities are expected to have medium to high impacts.

Regional scale patterns in the incidence of coral disease may

therefore be suitable bio-indicators of anthropogenic

disturbance to coral reefs.

ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS AND OPPORTUNISTIC

BACTERIAL PATHOGENESIS IN STONY CORALS.

Hayes M.L.*, R.L. Hayes and R.T.Barber. *Duke

University Marine Laboratory, 135 Duke Marine Lab Rd.,

Beaufort, NC USA. Email: mhayes@duke.edu

Emerging infectious diseases have become a serious global

threat to the health of human and wildlife populations in recent

decades. World-wide, infectious diseases have appeared in

coral reefs with an unprecedented increase in frequency,

intensity and variety. To investigate causal and unifying

mechanisms of the changing ecology of infectious disease, we

have developed a novel marine invertebrate disease model

based on the temperate scleractinian (stony) coral Oculina

arbuscula and confirmed bacterial coral pathogens. We can

induce bacterial infection and disease in O. arbuscula by

exposure to innocula of the bacterium Vibrio alginolyticus. V.

alginolyticus is a facultatively anaerobic gram-negative

bacterium and a common resident of the surface

mucopolysaccharide layer of healthy corals. Observations

suggest that some, perhaps many, emerging infectious diseases

in corals need not be attributed to novel or exotic bacterial

pathogens. Instead, environmental conditions that cause shifts

in the composition, quantity and function of the commensal

microbial community on the coral surface may be sufficient to

initiate the cascade toward the disease. Results suggest that

normal bacterial microflora serve both as infection defense

mechanisms in healthy corals and as opportunistic pathogens

in stressed corals. Experiments indicate that relatively modest

changes in ambient conditions can initiate the shift in

microflora function from defense to infection.

CHARACTERIZATION OF TETRODOTOXIN

PRODUCTION BY A SEA URCHIN PATHOGEN; AND

ITS POSSIBLE ROLE IN PATHOGENICITY.

James, Sara C.*, Ellis Kline, and Garriet W. Smith.

*Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine,

124 Long Hall, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634-

1909 USA, Email: scjames@clemson.edu.

Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis sub sp tetraodonis is a

bacterium known to produce the sodium-channel blocker,

tetrodotoxin (TTX). This neurotoxin, often associated with

puffer fish (fugu) poisoning, is lethal to humans. A strain

similar to this bacterium was isolated from diseased Meoma

ventricosa in Curaçao in 1997. The strain has also been shown

to cause disease and ensuing mortality in regular urchin

species. The production of TTX by this strain was

characterized by cytotoxicity assays on neuroblastoma cell

lines, by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC), and

monoclonal antibody assays. These tests were performed over

time under varying environmental and ionic conditions.

Mutational studies were performed in order to produce TTX-negative

clones that could be used in further studies.

THE EPIZOOTIOLOGY OF CORAL DISEASES IN THE

FLORIDA KEYS.

Mueller, E., D.L. Santavy, E.C. Peters, J.C. Porter, and L.

MacLaughlin. *Mote Marine Laboratory, Center for

Tropical Research, 24244 Overseas Highway, Summerland

Key, FL 33042. Email: emueller@mote.org

The contribution of coral disease to the decline of reef

ecosystems has been implied, although no study to date has

assessed the prevalence of multiple coral diseases throughout a

geographic region. The multi-year survey reports coral

diseases affecting 18 species of stony coral and 2 species of

gorgonian seafans in the Florida Keys. The survey estimates

the frequency and distribution of specific diseases associated

with three geographical regions of the Keys and three reef

types. Diseases were assessed using the 8-10m segment of a

radial arc transect. The greatest preva-lence of disease

occurred in the back reef of all the regions. The greatest

prevalence of disease almost always occurred in the Lower

Keys region, in the vicinity of Key West. The highest disease

rate affects the Acroporid corals, and includes white-band

disease and white pox disease or patchy necrosis. Other

disease syndromes that were frequently encountered include

dark spot disease affecting Siderastrea siderea, aspergillosis

affecting seafans, and yellow-blotch disease affecting large

Montastraea colonies..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E7: Coral Diseases

285

SYSTEMATIC CHARACTERIZATION AND

COMPARISON OF VARIOUS BACTERIAL ISOLATES

PATHOGENIC, OR PUTATIVELY PATHOGENIC, TO

SCLERACTINIAN CORAL SPECIES.

Polson, Shawn W.* and Smith, Garriet W. *Department of

Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, 124 Long Hall,

Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634-1909 USA. Email:

spolson@clemson.edu.

The recent apparent increases in the number of epizootics

affecting coral reef organisms, including reef-building coral

species, has encouraged expanding research into coral

microbiology. During the past few years the isolation of

pathogenic, or potentially pathogenic, bacteria associated with

white plague, white band disease (type II), Porites ulcerative

white spot disease, dark spots syndrome, and white pox

syndrome has occurred. Tentative grouping of isolates was

performed by subjecting the bacteria to metabolic

fingerprinting, using the BIOLOG system, and by Fatty Acid

Methyl Ester (F.A.M.E.) analysis. The bacteria were then

identified by sequencing of a conserved region of the 16S

ribosomal RNA gene. Additional tests that described various

morphological, physiological, metabolic, genetic, and

biochemical characteristics of the strains were then performed.

Results from all tests were statistically analyzed allowing

examination of pathogenic diversity and general relatedness

among strains. Pathogenic strains tended to be Vibrio or

Pseudomonas-like aerobic, heterotrophic, gram-negative rods

that grow and proliferate strictly, or at least optimally, within

marine environments.

FUNGAL DEVELOPMENT IN MASSIVE CORAL

SKELETONSK.

Priess, T*. Le Campion-Alsumard, S. Golubic, F. Gadel,

B.A. Thomassin. * Centre d’Oceanologie de Marseille,

Universite de la Mediterranee, UMR-CNRS 6540, Station

Marine d’Endoume, F-13007 Email: kathrin.priess@dlr.de

Dark coloured bands are commonly found in fractured

massive coral skeletons from Mayotte Island (Mozambique

Channel) and from Moorea Island (French Polynesia) but have

been also recognized in various places throughout the Indo-Pacific

region. These bands are associated with an assemblage

of at least two types of microbial endoliths: Ostreobium

queckettii a common siphonal chlorophyte and an Aspergillus-like

fungus. Between algae and fungi we observed a parasitic

relationship with the fungus attacking the alga. The algae are

usually destroyed, darken and show fibrous excrescences. The

fungi then develop dark conidiophores spreading into the

skeletal pores. They excrete dark-brown membranous veils

that stain the surrounding skeleton. Black bands match high-density

bands of the coral skeleton and showed a higher

concentration in polysaccharides. Reasons for a seasonal

outspread of fungi will be discussed as well as possible

consequences for the coral.

Porites ULCERATIVE WHITE SPOT DISEASE: A NEW

DISEASE IMPACTING INDO-PACIFIC CORAL

REEFS.

Raymundo, L.R.*, A.P. Maypa, T. Reynolds. *Silliman

University Marine Laboratory, Dumaguete City 6200,

Philippines. Email: mlsucrm@mozcom.com

Presented here are results of an investigation of a disease

affecting Indo-Pacific corals. Lesions characteristic of Porites

Ulcerative White Spot Disease (PUWS) are multifocal, round,

bleached or full tissue thickness ulcerations, 4 mm in diameter .

Seventeen-month field monitoring of 25 diseased colonies and

five healthy controls revealed that advanced infections result in

lesion coalescence, extensive tissue loss and partial mortality

(56% of the colonies) or death. Field transfections showed that

95.5% of lesion-free colonies (n=21) developed lesions within

three weeks of continued direct exposure to diseased branches,

while 60% of field controls (n=15) remained healthy. Host

range of PUWS appears to be common poritids; surveys on 10

Central Philippine reefs revealed that 22%±7% (Mean ±SE) of

all poritid colonies displayed clinical signs and 82% of the

reefs were infected. Prevalence per species was positively

correlated with species density. Porites spp. are dominant reef

builders; a disease targeting this genus could result in major

changes in reef community structure.

PORITES ULCERATIVE WHITE SPOT DISEASE

(PUWSD): THE ETIOLOGY AND PATHOGENESIS OF

A NEW CORAL DISEASE IN THE CENTRAL

PHILIPPINES.

Reynolds, T.*, L. Raymundo, G. W. Smith, K. Barry, N.

Wainwright. Tufts University School of Veterinary

Medicine, 200 Westboro Road, N. Grafton MA 01536.

Email: taylor@splusnet.com

PUWSD is manifested as round, multi-focal to coalescing,

full tissue thickness erosions of 3-5mm in diameter. Since

1996 it has been observed in 10 of the commonest Porites

species in the Philippines. Two putative pathogens were

selected, using RFLP analysis and the BiologÔ system, from

among bacterial isolates taken from the surface of Porites

attenuata displaying characteristic lesions. These isolates

were later identified by 16s rDNA sequence analysis as a strain

closely related to Vibrio carchariae, and an undescribed Vibrio

sp. Exposure of clinically healthy P. attenuata to a liquid

culture (10 7 CFU/ml) of the Vibrio sp. isolate resulted in a

transient appearance of lesion-like spots and outright death of

entire coral fragments. While Koch’s postulates were not

satisfied, this evidence suggests that this Vibrio sp. may be

involved in the disease process. A chemical extract of P.

attenuata had antimicrobial activity against all coral surface

bacteria assayed (n=18), and no activity against reference

strains of wild type Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis.

Sensitivity to the extract was variable, and the putative

pathogens were relatively the most resistant. Histologic

preparations of five diseased Porites species, viewed with the

light microscope, revealed necrotic tissue with filamentous

algae, bacteria, and other debris adjacent to ulcerations. Using

transmission electron microscopy, filamentous structures

resembling viral particles were found..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E7: Coral Diseases

286

MICROBIOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL

PERSPECTIVES ON CORAL DISEASES: DIVERSITY

OF MICROBIAL PATHOGENS AND

PATHOGEN/HOST INTERACTIONS

Richardson, Laurie L.*. *Department of Biological

Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, Florida

33199, U.S.A. Email: richardl@fiu.edu

Recent research in coral disease etiology has revealed an

impressive diversity of microbial pathogens. To date the coral

microbial pathogens that have been identified and

characterized include single pathogens that are either fungal or

bacterial in nature, and microbial consortia that range from

highly structured to loosely organized and that may contain

phototrophic and heterotrophic bacteria as well as fungi.

Accompanying this microbiological diversity, investigators are

finding that each coral disease has an etiology that demands

not only an integrated approach to the study of the disease, but

different combinations of techniques and approaches for the

study of each disease. As an example, understanding the

complex interactions taking place in black band disease, a

highly structured microbial consortium that generates and

maintains it’s own sulfuretum, has required techniques in

microbiology, microsensors, advanced microscopy, microbial

physiology, and molecular genetics. Studies of the disease

white plague must take into account the sporadic nature of

disease outbreaks and the emergence of apparently

increasingly virulent strains of a single bacterial pathogen.

The field of coral disease etiology has also shown very recent

and novel results in the areas of host response to pathogens and

environmental stress. Continuing efforts in all of these areas

are required to provide the understanding necessary to support

management of coral reefs.

A PATHOGENIC AGENT OF CARIBBEAN SEA

URCHINS.

Ritchie, Kim B.*. *University of North Carolina, Biology

Department, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-3280. Email:

kritchie@email.unc.edu

Although disease related mortalities of marine invertebrates

have been reported for the past few decades, the identification

of responsible pathogenic agents has often been elusive. A

massive die-off of the sea urchin Diadema antillarum in the

early 1980's ultimately resulted in the devastation of many

reefs throughout the Caribbean. The causative agent of this

epizootic was never discovered. In January of 1997, a die-off

of the sea urchin Meoma ventricosa was observed in Curaçao,

Netherlands Antilles. A bacterium associated solely with

affected tissue was isolated and found to cause identical

disease symptoms in the urchin Lytechinus variegatus. 16S

rDNA analysis identified this bacterial isolate as a new species

closely related to Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis subsp.

tetraodonis, a subspecies known to produce tetrodotoxin in

pufferfish. We subsequently showed that the pathogenic

isolate produces tetrodotoxin. The discovery of this sea urchin

pathogen provides an unusual opportunity to study the range of

urchins that this pathogen is capable of affecting. The

determination of both the phylogenetic relationship of this

urchin pathogen among other marine bacteria, as well as it's

host range capabilities, will provide insight into the overall

potential threat of this pathogen to other Caribbean marine

echinoderms.

VIRULENCE MECHANISMS OF THE CORAL

BLEACHING PATHOGEN.

Rosenberg, E.*, E. Banin, M. Fine, Y. Ben-Haim, T.

Israely, Y. Loya. *Faculty of Life Science, Tel-Aviv

University, Israel. Email: eueqene@ccsg.tau.ac.il

The causative agent of the coral bleaching disease of Oculina

patagonica is Vibrio shiloi. The infection proceeds via the

following sequential steps: (1) adhesion of the bacterium to a

b-galactoside receptor on the coral surface; (2) penetration of

the bacterium into the coral epidermis; (3) multiplication of the

bacterium in the coral tissue; once inside the coral epidermis V.

shiloi converts into a viable but not culturable form and, (4)

production of (a) a heat-stable toxic peptide that inhibits

photosynthesis of the zooxanthellae and (b) heat-labile toxins

that bleach and lyse the algae. These virulence factors are

produced at much higher levels when the bacterium is grown

at elevated temperatures. These virulence mechanisms will be

discussed in terms of the general hypothesis that coral

bleaching is the result of temperature-dependent bacterial

infection.

PATHOGENS OF CORAL REEF ORGANISMS.

Smith, Garriet W.*. *Department of Biology and Geology,

University of South Carolina Aiken, SC 29801 USA, Email:

smithres@aiken.sc.edu

A number of bacterial and fungal diseases of corals and reef-associated

organisms have been described in the past few

years. The increase of these pathogenic relationships are

indicative of environmental changes which may have resulted

in the introduction of new pathogens, lowered resistance of

host organisms, increases in the populations of indigenous

pathogens, or other reasons. We have taken a number of

approaches to attempt to understand the disease processes

associated with reef organisms. One has been to study the

normal microbiota and how the composition changes under

stressed conditions. Results have indicated there is a

microbiota associated with various coral species and that the

composition changes under stress. Another approach is to

attempt to identify the pathogens involved. Results have

ranged from positive identifications to none at all. Other

approaches that we are pursuing to understand these diseases

are to look at host's responses and the pathogenic mechanisms

involved. Some diseases appear to involve toxins while others

are still mysteries. Host responses to infection were found with

some organisms while others appear unable to respond. While

we are just beginning to understand microbiological aspects of

reef-associated diseases, the physiological, metabolic,

biochemical and molecular aspects remain a challenge..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E7: Coral Diseases

287

LOCAL AND GEOGRAPHIC VARIABILITY IN THE

INCIDENCE OF DISEASES IN WESTERN ATLANTIC

CORAL REEFS.

Weil, E.* I. Urreiztieta, J. Garzón-Ferreira, P.Gayle,

DL.Gil-Agudelo, A.Croquer and Sven Zea. *Dept. of

Marine Sciences, U. of Puerto Rico, PO BOX 908, Lajas,

PR. Email: eweil@caribe.net

The number and incidence of diseases associated with coral

reef organisms in the Caribbean have increased in the last

decade. However, little is known about the pathogens, the

etiology, and the local and geographic variability of most

diseases. The CARICOMP disease protocol was used to assess

the incidence of coral diseases in 19 reefs from 6 widely

separated localities in the Caribbean and Bermuda. Surveys

were conducted within a six-month window in 1999 to reduce

temporal variability of the data. For each coral species, the

number of infected, injured, and healthy colonies were counted

in several 40 m 2 band transects in three-four depth intervals in

each reef. Results indicate that: (a) BBD, YBD, WP and

aspergilliosis were present in all localities; (b) average total

disease incidence was overall low (0.78-4.74 %) across the

region and increased significantly from north to south; (c)

average incidence of each disease was low and varied between

depth intervals within reefs, between local reefs, and between

geographic areas; (d) aspergilliosis had the highest incidence

(0.53-5.39 %) in 4 geographic localities followed by YBD

(0.04-2.62), DSD (0.25-3.0), WP (0.19-2.96) and BBD (0.04-

0.91); (e) WBD, the infection that reduced acroporid

populations to very low levels across the Caribbean in the 80’s,

showed the lowest average incidence (0.03-0.40) across the

region. The role that diseases could play in the dynamics of

reef communities and the future of reefs in the Caribbean

remains obscure..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E8: Invasive Species

Session E8: Coral Reef Non-indigenous and Invasive Species

288

CORALLIMORPHARIANS AS ALTERNATE

DOMINANTS TO STONY CORALS ON DISTURBED

INDO-PACIFIC REEFS.

Chadwick-Furman N.E.*. *Interuniversity Institute for

Marine Science, P.O. Box 469, Eilat, Israel. email:

furman@mail.biu.ac.il

Some corallimorpharians form large aggregations of polyps

on shallow coral reefs, often in areas where live stony corals

have been removed by disturbances such as low tides,

bleaching events, or predation by corallivores. In order to

determine how corallimorpharians are able to dominate such

areas, we examined patterns of reproduction and competition

in the common Indo-Pacific species Rhodactis (=Discosoma)

rhodostoma. Over 2 years, polyps were observed to spread

across reef substratum via a combination of 3 modes of clonal

replication, one of which leads to the formation of unattached,

floating buds that disperse in the water column. Within clones,

polyps segregate functions by position: female polyps occurred

in the center, and sterile or male polyps occur along the

expanding clonal periphery. Upon contact with live stony

corals, peripheral polyps induce the formation of specialized

bulbuous marginal tentacles that actively damage coral tissues.

This combination of rapid clonal replication, long-distance

dispersal via planktonic propagules (broadcast gametes and

detached buds), and aggressive damage to contacted corals

allows some corallimorpharians to rapidly colonize open reef

areas and then kill and overgrow resident corals. Polyps of

Rhodactis also withstand extreme physical conditions such as

exposure to air and high temperatures that kill stony corals

during low tide exposures. Large monocultures of non-calcifying

corallimorpharians may prevent recolonization of

reef surfaces by stony corals, and thus impact the species

diversity and accretion rates of some disturbed reefs.

NONINDIGENOUS SPECIES INTRODUCTIONS ON

CORAL REEFS: A NEED FOR INFORMATION.

Coles S.L.* and L. G. Eldredge. *Bishop Museum, 1525

Bernice St., Honolulu, HI 19673, USA. Email

slcoles@bishopmuseum.org

Nonindigenous species invasions are well-documented

sources of environment disturbance in temperate marine areas

that have caused disruptions of native communities and

detrimental economic impacts to fisheries. However,

comparatively little information exists for tropical regions, and

even less is known about occurrences and impacts of

nonindigenous species in coral reef areas. Studies in the

tropics to date have been mostly limited to surveys in harbors

and ports where the biota may or may not have a significant

component of corals and reef organisms, and environmental

conditions are usually quite different from those found on coral

reefs. Consequently, there is a need for studies of the presence

and impacts of nonindigenous species focused on coral reef

environments. This presentation will summarize the

information that has been derived for nonindigenous species

from harbor and port surveys in Hawaii, Guam and Australia

that may be relevant to invasions of coral reef environments

and will outline procedures for studies to detect species

introductions.

HAWAIIAN MARINE BIOINVASIONS.

Eldredge L.G.* and James T. Carlton. *Bishop Museum,

1525 Bernice Street, Honolulu, Hawaii 96817. U.S.A.

Email: psa@bishopmuseum.org

The Hawaiian Islands are so located that they have become

the principal port-of-call of trans-Pacific travel during the past

150 years. Six of the 14 transoceanic dispersal patterns from

ports in the Pacific pass through the Hawaiian Islands, making

the area a major receiver. Nearly 340 species of marine and

brackish introduced or cryptogenic species have been recorded

from the Hawaiian Islands--290 are invertebrates, 20 fish, 24

algae, and 12 flowering plants, using the established criteria to

interpret whether a species is introduced. Among the

invertebrates the arthropods and the annelids are the most

speciose groups. Introductions into the Hawaiian Islands has

been either accidental involving fouling and ballast water or

intentional through aquaculture or stock enhancement.

Fouling and ballast water introductions accounts for about half

of all the invertebrates reported; the introduction pathway of

many species is unknown. For most species the geographic

region of origin is unknown; however, many species are

considered cosmopolitan or originate from the broader Indo-Pacific

or the Caribbean/Atlantic Ocean. Some now

considered as introduced were originally described from the

Hawaiian Islands. The dates of introduction are, for the most

part, unknown; there are spikes in recognizing introduced

species in the 1930s/1940s, 1960s, and 1990s. These dates are

primarily a reflection of collecting effort, following periods of

increased maritime activities.

THE DISTRIBUTION AND DIVERSITY OF TROPICAL

AUSTRALIAN MARINE INVASIONS.

Hewitt C.L.*. *CSIRO Centre for Research on Introduced

Marine Pests (CRIMP), GPO Box 1538, Hobart, Tasmania,

AUSTRALIA 7001. Email: chad.hewitt@marine.csiro.au

Marine invasions have been identified in virtually all regions

of the world, yet relatively few introductions have been

detected in the tropics. In part this may be due to an increase in

intrinsic native community resistance due to high(er) diversity

systems providing strongly interacting food webs. However,

recent evidence from surveys in Australia and elsewhere

indicate that tropical systems are also susceptible, though

detection ability may be limited due to taxonomic difficulties.

Preliminary analyses of both literature based and survey

information support the pattern of decreased invasion success

in higher diversity systems with a strong latitudinal gradient at

the mesoscale of Australia. This supports the hypothesis of a

decreased relative susceptibility of tropical versus temperate

biota to invasions, but confounding factors may include

differing vectors and availability of source bioregions..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E8: Invasive Species

289

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE POTENTIAL EXOTIC

SPECIES INTRODUCTIONS INTO TROPICAL

MARINE COMMUNITIES, WITH SPECIAL

REFERENCE TO THE INDO-PACIFIC.

Hutchings, Pat* Rob Hilliard and Steve Coles. *The

Australian Museum, 6, College Street, Sydney NSW 2010

Australia. Email: path@austmus.gov.au

Introductions of exotic marine organisms by hull fouling or

by ballast water have occurred extensively in temperate areas,

often with substantial negative impacts. However, the limited

information available suggests that far fewer introductions

leading to pestly invasions have occurred in the tropics. A

1997 risk assessment study of twelve Queensland (Australia)

ports concluded that the potential for exotic introductions by

ballast water was low, and results from recent port surveys in

tropical Australia are supporting this conclusion. In contrast,

recent surveys of harbours in Hawaii have found many

introduced species. We suggest that the geographically

isolated and more restricted marine biota of Hawaii are more

susceptible to introductions than those of tropical Australia,

with the latter being more diverse and already containing

widely distributed Indo-Pacific species, thereby limiting their

susceptibility to pest invasions. Also, the location of Hawaii in

the central Pacific and its long history of receiving world-wide

commercial and naval shipping (including more heavily fouled

vessels than contemporary merchant ships) may also be a key

factor. Hull-fouling rather than ballast water appears to be the

vector of the recent introduction of the highly invasive black

striped mussel Mytilopsis sallei from an international cruising

yacht into enclosed (lock-gate) marinas in Darwin. The cost of

eliminating this pest (>U$1.6 million) underscores the

importance of managing not just commercial shipping but also

pleasure craft, fishing boats and naval ships as vectors of

exotic species to ports, harbours and marinas in coral reef

areas.

NONINDIGENOUS ASCIDIANS IN TROPICAL

WATERS.

Lambert G.*. *Dept. of Biol. Sci., Calif. State Univ.,

Fullerton, CA Email: 92834 glambert@fullerton.edu

Ascidians are sessile filter feeding invertebrate chordates

with a rapid growth rate and usually a short life span, long

breeding season and production of large numbers of short-lived

non-feeding planktonic larvae. Larvae in ballast water

and adults on ship or barge hulls may survive transport over

thousands of miles to harbors similar to the ones they left.

Marina floats, pilings, buoys and boat bottoms provide vast

surface areas often rapidly colonized by nonindigenous

ascidians (NIA) that may then become permanently

established, providing a large local source for possible

invasions into nearby natural marine communities. Invasive

ascidians also impact aquaculture operations, which are often

located in or near bustling harbors. Recent reports document

overgrowth of cultivated shellfish by NIA which thus become

a source for further invasions. NIA tolerate wide fluctuations

in temperature, salinity, and even pollution. Data and photos of

harbor structures in Hawaii, Guam, Palau and other Indo-Pacific

areas, and recent U.S. Navy drydock movements

between major Pacific ports will be discussed. Some of these

studies include companion surveys of neighboring coral reef

and other natural shallow environments. Serious invasion of

coral reefs by NIA has not yet been reported but more studies

are needed. In the tropics, centers of human activity are often

adjacent to rich reefs.

NON-INDIGENOUS REEF FISHES IN THE

SOUTHWESTERN ATLANTIC,

Moura, Rodrigo L.*, *Museu de Zoologia, CP 42694

Universidade de São Paulo, 04299-970 São Paulo SP Brazil,

Email: rlmoura@usp.br

Species introductions are a widely recognized problem in

terrestrial ecosystems and a potential source of deleterious

impact on reef habitats. The presence of two fish species are

reported here as a contribution to the network that is currently

being developed to monitor non-indigenous species on reef

habitats. During the summers of 1999 and 2000, at least three

adult individuals (~35cm SL) and two smaller individuals (~20

cm SL) of the surgeonfish Acanthurus monroviae

(Acanthuridae) were regularly observed at Laje de Santos, São

Paulo State, Brazil (24°20’S). These multiple sightings

indicate more than one colonizing or recruitment event.

Additionally, this surgeonfish (one adult ~35cm SL, summer

2000) was observed at Papagaios Island, Rio de Janeiro State,

Brazil (22°53’S). Golani and Sonin (Aqua 1996, v.2) also

recorded this species from the Mediterranean in 1994. The

second introduction reported herein is Heniochus acuminatus

(Chaetodontidae), native from the Indo-W. Pacific. One

individual (~20 cm SL) was sighted at Cape Buzios (22°46’S),

Rio de Janeiro State, in summer 1999. Any further records of

these species would provide valuable information on their

capabilities along the Brazilian coast.

INVESTIGATION OF INTERACTIONS BETWEEN AN

INTRODUCED SNAPPER AND NATIVE SNAPPERS IN

A DEEP-WATER FISHERY.

Parrish, J.D., Aeby, G.S., Conklin, E.J., Ivey, G.L. *Hawaii

Cooperative Fishery Research Unit (U.S. Geological

Survey), 2538 The Mall, University of Hawaii, Honolulu,

HI USA. Email: jparrish@zoology.hawaii.edu

Since its introduction to Hawaii in 1955, the blue-line

snapper (taape) Lutjanus kasmira has multiplied rapidly and

spread widely to include the full archipelago and depths to

hundreds of meters. Concern has been expressed about

negative interactions with native eteline snappers in the large

local fishery. This project investigated cooccurrence of taape

and native snappers in the habitat by commercial line fishing

methods and by observation using submersibles. Taape were

seldom caught or seen with the native snappers and were not

common at depths where most native snappers were

commonly found. Comparison of gut contents of taape and the

native snappers showed considerable overlap at high

systematic levels of prey, but little specific evidence of

predation by one group on the other or strong indication of

potential competition for food resources. Increased interaction

may occur if taape become more numerous or move deeper..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E8: Invasive Species

290

ANTHROPOGENIC BIOTIC INTERCHANGE IN A

CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEM: A CASE STUDY FROM

GUAM.

Paulay, G.*, L. Kirkendale, G. Lambert, C. Meyer.

*Marine Lab, University of Guam & Florida Museum of

Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville FL

32611 USA, Email: paulay@flmnh.ufl.edu

Guam is the administrative and economic hub of Micronesia,

hosts one of the largest US military bases in the Pacific, and

lies at the crossroads among Pacific islands, US, and Asia.

Although terrestrial introductions, exemplified by the brown

tree snake, have received much attention, marine introductions

have been little studied until now. We have documented a

diverse assemblage of marine species brought to Guam by

human transport - a few intentionally, most unintentionally.

Many invaders have circumtropical distributions and their

source remains to be determined, others clearly arrived from

the west Pacific, Hawaii, and the Atlantic. The majority of

nonindigenous species have remained confined to artificial

substrata in the harbor, but some have invaded adjacent coral

reef habitats and spread island-wide. Some taxa, like hydroids,

appear to have spread more readily into natural habitats than

others, like ascidians and sponges. Although several

nonindigenous species are now well established, major impacts

to reefs on Guam remain to be identified. Space on reefs is

vastly dominated by indigenous species; in contrast artificial

substrata are often dominated by invasive taxa. Because of

Guam’s tourism-based economy, ballast water is not a major

source of introductions, but shiphulls have brought many

invaders. A study of the fauna associated with two drydocks

demonstrate the large impact of such structures, moved slowly

from harbor to harbor after long residence times.

ALIEN ALGAE IN HAWAII: CURRENT

DISTRIBUTION AND UNIQUE ECOLOGICAL

CHARACTERISTICS.

Smith, Jennifer * , Celia Smith and Cynthia Hunter.

Department of Botany, University of Hawaii Manoa, 3190

Maile Way, Honolulu HI, 96822, USA. Email:

jemith@hawaii.edu

Some nineteen species of macroalgae have been introduced

to Oahu, Hawaii since 1950 with at least four of these species

being highly successful. Some of these nonnative species

appear to have spread throughout all of the main Hawaiian

Islands, while others are only found on Oahu. Quantitative

and qualitative surveys were conducted on five of the main

Hawaiian Islands to document the current distribution of alien

algae and to assess the level of impact that these plants pose to

Hawaii's marine ecosystems. Maps were generated to examine

the spread of these species from the initial site of introduction

and to assimilate information regarding habitat characteristics

that appear to make some sites more susceptible to invasion

than others. Many alien species possess characteristics that

allow them to become invasive or weedy, forming

monospecific stands thereby, altering community structure and

species diversity. Asexual reproduction, herbivore resistance

and other physiological strategies may all influence the success

of a given alien species. Vegetative propagation via

fragmentation, nutrient uptake and grazing pressure were

examined for four of the most successful alien species of algae

in Hawaii. This research demonstrates that some species of

alien algae that have been introduced to Hawaii possess novel

competitive strategies and unique ecological characteristics

that may allow them to become highly successful.

PROLIFERATION OF THE BROWN ALGAE

TURBINARIA ORNATA ONTO THE CORAL REEFS OF

FRENCH POLYNESIA: ITS SETTLEMENT IN

MORUROA ATOLL (TUAMOTU ARCHIPELAGO).

Stiger, V. and C.E. Payri* *Université de la Polynésie

Française - B.P. 6570 FAAA/aéroport, Tahiti, Polynésie

Française. Email Payri@ufp.pf

Turbinaria ornata is one of the most obvious macroalgae on

Polynesian reefs. During the past 20 years, this species has

invaded the coral reefs surrounding several volcanic high

islands and extended its distribution to remote atolls. The long-distance

dispersal by drifting thalli appears to be the mean

through which the neopropagules of T. ornata reach new

habitats. The settlement of the population is locally controlled

by short-distance dispersal of germlings released by attached

thalli. The natural settlement of T. ornata in Moruroa reef was

followed for 16 months at a permanent station. The

recruitment was continuous throughout the study period, and

recruits settled primarily around parent thalli. Survival varied

spatially and temporally among recruits, juveniles and mature

plants. At the end of the study a density equilibrium was

reached, probably due to a substrate limitation. These results

suggest that recruitment from germlings play a significant role

in buffering high rates of mortality in adults and contribute to

the invasion and the success of T. ornata.

DO LOCALS RULE? INTERACTIONS BETWEEN

NATIVE INTERTIDAL ANIMALS AND A CARIBBEAN

BARNACLE ON OAHU, HAWAII.

Zabin, Chela J.*. *Kewalo Marine Laboratory and

University Of Hawaii, Zoology Dept., 41 Ahui St.,

Honolulu, HI 96813. Email: chela@hawaii.edu

Chthamalus proteus, a high intertidal barnacle from the Gulf

of Mexico and Caribbean, is one of the most conspicuous

recent introductions to Hawaiian waters. Although this

barnacle can attain nearly 100 percent cover on hard substrate

in harbors and quiet lagoons, its local distribution appears to be

limited in semi-protected waters where it comes into contact

with a native barnacle, Nesochthamalus intertextus, and a

native pulmonate limpet, Siphonaria normalis. In Waikiki,

individuals of N. intertextus far outnumber C. proteus and

frequently overgrow or undercut them. To determine whether

native barnacles are effectively controlling the abundance of

the invader, I removed native barnacles from 10 permanent

quadrats along a seawall. I have been tracking growth,

recruitment and mortality of C. proteus in the removal plots

and in 10 control plots since October, 1999. C. proteus is

particularly abundant in Kaneohe Bay, on Oahu's windward

side. A survey of a seawall at Coconut Island in Kaneohe Bay

showed that the barnacles were less abundant sections of the

wall made up of smooth, light-colored rock, and in places

where densities of the native limpet, S. normalis, were high.

Field experiments have been set up to determine if the invasive

barnacle has settlement preferences for different rock types

and whether the presence of S. normalis affects recruitment

and/or post-settlement mortality of the barnacle..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E9: COTS & Drupella

Session E9: Acanthaster and Drupella on Reefs

291

RESPONSES BY CORALLIVOROUS DRUPELLIDS

TO BLEACH-INDUCED CHANGES IN CORAL

SPECIES COMPOSITION.

Abeysirigunawardana M.D. and S.U.K. Ekaratne.*

*Dept. of Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo 3, Sri

Lanka.

The Hikkaduwa Marine Reserve lagoon in Sri Lanka has

Drupella cornus (Röding) as the common corallivorous

gastropod. The common coral species Acropora formosa

served as primary host in a drupellid-coral predator-prey

relationship. Prior to April 1998 bleaching, D. cornus clusters,

as numbers per coral head, on A. formosa and Montipora

aequituberculata (as secondary host) were 9±1 and 2±0,

respectively. On A. formosa bleaching, its predator clusters

decreased to 4±1 but increased to 10±1 on M.

aequituberculata. With post-bleaching 100% mortality of the

primary host, a new secondary host (Pocillopora eydouxi)

began to support clusters of 3±0. M. aequituberculata now

assumed a primary host role though predator clusters remained

unchanged. Host predator-size distributions also recorded

changes. Prior to bleaching, widest predator size (shell height)

range (4.9 to 36.0mm) was found on A. formosa whereas M.

aequituberculata did not support drupellids below 19.9mm or

above 24.4mm. With bleaching, however, A. formosa no

longer supported predators below 21.9mm. Following A.

formosa mortality, predator sizes supported by M.

aequituberculata increased to include the entire range of

predator sizes that A. formosa had supported as earlier primary

host. The new post-bleach secondary host, P. eydouxi,

supported only a narrow range of predators (20.5 to 28.2mm)

as did the earlier secondary host, M. aequituberculata. Support

from MacArthur Foundation, Biodiversity Support Program

and GEF is acknowledged.

RELATIVE GENETIC ISOLATION OF RED SEA

POPULATIONS OF CROWN-OF-THORNS STARFISH

(ACANTHASTER PLANCI).

Benzie, J.A.H.*, De Vantier, L., Turak, E. Ballment, E.

and Peplow, L. *Australian Institute of Marine Science,

PMB No 3, Townsville, Queensland 4810, Australia.

Email: j.benzie@aims.gov.au

Molecular analyses are revealing new insights into marine

biogeography worldwide, and increasingly in the Indo-Pacific

region. However, there is still little known of the genetic

relationships of populations of marine species from the Red

Sea and those elsewhere, despite the interesting evolutionary

questions surrounding the origin and evolution of the Red Sea

fauna. Colour differences between Red Sea populations of A.

planci and those from elsewhere in the Indian Ocean raise

questions concerning the origin and source of the Red Sea

populations of this important coral predator. A. planci from

the Northern Indian Ocean are blue to pale-(pinkish) red while

those from the Pacific and Western Australia are grey-green to

red-brown. Genetic differentiation between these colour

morphs from the Indian and Pacific Oceans is high. Starfish

from the Red Sea have the grey-green to red-brown colour

normally associated with Pacific animals. Allozyme and

mitochondrial DNA data show unequivocally that the Red Sea

population is associated with from northern Indian Ocean

populations, but the mtDNA haplotype from the Red Sea is

basal to those from the northern Indian Ocean. This indicates

that the Red Sea population was isolated before the Northern

Indian Oceans genotypes evolved. The Red Sea population

had low genetic variation consistent with a bottleneck or

founder effect, and is highly divergent from the other northern

Indian Ocean populations.

DYNAMICS OF A CROWN-OF-THORNS STARFISH

OUTBREAK ON A MARGINAL CORAL COMMUNITY,

TWO-MILE REEF, SODWANA BAY, SOUTH AFRICA.

Celliers L. * and Schleyer, Michael H. *Oceanographic

Research Institute, P.O. Box 10712, Marine Parade 4056,

Durban, South Africa. Email: seaworld@dbn.lia.net.

Increasing interest is being expressed in marginal reef

systems as opposed to reefs in which abundant carbonate

accretion occurs. Marginal reefs present opportunities to

elucidate reef processes and systems without the “background

noise” of carbonate accretion. The coral communities situated

offshore on the coast of Maputaland are the southern-most in

Africa. They are unique not only in structure but also in

composition. During the 1990s, one of the reefs at Sodwana

Bay was subjected to a crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS;

Acanthaster planci) outbreak. This was limited to the fore-reef

environment of Two-Mile Reef (TMR) but the damage was

extensive (hard coral cover was reduced from 34 % to 18 %).

The present study showed that the event was attributable to a

secondary outbreak by a transient population of COTS

introduced from higher up in the regional system. The local

COTS population was characterised by the dominance of two

year-classes (spine pigment band counts) and limited

recruitment. The maximum population size at the peak of the

outbreak was in excess of 150 COTS and there has been a slow

decline in numbers since then. The outbreak appears to have

changed the community structure of the fore-reef. Affected

regions have shifted from a mixed hard and soft coral

community to a reef dominated by soft corals.

PREDATION ON STAGHORN CORAL ACROPORA

TUMIDA BY CORALLIVOROUS GASTROPOD

DRUPELLA RUGOSA IN TUNG PING CHAU, HONG

KONG.

Choi M.M.*, Choi, L.S., and P.O. Ang, Jr. *Department of

Biology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin,

N.T., Hong Kong SAR, China.

Monitoring of corallivorous gastropod activities on corals in

Tung Ping Chau, a proposed marine park in Hong Kong,

started in September, 1999. Drupella rugosa was identified as

the most dominant corallivorous species which preferred to

feed on the staghorn coral Acropora tumida. Aggregation

density of these gastropods was highest in summer (Sept, 1999

at 28-32 individuals/m 2 ) and lowest in winter (Dec, 1999 at 0-4

individuals/m 2 ). The reappearance of these gastropods in

March, 2000 was not associated with an increase in the number

of smaller individuals, suggesting that their reappearance was

not a result of spring recruitment. Their “disappearance”

during winter may simply be due to their low activity under

colder winter temperature (min 14 o C) that most of them were

hiding under rock or inside crevices. Signs of Acropora tumida

tissue regrowth over the damaged areas were observed when

the gastropods disappeared seasonally. However, colonization

by filamentous algae deterred tissue regrowth. Survival of

these staghorn corals ultimately depends on a balance between

the rates of predation, the apical growth of their branches,

tissue regrowth on damaged area, and algal colonization on

exposed skeleton..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E9: COTS & Drupella

292

FINE-SCALE SURVEYS OF CROWN-OF-THORNS

STARFISH (Acanthaster planci) PROVIDE EARLY

WARNING SYSTEM OF RENEWED AND EMERGING

STARFISH OUTBREAKS.

Engelhardt U.*, *Reefcare International Pty Ltd, PO Box

1111, Townsville, Queensland 4810, AUSTRALIA. Email:

reefwatch@ozemail.com.au

On the Great Barrier Reef (GBR), intensive transect-based

surveys of crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci ) have

been used successfully to predict emerging A. planci outbreaks

some two years prior to reaching their peak of intensity. In

1998-99, fine-scale surveys conducted on 20 mid-shelf reefs in

the central GBR region detected a large and geographically

widespread recruitment pulse of A. planci in an area covering

some three degrees of latitude. Based on the early detection of

this recruitment pulse, new outbreaks were predicted to

develop across the survey area within 18 to 24 months.

Analyses of 'pseudo-cohorts' estimated from size-frequency

data suggests that the recruitment pulse was the result of the

1997-98 spawning season of A. planci. Juvenile starfish (1+

years) were found predominantly in front reef zones with a

high degree of exposure to the dominant southeasterly trade

winds. Re-surveys in 1999-00 have confirmed earlier

predictions with many survey reefs now harbouring

unsustainably high densities of sub-adult (2+ years) starfish

likely to develop into renewed active outbreaks. As many of

the now affected reefs had already experienced A. planci

outbreaks in the mid-1990's, the predicted renewed outbreaks

are suggesting a possible departure from the previously

recorded outbreak interval of 15-17 years. A significant

shortening of outbreak periodicity could have serious

consequences for hard coral recovery and the long-term

sustainability of the observed phenomenon.

LARVAL RECRUITMENT AND DYNAMICS OF

CORAL COMMUNITIES FOLLOWING AN

ACANTHASTER OUTBREAK.

Hiroyuki Y.*. *Iriomote Marine Research Station, Tokai

University, 165 Sakiyama, Taketomi-cho, Yaeyama-gun,

Okinawa, 907-1543 Japan. Email: yokochi@scc.u-tokai.

ac.jp

Following an Acanthaster infestation in the early 1980’s,

there were significant differences in the recovery of coral

communities at Iriomote Island in the southern Ryukyu

Islands. In 1992, I began studying the dynamics of the coral

communities and larval recruitment onto settlement plates at

five selected sites in and around Amitori Bay: three rapidly

recovering sites and two slowly recovering ones. The intensity

of larval recruitment varied greatly among sites and years.

Acropora was the dominant recruit, and was also dominant in

the coral communities of the rapidly recovering sites. After a

heavy settlement of Acropora in 1994, coral density and cover

increased rapidly at the two slowly recovering sites.

Recruitment and growth was predominantly by Acropora

species, and successful recruitment of Acropora has been the

main reason for their improved rate of recovery. After a

typhoon in 1997, the coral cover and density at exposed sites

decreased significantly, with acroporids suffering the greatest

mortality. The coral cover at the most sheltered site also

decreased due to the unexplained death of Acropora. A severe

bleaching event in 1998 also caused high coral mortality,

especially in Acropora, at the three Acropora-dominated sites:

one had maintained high coverage since the beginning of this

study and the other two had been recovering rapidly after the

heavy recruitment in 1994.

HISTORICAL PATTERNS AND CURRENT TRENDS IN

THE BROADSCALE DISTRIBUTION OF CROWN-OF-THORNS

STARFISH ON THE GREAT BARRIER

REEF.

Miller IR*. *Australian Institute of Marine Science, PMB

3, Townsville MC, Qld 4810 Australia. Email:

i.miller@aims.gov.au

The Great Barrier Reef (GBR) is experiencing a third

recorded series of crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) outbreaks.

Current trends in the broadscale distribution of COTS appear

to follow the pattern of the last two series of outbreaks

recorded from 1966 to 1974 and 1979 to 1991. As before, the

first outbreaks in this current series were observed in the

Cooktown/Lizard Island sector in 1993 and 1994. COTS

activity in this sector continued to increase until 1999, but has

since declined. COTS outbreaks were subsequently observed

in the Cairns and Innisfail sectors in 1997 and the Townsville

sector in 1999. Since then, COTS activity in the Cairns and

Innisfail sectors has continued to increase. Recent surveys

have found COTS of more than one distinct size-class,

suggesting that there have been several pulses of recruitment

on reefs in the Cairns and Innisfail sectors over a number of

years. The current pattern of outbreaks is consistent with the

hypothesis that COTS outbreaks have their genesis in the

Cooktown /Lizard Island sector (north of 16° S) and then

cascade southward down through the GBR reef mosaic in

subsequent years and generations. This pattern of outbreaks is

also qualitatively consistent with numerical models of

hydrodynamics and larval dispersal that have previously been

used to simulate the large-scale population dynamics of COTS.

Implications for reefs currently affected and those recovering

from previous COTS outbreaks are discussed.

OUTBREAK OF CROWN OF THORNS STARFISH IN

THE RAS MOHAMMED NATIONAL PARK: ROLE OF

LARVAL DISPERSION AND FISH PREDATORS.

Salem M.* & Ormond R.F.G. *Ras Mohammed National

Park, South Sinai, Egypt. Email:

mohammedsalem@hotmail.com

Since 1998 outbreaks of the Crown-of-thorns Starfish

(Acanthaster planci) have affected many reefs within the

Egyptian Red Sea. In that year large aggregations were

detected on 18 reefs extending from the Straits of Tiran to the

main Egyptian coast, and >40,000 animals were collected by

Park rangers and volunteers. We investigated the age

composition of populations on different reefs by both size-frequency

analysis and counts of pigment rings visible in

longitudinal sections of spines. These showed that the oldest

populations were present near Ras Mohammed itself, slightly

younger populations on reefs about 20 km to the north, and the

youngest further north in the Straits of Tiran. This suggests

that the wider outbreak was a consequence of a small primary

outbreak observed on reefs near Ras Mohammed in 1994.

Subsequently further outbreaks of starfish have been reported

on reefs in southern Egypt, and in Saudi Arabia, east of Tiran.

This pattern is consistent with the view that successive

outbreaks occurred as a result of successive waves of larval

dispersion. On several occasions predation by the large

triggerfish (Balistoides viridescens) was observed first hand.

The fact that the area where the primary outbreak occurred was

that where a special fishery for emperor bream, a suspected

key predator of the starfish, was permitted, supports the view

that a reduction in the number of fish predators may be a key

factor promoting outbreaks..9ICRS THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS E9: COTS & Drupella

293

THE GROWTH OF INDIVIDUAL ADULT SPECIMENS

OF ACANTHASTER PLANCI IN POPULATIONS OF

LOW DENSITY.

Souter David*. *Department of Zoology and Entomology,

The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Qld, 4072.

Australia. Email: souter@pi.se

Little contention surrounds the sigmoidal mode of growth of

A. planci prior to the achievement of sexual maturity.

However, descriptions of the growth of adult starfish are

available only from specimens maintained in the laboratory.

Few repeated measurements of size have been obtained from

starfish in the field. As a consequence, the growth of adult A.

planci has been the subject of considerable debate. At three

reefs in the southern Great Barrier Reef, repeated

measurements of the growth of 59 individual adult specimens

of A. planci ranging in size between 28 cm and 59 cm were

obtained throughout a period ranging between 65 and 1249

days. The growth of these starfish was extremely plastic. Rates

of growth ranged between –2.7 mm_month -1 and 4.4

mm_month -1 . Consistent growth, stasis or shrinkage

throughout the study was rare. Most starfish exhibited periods

of growth and/or shrinkage interspersed with periods of stasis

that lasted as long as 700 days. Although, the rate of growth

declined in larger starfish, in some smaller starfish the

exponential phase of growth extended well beyond the onset of

sexual maturity and was maintained until the starfish attained a

diameter of at least 37.5 cm. Also, significant growth was

recorded from several starfish exceeding 55 cm in diameter.

The retention of the capacity to grow throughout their size

range and the ability to maintain large sizes for extended

periods proves that senility does not exist in starfish in the field

and that the growth of A. planci is indeterminate with the size

of the starfish fluctuating according to factors such as food

availability, physiological state and population density.

LONG-TERM (17YR.) IMPACTS OF CROWN-OF-THORNS

OUTBREAK AND LOSS OF LIVE CORAL

COVER ON REEF FISH COMMUNITIES (CENTRAL

GREAT BARRIER REEF)

Williams, David McB. * & Peter J. Speare. *Australian

Institute of Marine Science, PMB No 3, Townsville MC,

QLD 4810, Australia. Email: d.williams@aims.gov.au

Fish and coral communities on semi-exposed reef slopes of

three mid-shelf reefs of the central Great Barrier Reef

experienced a severe crown-of-thorns outbreak in early 1983

that reduced live hard coral cover from approximately 65% to

much less than 5% over a period of 6 months to 3 years. In

study sites (0-7m below the reef crest) live coral cover

remained at less than 10% until 1990 but had recovered close

to pre-outbreak cover by 1996. Live coral cover was

significantly reduced in 1997 by a severe cyclone, recovered in

1998 and reduced again in 1999 by an uncertain cause. The

abundances of 125 species of reef fish from 7 families (labrids,

pomacentrids, chaetodontids, acanthurids, scarids, siganids and

caesionids) were monitored annually on these sites from 1983

until the present. The large changes in amount of live coral

cover over this period had a significant impact on the fish

community as a whole but most species were relatively

unaffected. The abundances of algal grazing species did not

increase with a massive increase in the availability of turf

algae. Most species that are obligate live coral feeders

decreased with the loss of live coral and recovered as live coral

cover increased. A few other species whose juveniles recruit

only to live coral also decreased and then recovered, despite

the adults having no other obvious dependence on live coral.

The resilience of the fish communities may be related to the

maintenance of the coral structure despite the death of the

corals..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

A: POSTERS STATE OF KNOWLEDGE

294

OCCURRENCE OF A GIANT PORITES COLONY IN

ASSOCIATION WITH HOLOCENE CORAL REEF

EVOLUTION.

Abe, Osamu *; Yamano, Hiroya; and Matsumoto, Eiji.

Institute for Hydrospheric-Atmospheric Sciences, Nagoya

University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan. Email:

oabe@ihas.nagoya-u.ac.jp

A trench excavated across a modern coral reef to construct a

harbor is one of the best locations to investigate the Holocene

evolution of coral reefs. We examined the facies and the

structure outcropped on a trench wall of a leeward reef of

Ishigaki Island, southwest Japan. We collected fossil coral

specimens from the outcrop. The reef framework facies and

the transported rubble facies were identified. Furthermore, in

this trench, we found a massive fossil Porites colony about 5.5

m in height at a distance of around 75-80 m shoreward from

the reef edge, where the wall was fully composed of this

Porites. Vertical drilling was done to measure the growth rate

of the coral through annual bands. Based on these

observations and 14 C dating of the collected fossil corals by the

accelerator mass spectrometry, we will discuss the paleo-environment

and the growth rate of this huge Porites in

association with the Holocene evolution of this reef consisting

of both in situ grown corals and coral rubbles transported

potentially by typhoon or tsunami events.

A STUDY ON CHARACTERISTIC DISTRIBUTION OF

LARGE FORAMINIFERS ON THE CORAL REEFS IN

ISHIGAKI ISLAND , THE RYUKYU ISLANDS , JAPAN

Abe, Teruko *, Komazawa Univ. High School, Setagaya,

Tokyo Japan_terua@komazawa.com

The relationship between the topography of coral reefs and

distribution of 3 species of large foraminifers , Baculogypsina

sp. , Calcarina sp. and Marginopora sp. on a fringing reef was

investigated Ishigaki Island , the Ryukyu Islands. Two zones ;

a reefflat type (Pishi type) and a moat-reefflat type(Pishi-Ino

type) were identified and a total of 16 samples were collected.

All sand and algae in a quadrat (20cm x 20cm) ware collected

by hand. The methods used to preserve and sort foraminifers

are described in details. Baculogypsina sp. is the most

widespread and was present in every sample. Calcarina sp.

and Marginopora sp. , however , were less common.

HOLOCENE OSCILLATIONS IN WESTERN PACIFIC

SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE.

Abram N.J.*, P.J. Davies, J.M. Webster and W-Chr. Dullo.

School of Geosciences, Division of Geology and Geophysics,

The University of Sydney, Australia 2006. Email:

Nerilie.Abram@anu.edu.au

The Holocene (10,000 years BP to present day) is an

important period in earth history as it represents the time in

which our modern day climate systems were established.

Studies of Holocene environmental variations are essential for

the development of an accurate and long term understanding of

the dynamics of world climate. In turn, this knowledge

provides one of the only real prospects of accurately predicting

future climate change and its likely effects on global

ecosystems. Here we present the high resolution proxy sea

surface temperature records derived from six Holocene Porites

cores collected from the raised Holocene reef terraces of

Kikai-jima, Japan. These records document fluctuations in

mean sea surface temperatures of almost 3.5°C over the period

6080 years BP to modern day. Significant changes in seasonal

SST range and inter-annual variability are also preserved in the

sea surface temperature records, and provide insights into the

Holocene dynamics of the Asian Monsoon and El Niño

Southern Oscillation.

A COMPACT, PORTABLE SEDIMENT CORING

SYSTEM FOR DEEP LAGOONS.

Adachi H.*, H. Yamano, H. Kayanne, F. Matsuda, and Y.

Tsuji. Geoact, Co., Ltd., 493-5 Higashi-Ainonai, Kitami,

Hokkaido 099-0878, Japan. Email: geoact@poplar.ocn.ne.jp

Lagoon floor situated at a depth of greater than 50 m from

the sea surface is quite difficult to access. Thus, deep lagoon

sediment studies have mainly been conducted on the surface

sediments by means of dredging, and sedimentation of deep

lagoons has been poorly understood. We developed a compact

sediment coring system which can be used for deep lagoons

without aid of divers. Using this device, we have succeeded in

collecting sediment cores up to 60 cm in length from the

lagoon floor whose depth was 58 m in maximum value. A

coring tube ca. 80 cm in length and 55 mm in diameter is

vibrated by a water-proofed electric hammer. The tube and

hammer is set at the center of a trigonal pyramid constructed

by aluminum pipes ca. 1.5 m in length, which equipment

enables the tube to be set vertically on the lagoon floor. The

electric power is supplied from a generator set on a boat. This

coring system is connected to the boat by a stainless wire for

lifting the device and by an electric wire for supplying the

electric power. The total weight of this system is ca. 80 kg,

which can be separated and packed into four trunks. So, the

system can easily be transported by an airplane to a remote

coral reef which needs a lot of time to access by a research

vessel. This system should be very useful to extract the history

of sedimentation of unconsolidated grains, especially at deep

lagoons..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

295

SKELETAL VARIABILITY OF Favia gravida

(VERRILL, 1868) FROM BRAZIL.

Amaral, F. D.* *Universidade Federal Rural de

Pernambuco, Departamento de Biologia, Av. Dom Manoel

de Medeiros, s/n, Dois Irmãos, Brazil. Email:

famaral@nelore.npde.ufrpe.br

The skeletal variability of Favia gravida, a species endemic

to Brazil, was quantitatively described among populations

from three locations including, Abrolhos (Bahia State), Santa

Cruz (Espírito Santo State) and Tamandaré (Pernambuco

State). Ten colonies were collected from each population and

fourteen morphological characters were measured from ten

corallites per colony. The results of univariate and

multivariate analyses provide evidence to suggest that F.

gravida has considerable morphological plasticity, which may

explain its ability to adapt to different ecological conditions.

The species also displays polymorphism within and between

colonies of each population. Number of septa per cm, centers

per 9 cm 2 , and corallites per meander were found to differ

significantly among populations. Canonical discriminant

analysis showed that the population farthest offshore

(Abrolhos) was distinct from the other two (Tamandaré and

Santa Cruz), which were more influenced by terrigenous

sediments. Specimens from Santa Cruz displayed the highest

degree of meandrinization. Intercolony variation within

populations was also found to be significant for most of the

variables measured.

NEW FINDINGS ON CORALS AND HYDROCORALS

FROM THE MARINE STATE PARK OF THE MANUEL

LUIZ PARCEL (MARANHÃO STATE).

Amaral, F. D. * ; Hudson, M. M. and Coura, M. F. * UFRPE,

Departamento de Biologia, Brazil. Email:

famaral@nelore.npde.ufrpe.br;

The aim of this work was to collect information on the

diversity of corals and hydrocorals from the Manuel Luiz

Parcel (00° 46’S, 44° 15’W) (00° 46’S, 44° 15’W). Specimens were collected in

June 1998 from depths ranging between 20 and 30 m and

transported to the "Laboratório de Ambientes Recifais" at the

Federal Rural University of Pernambuco. Samples were

cleared in a solution of 30% sodium hypochlorite, dried and

then analyzed in stereoscopic microscope equipped with a

micrometric eyepiece. Data collected from corals included the

growth form, corallite diameter, number of centers per cm 2 ,

height of outer columella and total number of septa.

Information on the growth form, surface texture, dactylopores,

gastropores and ampullae were recorded from the hydrocorals.

Of 12 collected species of scleractinian corals, there were

measured and/or counted 10 corallites per each colony. Of 3

studied species of Millepora, 25 dactylopores and

gastroporores were measured in each sample. All data were

submitted to the statistical analyses. The observed corals-hydrocorals

and their sample quantities were: Agaricia

agaricites- 3 samples, A. fragilis- 3, Favia gravida- 1, F.

leptophylla- 7, Madracis decactis- 12; Meandrina braziliensis-5,

Montastrea cavernosa- 3, Mussismilia hispida- 6, Porites

astreoides- 5, P. branneri- 5, Scolymia wellsi- 8 and

Siderastrea stellata- 8; Millepora alcicornis- 5, M.

braziliensis- 11, M. sp.- 12 and Stylaster roseus- 1. M. sp. is an

unidentified species and is being described at the

LAR/UFRPE. The geographical distribution of 15 species was

enlarged.

CNIDARIANS OF SAINT PETER AND ST. PAUL

ARCHIPELAGO, Northeast Brazil.

Amaral F. D. * , M. M. Hudson, F. L. Da Silveira, A. E.

Migotto, S. M. Pinto And L. Longo * Ufrpe, Departamento

De Biologia, Brazil. Email: famaral@nelore.npde.ufrpe.br

The objective of this study was to collect information on the

diversity of cnidarians from the saint peter and st. Paul

archipelago, a remote group of rocks lying just north of

equator (0º56'n; 29º22'w), located 960 km off the brazilian

coast. Most collections were made by scuba diving, but

snorkeling was also used. Specimens were collected in august

1998 and in june 1999 from depths between 0 and 45 m, by

hand or using chisels and hammers. Anemones and zoanthids

were anaesthetized in a 1:1 solution of 7.5% of mgcl2 solution

and seawater and preserved in 4% formaldehyde solution in

seawater. Coral skeletons were cleared in a solution of 30%

sodium hypochlorite, dried and then analyzed under a

stereoscopic microscope equipped with a micrometric

eyepiece. A total of 18 species of cnidarians were recorded:

three species of hydroids (halopteris alternata, aglaophenia

rhyncocharpa and sertularella sp.); Three species of

scleractinians corals (scolymia wellsi, madracis decactis and

astrangia braziliensis); six species of anemones (actinia

bermudensis, aiptasia pallida, anemonia sargassensis,

bunodosoma caissarum , b. Cangicum and telmatactis roseni);

four species of zoanthids (zoanthus sociatus, z. Nymphaeus,

palythoa caribaeorum and parazoanthus sp.); One species of

octocoral (carijoa sp.); And one species of black coral

(anthipathes sp.). The saint peter and st. Paul archipelago has a

lower diversity of cnidarians when compared to the nearest

area of fernando de noronha archipelago.

SURVIVAL RATE OF GIANT CLAMS LARVAE

INTRODUCED BY ZOOXANTHELLAE ISOLATED

FROM DIFFERENT HOSTS: PRELIMINARY STUDY.

Ambariyanto*. Marine Science Dept. Diponegoro

University Kampus Tembalang, Semarang, Indonesia.

Email: ambari@indosat.net.id

Giant clams (Bivalvia : Tridacnidae) are known to live in

association with zooxanthellae which are capable of

transferring part of their photosynthetic product to the clams. It

has been reported that there are genetic differences among

zooxanthellae. This study was aimed to investigate the effect

of introducing zooxanthellae isolated from different hosts (i.e.

different species of giant clams and coral) on the survivorship

of giant clams larvae. Preliminary results showed that there

were survival rates differences among the larvae introduced by

zooxanthellae isolated from different sources..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

296

TENTACLE BRANCHING PATTERN IN THE SEA

ANEMONE GENUS ACTINODENDRON (ANTHOZOA:

ACTINIARIA: ACTINODENDRONIDAE).

Ardelean, Adorian*. *The University of Kansas, Division

of Biological Sciences, Haworth Hall, Lawrence KS 66045,

USA. Email: adorian@eagle.cc.ukans.edu

The family Actinodendronidae is a group of three genera of

exclusively tropical Indo-Pacific sea anemones that have the

oral disc drawn out into highly branched tentacles. The

tentacle structure and their growth pattern are species-specific

and therefore valuable for taxonomy and evolutionary studies.

I have found that parameters of randomness in branching

patterns and delays in branch development are responsible for

the highly organized three-dimensional structure of the

tentacles. In genus Actinodendron, which has bifid terminal

branches, ramification is the result of several mechanisms. I

describe for the first time these branching mechanisms which I

believe are unique among sea anemones. I focus on the

particular case of Actinodendron glomeratum Haddon, 1898, in

which I found a continuum of forms in relation to terminal

tentacle type and branching mechanism. I analyze the spectrum

of morphotypes in terms of structural and branching

mechanism transition. The shape of structures is associated

with the temporal parameters of tentacle development. My

analysis of the tentacle structure and their branching pattern

will help in the understanding of the morphology of these

animals and provide a better diagnosis of the species. This is

the first step in understanding the relation between species

borders and phenotypic variability for each of the species in

the genus Actinodendron. The variability documentation will

also provide insights into the evolutionary history of the group.

REPRODUCTIVE ECOLOGY OF A MARINE SPONGE,

PETROSIA SP.(NEW SPECIES), FROM CORAL

COMMUNITIES IN THE GULF OF THAILAND.

Asa, S. *, T. Yeemin, N. Chaitanawisuti and A.

Kritsanapuntu.

Marine Biodiversity Research Group, Department of

Biology, Faculty of Science, Ramkhamhaeng University,

Huamark, Bangkok 10240, Thailand.

Email: saiprateep@hotmail.com

Sexual reproduction and ecology of a marine sponge,

Petrosia sp., (new species) have been studied at Khang Khao

Island and Nok Island, the inner Gulf of Thailand since

December, 1997. The sponge grew mostly on a dominant

massive coral, Porites lutea, and obviously showed clumped

dispersion. Reproductive biology of Petrosia sp. was examined

by monthly sampling of marked individuals for

microtechnically histological analysis in the laboratory. This

sponge was viviparous hermaphrodite. Gamete development of

Petrosia sp. from the two study sites showed the same pattern.

Spermatic cyst, oocyte and larva were found during December,

1997-April 1998. The severe coral bleaching phenomenon in

the Gulf of Thailand during April-May 1998 resulted in

disappearance of gametes and larvae in all samples during

May-October, 1998. The fecundity was higher in the sponge

from Nok Island. Releasing of parenchymella larvae were

observed in the morning in aquaria. Most larvae settled on live

colonies of Porites lutea. The results from the present study

progress debates concerning life history strategies and

taxonomy in marine sponges.

REPRODUCTIVE EFFORT IN Palythoa caribaeorum.

Acosta, A * . & Asbahr, M. *Pontificia Universidad

Javeriana. Kra. 7#43-82. Depto. Biología, Bogotá,

Colombia. Email: laacosta@unicamp.br

P. caribaeorum colonies were quantified in Brazil during the

maturation peak in order to determine 1) the degree of fertility

in the population, 2) reproductive effort -RE- of polyps, and 3)

colony size of maturation. We also determined whether RE

varied with: colony size, position of polyps within a colony

(edge, center or in-between), and the variant of fission from

which ramets were derived (Edge Fission -EF, Pseudo-Colony

Lift Off -PCLO, or Teardrop Formation -TF). 92.9% of the

colonies sampled (n = 70) were fertile. 58.7 + 39.0% (sd) of

polyps (n = 4,515) exhibited gonads. The minimal colony size

for sexual reproduction was 6 cm 2 (range: 0.0006 - 5 m 2 ). RE

increased with colony area (r 2 = 0.13, p<0.001). RE varied

depending on polyp position within a colony (p<0.001, n =

361), and between the three modes of fission (p<0.001, n =

98). RE by polyps located at the center and in-between was

equal and were higher than at the edge. RE was higher for

PCLO than for either EF or TF. RE for EF and TF was equal.

Maturation was asynchronous between colonies, polyps within

a colony, and mesenteries. P. caribaeorum exhibited a high

reproductive effort.

EFFECTS OF SEDIMENTATION ON CORAL

SETTLEMENT, SURVIVORSHIP AND

DEMOGRAPHY.

Babcock, Russ *, Smith, Luke, & Hunt, Marina.

University of Auckland Leigh Marine Laboratory PO Box

349 Warkworth, New Zealand. r.babcock@auckland.ac.nz

Sedimentation rates were experimentally manipulated in the

field to examine the effects of elevated sediment accumulation

rates on settlement and juvenile survivorship of the staghorn

coral Acropora millepora. The results of these experiments

were combined with demographic data for A. millepora in

order to examine the effects of reduced recruitment rates on

population density and recovery rates. Sedimentation rates

were 1.8-1.3 mg.cm -2 .d -1 for control sites and 2.1-11.7 mg.cm -2

.d -1 in sediment treatments. Both settlement and survivorship

over the first three months were significantly reduced in the

sediment treatments. Settlement was approximately 28 %

lower overall in the sediment treatments, and there was no

settlement on the upper surfaces of the plates. Overall survival

after 8 months was 2.5 times higher for juveniles at sites

without additional sediment. Demographic modeling of A.

millepora populations, using recruitment levels corresponding

to experimental sediment accumulation rates, suggested that

sediment effects on recruitment alone are likely to explain

differences in population density at low and high sediment

sites..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

297

REPRODUCTION OF THREE SCLERACTINIAN

CORALS (Acropora nobilis, A. cytherea, Hydnophora

rigida) OF NORTH-WESTERN LOMBOK.

Bachtiar, Imam*. Universitas Mataram, NTB, Indonesia.

Email address: ibachtiar@hotmail.com.

Reproduction of three scleractinian corals ( Acropora nobilis,

A. cytherea and Hydnophora rigida) was studied in the Gili

Trawangan and Gili Meno, West Nusa Tenggara. The study

was carried out by monitoring gonad development

histologically every month over four months period. The

results suggest that in the three coral populations gametogenic

cycles occur more than once in a year, and the spawning is

spread over several months. Each coral population spawns

several times in several months. The peaks of spawning are

different among the three coral populations. Most A. nobilis

colonies spawn after the full moon of February, while most A.

cytherea colonies spawn after the full moon of January. The

colonies of H. rigida mostly spawn after the full moon of

November. H. rigida is a simultaneous hermaphrodite coral

developing egg earlier than testis. The coral spawns their

gametes following the full moon of November (broadcast

spawners). There were some strong indications, that many

colonies of H. rigida carry out gametogenic cycle more than

once per year. Spawned colonies in November were found to

have small oocyte in January. The peak of spawning in A.

nobilis and A. cytherea support the genetic legacy hypothesis

that Western Australian corals may be seeded from larval

dispersal of Eastern Indonesia Archipelago during the

southerly Indonesian Throughflow and the Leeuwin Current

from January to April.

DOES TEMPERATURE SYNCHRONIZE

REPRODUCTION OF MASS SPAWNING CORAL IN

THE GREAT BARRIER REEF.

Bachtiar, Imam*. *Universitas Mataram, NTB, Indonesia.

Email: ibachtiar@hotmail.com.

T he roles of t em per at ure i n synchr onisi ng gametogenic

development in corals fr om the Great Barri er Reef were

investi gated experi mentally. Col onies of t he mass spawning cor al

Goni ast rea aspera ( Verri l 1865) were gr own i n thr ee di ff erent

temperature tr eat ments i n a f our m ont hs peri od. Duri ng the ent ir e

experim ental peri od the mean wat er temperatures ( !SD) in the

summ er, wint er and ambient (cont rol) tr eat ments were

30.5!1.2° C, 22.2!3.2° C and 27.9!1.3° C r especti vel y. Duri ng the

same peri od the average seawater t emper ature in t he fi eld was

26.0!1.0° C. Resul ts fr om the present st udy suggest t hat

temperature is im portant in t he regul at ion of gam etogenic

development in G. aspera. Gamet ogenesi s and spawning wer e

inhi bit ed in corals maintai ned under const ant winter seawat er

temperatures ( 21° C) . I n contr ast , spawning were accelerat ed in

some colonies mai nt ained in constant summer seawater

temperatures ( 30°C) . Overall, gamete development in summ er

tr eatment colonies was not si gni fi cantl y dif fer ent f rom gam ete

development in cont rol coloni es maint ai ned under ambient

seawater tem perat ur es.

DOES PHOTOPERIOD SYNCHRONIZE

REPRODUCTION OF MASS SPAWNING CORAL IN

THE GREAT BARRIER REEF.

Bach tiar, Im am *. *Un iversitas Mat aram, NTB, Indoneesi a.

Em ai l: ibachtiar@hotmail.com.

T he roles of photoper iod i n synchr onisi ng gametogenic

development in corals fr om the Great Barri er Reef were

investi gated experi mentally. Maintai ni ng colonies of mass

spawning cor al Goni ast rea aspera i n eit her constant wi nt er

(10.5L: 13.5D) or const ant sum mer phot operi od (13.5L: 10.5D)

regi mes f or three m ont hs pr ior t o the predicted date of spawni ng

di d not alter reproducti on ti ming of the cor al. After thr ee mont hs,

gametogenesi s and spawni ng in both experim ental t reatm ent s

occurred synchronously with t hat of control col onies. It is

possibl e that cor al s are more sensiti ve to changi ng photoperiods

than to f ixed photoper iods. I t i s also possi ble t hat phot operi od

af fects coral reproducti on through interacti ons with other

exogenous and/ or endogenous f act or s. Testi s mat ur ati on was

found t o be more im por tant than egg developm ent i n det erm ining

the month of spawni ng. T he pr oport ion of col oni es spawning in a

gi ven m onth was highly corr el ated wit h the propor tion of

mesenteri es wi th matur e testes. Coral s wit h mat ur e eggs ( >300

mm) and unripe testi s apparent ly do not spawn unti l t he test is

become fully developed.

VARIABLE PALATABILITY OF CORAL EGGS TO A

PLANKTIVOROUS FISH

Baird, A. * Gibson, Deborah; Koziumi, Noriko; Pratchett,

Morgan; Marquis, Christopher. *School of Marine Biology

& Aquaculture James Cook University, Townsville Q.

4811, Australia. andrewbaird@ozemail.com.au

Despite limited empirical evidence, predation is generally

assumed to be the major source of larval mortality and marine

invertebrate larvae are considered palatable to a wide range of

marine predators. Here we tested whether the planktivorous

fish Pomacentrus moluccensis would consume coral eggs of 9

species from 3 families and whether the eggs were equally

palatable. P. moluccensis did not distinguish between eggs of

five species from the family Acroporidae, nor two faviid

species, however, the eggs of the agaricid, Pachyseris

speciosa, were often rejected. In total, less than 50% of the

Pachyseris speciosa eggs were ingested compared to 90 % of

those made with other eggs demonstrating unequivocally that

not all coral eggs are equally palatable. The scleractinia have

traditionally been considered unlikely candidates for a rich

chemical ecology however, the difference in palatability of the

eggs indicates this assumption may need to be revised..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

298

EFFECT OF LARVAL RETENTION ON CORAL

CONNECTIVITY AND SETTLEMENT: A MODELLING

APPROACH.

Blanco-Martín, Bernardo*. *School of Marine Biology and

Aquaculture, James Cook University, Townsville QLD.

4811, Australia. Email: Bernardo.Blanco-Martin@

jcu.edu.au

The degree of larvae retention on reefs and its consequences

has counted a lot of controversy. Field and modelling studies

have tried to prove and quantify this retention, but the

importance of retention for the connectivity and settlement of

coral populations remains poorly understood. To study this

relationship the spatially realistic model here presented was

employed. A G.I.S. coverage of the Great Barrier Reef was

used to create a spatial representation of the Capricorn Bunker

Group in a Cellular Automata Model. The models were run

using five larval competence curves (three brooders Stylophora

pistillata, Pocillorpora damicornis and Seriatopora hystrix and

two spawners Acropora valida and Acropora millepora), two

current sets (random and south trend) and 21 retention levels

(0% to 100% in 5% increments). The larval outputs and inputs

for the whole system and six selected reefs were investigated.

As expected larval retention at natal reef increases local and

global settlement and decreases the reefs connectivity and the

diversity (in reef origins) of the settling larvae. On the other

hand, for most of the simulation combinations these decreases

are only significant at unrealistically high retention levels. The

results for individual reefs and coral species are highly

variable.

UNREPORTED FORMS OF ASEXUAL

REPRODUCTION IN SCLERACTINIAN CORALS:

REPRODUCTION BY "TISSUE DRIPPING" AND

"TISSUE BUBBLES."

Borneman, Eric H.* *Microcosm, Ltd. 2222 North

Fountain Valley, Missouri City, Texas, USA, 77459. Email:

EricHugo@aol.com

Many forms of asexual reproduction have been reported in

scleractinian corals; including fragmentation, budding, polyp

ball formation, asexually produced planulae, polyp bail-outs,

coral polyp expulsion, and others. In this report, two novel

forms of asexual reproduction are described in marine

microcosms. Favia spp. and Merulina ampliata have been

observed forming strands of tissue which "drip" downward to

find attachment to substrate. The strands of tissue then

become detached from the parent colony, begin to calcify, and

form viable daughter colonies. Until attachment is made, no

skeletal material is present as occurs in some types of budding.

The entire process takes from weeks to months to complete.

Pavona decussata has been observed forming vesicles or

bubbles on the coenosarc surface that may become fully

detached, forming neutrally buoyant balloons of tissue capable

of re-attachment on contact with other substrate. Not all tissue

bubbles are detached from parent colonies and they are

frequently resorbed. The formation and resorption of these

vesicles can occur within days, although the growth of

vesicles, length of time spent attached to the parent colony,

and ultimate detachment process can last from days to months.

To date, only a single released vesicle has produced a viable

daughter colony despite many observations of vesicle

production and release. Further work is required to assess the

nature of this behavior.

A SURVEY OF THE REEF FISH COMMUNITIES OF

THE BAY ISLANDS (HONDURAS, CARIBBEAN SEA)

Bouchon-Navaro, Y*, Louis, M. Bouchon, C. De Lavigne,

S. Thompson, W., And Portillo, P. *Laboratoire De

Biologie Animale, Université Antilles-Guyane, Bp 592,

97159, Pointe-À-Pitre, Guadeloupe. Pmaib, Consortio

Safège-Moncada, Roatán, Honduras. email:

claude.bouchon@univ-ag.fr

The Bays Islands (Utila, Roatán and Guanaja) located off the

continental coast of the Honduras are surrounded by well-developed

coral reefs of fringing and barrier type. Reef fish

communities were studied at fifty-six stations using a semi-quantitative

technique (29 in Roatán, 16 in Utila and 11 in

Guanaja). A total of 166 species was recorded in the three

islands. The distribution of fish communities was investigated

using correspondence analyses associated with hierarchical

clusterings. On a biogeographical point of view, no clear-cut

difference appeared between the fish communities of the three

islands. The pattern of fish distribution was mainly related to

depth and reef habitats. Moreover, the fish community

structure was studied at 8 stations located in Roatán using a

quantitative method (10 transects 30 m long by 2 m large per

station). The fish communities of the Bay Islands appeared

relatively rich and diversified with species richness varying

from 38 to 61 species per 600 m -2 . Fish abundance reached an

average of 253 individuals per100 m -2 and an average biomass

of about 1132 kg.ha -1 . The trophic structure was dominated by

herbivorous fishes (Acanthuridae and Scaridae) which

represented 58 % of the total fish biomass.

A REVISION OF THE GENUS PACIFIGORGIA

(OCTOCORALLIA: GORGONIIDAE).

Breedy, Odalisca * & Guzmán, Héctor M.. Universidad de

Costa Rica, Centro de Investigación en Ciencias del Mar,

San José, Costa Rica. P.O.Box 1962-2100.

Email:odalisca@racsa.co.cr

Pacifigorgia was established for reticulated fan-shaped

gorgoniids with a thin coenchyme, mainly composed of

different types of girdled spindle sclerites, but lacking

scaphoid forms. With the exception of one species, P. elegans

(MilneEdwards and Haime) found in the Atlantic, it is

restricted to the eastern Pacific Ocean. Since the establishment

of this genus, no comprehensive revision had been undertaken.

Although most of the species were described 50 to 150 years

ago, no designation of holotypes (apart from P. irene) was

made and a few illustrations appeared in original descriptions.

Hence, the taxonomic status of the majority of them is not

clear. The present preliminary revision has been based on

original type-material and new material recently collected.

The species were identified based on a combination of three

characteristics: growth form of the colony; shape of sclerites

and the color of both. All the species have been newly

described and illustrated in detail with photomicrographs and

scanning electron micrographs of the sclerites. Thirteen have

been recognized as valid and lectotypes proposed for them.

They are P. adamsii (Verrill), P. agazissii (Verrill), P. darwinii

(Hickson), P. englemanni (Horn), P. eximia (Verrill), P. exilis

(Verrill), P. irene (Bayer), P. media (Verrill), P. pulchra

(Verrill), P. rutila (Verrill), P. stenobrochis (Valenciennes),

and P. tenuis (Verrill). P. tabogae (Hickson) and P. douglassii

are also redescribed, but they can not be accepted until

Hickson’s original specimens are located and analyzed..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

299

HEAVY METAL CONCENTRATIONS IN BENTHIC

ANIMALS FROM CORAL COMMUNITESS IN THE

GULF OF THAILAND.

Buaruang J.*, T. Yeemin, J. Milindalekha, S. Tongumpon,

S. Pairagsa, S. Tangkittikasem and S. Sriprajan. Marine

Biodiversity Research Group, Department of Biology,

Faculty of Science, Ramkhamhaeng University, Huamark,

Bangkok 10240, Thailand.

Email: jamrearn@hotmail.com

Concentrations of Pb, Cu, Zn, and Fe were measured in two

different modes of feeding of benthic animals, i.e., a sea

urchin, Diadema setosum, and a sponge, Petrosia sp. from

coral communities of Khang Khao Island and Nok Island in

the Inner Gulf of Thailand where locate near the mounts of

four rivers. For the sea urchin, heavy metal concentrations

were measured in gonad and fecal pellet. The standard

methods of extraction and acid digestion were applied. All the

heavy metals were determined by FAAS. All heavy metal

concentrations in fecal pellets were much higher than those in

gonads. The heavy metal in gonads of the sea urchin varied

significantly between stations and sampling periods and were

lower than standard levels of contaminated food.

Concentrations of Cu and Zn were much higher in the sponge.

D. setosum and Petrosia sp. could be valuable bioindicators for

assessing and monitoring heavy metal concentrations in coral

communities in the Gulf of Thailand.

THE EFFECTS OF EXPERIMENTALLY ELEVATED

NUTRIENT CONCENTRATIONS ON THE SOFT

TISSUES OF ACROPORID CORALS (SCLERACTINIA:

ACROPORIDAE).

Bucher, Daniel J*. and Harrison, Peter L. *School of

Resource Science and Management, Southern Cross

University, P.O. Box 159, Lismore, NSW, Australia.

Email: dbucher@scu.edu.au

The structure and organisation of soft tissues were

investigated in two species of Acropora reef-building corals

that were exposed to elevated concentrations of ammonium

and/or phosphate in the ENCORE experiment at One Tree

Island, southern Great Barrier Reef. Chlorophyll extractions of

branch tips revealed that phosphate treatments significantly

increased the chlorophyll content of coral tissue, whereas

elevated ammonium often decreased chlorophyll relative to

ambient nutrient concentrations. In the phosphate-treated

corals, light microscopy of thin (0.5-1µm) sections of polyps

showed significantly thicker tissue layers in the free body wall

and greater surface area of calicoblastic body wall per cross-sectional

area of the septotheca, indicating that phosphate also

stimulated coral tissue growth. The septotheca of all nutrient-treated

corals was significantly more porous than in corals at

ambient concentrations. A reduction in the density of mucous

bodies in the free body wall of phosphate-treated corals is

potentially significant to the survival of corals in polluted

water, because of the role of mucus in facilitating removal of

sediment from the coral surface. Elevated ammonium

decreased the surface area of calicoblastic body wall per cross-sectional

area of the septotheca. The corals and their

zooxanthellae within the ENCORE patch reefs were

phosphorus-limited in their annual growth.

FIRST RECORDS OF A FOSSIL CORAL PLATFORM

SURROUNDING THE MARQUESEAS ISLANDS.

Cabioch G*, Carden C. Wallace, Linda K. Ayliffe,

Malcolm T. McCulloch, Helmut Zibrowius, Pierre

Laboute, Bertrand Richer de Forges. * IRD, BP A5, 98.848

Nouméa cedex, Nouvelle-Calédonie. Email:

cabioch@noumea.ird.nc

In September 1997, the MUSORSTOM 9 cruise was carried

out in Marqueseas archipelago onboard the French research

vessel Alis. Narrow submarine platforms occur seaward of the

islands of this archipelago at depths ranging from 90 to 100 m.

During this cruise, several dredgings were performed in order

to provide useful information on the nature and the

significance of this platform. Several fossil corals were

collected, studied and dated. The occurrence of corals

accompanied by reefal detritus indicates that this platform is a

relic of submerged reefs setting about 100 m deep. Moreover,

the first results provide two sets of dates measured both on

Porites spp. and Acropora spp.: the first set at around 20 ka

and the second one at around 60 ka. The youngest ages

correspond to the sea level of the last glacial maximum, around

120-130 m lower than today. The ages around 60 ka are

consistent with an interstadial sea level. It is noteworthy that,

for the first time, fragments of Acropora sp. were collected in

this archipelago. This is the first record of occurrence of

Acropora within the archipelago, as the genus has never been

recorded in the Recent fauna of the region. Such an occurrence

at this period has a particularly great paleobiogeographic

significance in this part of the Pacific Ocean.

PATTERNS AND CAUSES OF ANNUAL OTOLITH

INCREMENT FORMATION IN THE TROPICAL

WESTERN ATLANTIC.

Caldow, C*. *National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA. Email:

chris.caldow@noaa.gov.

Only recently have managers and scientists begun to collect

age and growth information necessary for effective

management of tropical marine ichthyofaunal communities.

The majority of studies that have taken place in the tropics

have focused on the Pacific Ocean, primarily on Australia’s

Great Barrier Reef. In this study, otoliths collected from small

reef associated fish species in the tropical western Atlantic

were examined for their ability to provide information on age.

Otoliths of two pomacentrids, Stegastes planifrons and S.

partitus, were collected from separate regions with a range in

annual temperature variation. These otoliths were examined

for the presence of clear and interpretable increments and

timing of increment formation. Increment quality varied

between species and between regions, with the trend being

decreasing clarity with decreasing temperature range.

Increments formed in areas with as little as a 3 o Celsius annual

water temperature range. Marginal increment analysis of S.

planifrons otoliths revealed that increments formed on the

otoliths were deposited once a year during the spring or early

summer, suggesting that fish in the tropical western Atlantic

may be aged using the same techniques as in other tropical

regions and temperate environments. Individuals at both

locations were significantly longer-lived than predicted by

other methods. Information on age and growth collected for

reef fish in studies such as this one should provide managers

with the life history information needed to assess population

stability and production..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

300

LIGHT QUALITY AND EXPRESSION OF FLUORESCE

IN CORALS

Carter, Robert W.*, Mazel, Charles H. *University of

Miami, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric

Science, 4600 Rickenbacker Cswy, Miami, FL 33149, USA,

rcarter@rsmas.miami.edu

Many scleractinian corals exhibit a blue-green or green

fluorescence when illuminated with ultraviolet or blue light.

This fluorescence arises from animal-derived proteins similar

to the green fluorescent protein originally found in the

jellyfish, Aequorea victoria. It has been suggested that these

proteins play a role in either light attenuation or wavelength

transformation as solar radiation passes through the coral

tissue to the endosymbiotic zooxanthellae. The coral,

Montastraea faveolata, is a common species in the Caribbean

and can be found with any of several fluorescent proteins. A

fluorescent green form of the protein is most common and

animals with this form are often green to the eye. We

investigated the influence of irradiance on expression of the

fluorescent pigment in this species in two experiments. The

first experiment involved the collection of tissue from ten

colonies of M. faveolata at three depths (3, 10, and 20 m).

Fluorescence measurements were made on the tissue after it

was removed from each skeleton with an airbrush. The second

experiment involved exposing ramets of several colonies of M.

faveolata to three light treatments in an outdoor circulating

water table: ambient UV (Control), reduced UV, and reduced

PAR. Daily measurements of coral host tissue fluorescence

and zooxanthellae photosynthetic capacity were made on each

core over a two week period. In vivo coral fluorescence

measurements were made with a benchtop laboratory

spectrofluorometer. Photosynthetic state was determined by

measurements of chlorophyll variable fluorescence (Fv/Fm)

with a fast repetition rate fluorometer.

BENTHIC PRIMARY PRODUCTION IN A CORAL

REEF AT BORA BAY OF MIYAKO ISLAND,

OKINAWA, JAPAN.

Casareto B.E.*, Y Suzuki, K. Yoshida , Y. Ishikawa and K.

Kurosawa. Laboratory of Aquatic Science Consultant Co.,

LTD, Meishin BLDG., Kamiikedai 1-14-1, 0ta ku, Tokyo

145-0064, Japan. E-mail address: CASARETOBE@aol.com

Among main primary producers in coral reef ecosystems the

importance of macrophytes and symbiotic zooxanthellae have

been widely recognized. However the role of epiphytic and

endolitic microalgae have been not well considered. The goal

of this work is to evaluate the role of benthic microalgae

throughout several field experiments. Different sediment types

(excluding macrophytes) were incubated in core-type

chambers at several station within Bora Bay in July of 1998;

the obtained P/R ratios ranged from 1.02 to 2.03. These P/R

ratios higher than 1 suggest that production is the predominant

metabolic process in these sediments. Chl a concentrations of

incubated sediment ranged from 7 to 34 µg Chl a cm -2 of

sediment from which7.5 to 45% was found in epiphytic

microalgae and the rest was found inside the coral rubble

(endolitic algae). Net primary production of endolitic

microalgae was measured by bottle incubations in July of

1999. Net primary production estimated per 1m 2 of rubble

surface varied from 2.15 to 3.18 µgO2 l -1 hour -1 ; Chl a

concentrations varied from 3.38 to 11.36µg Chl-a cm -2 of

rubble surface. Concentrations of Chl a of endolitic microalgae

in coral rubble (13.7µgChl a/g coral rubble; SD=5.57; n=10)

are of the same order of magnitude to that of living corals in

association with their symbiotic zooxanthellae (31µgChl a/ g

coral; SD=31.8 n=34)(Sorokin,1995; Casareto, personal com.).

SEDIMENTOLOGY AND HYDRO-ACOUSTIC SEABED

CLASSIFICATION OF LAUTHALA BAY (SUVA, FIJI).

Chevillon C*. Centre IRD., BP A5, 98 848 Nouméa, New

Caledonia.

Email: Christophe.Chevillon@noumea.ird.nc

The Lauthala Bay (Suva, Fiji) was explored with a

RoxAnnÔ acoustic seabed classification system. Some 70 000

acoustic signatures (i.e. couples roughness / hardness) were

recorded along regularly spaced tracks. Concurrently, 32

sediment samples were collected with a small Neyrpic grab.

These sediment samples were used for classical granulometric

analysis (e.g. textural type, mud percentage, mean size,

sorting, skewness and kurtosis) and as ground-truthing for the

acoustic seabed classification. Additionally, we conducted

scuba-diving exploration and description on 15 sites. When

comparing acoustic classification versus sedimentological data

we observed that acoustic discriminated 5 categories of bottom

types vs 2 or 3 with classical sedimentology. As a

consequence, it is difficult to precisely define and characterize

the exact nature of acoustic classification response. Scuba-diving

observations provided useful information for

interpreting acoustic classification wich is also influenced by

habitat structure. As the sediments of Lautahala bay are

extremely muddy, we suggest to conduct other kinds of

analysis on the samples (as laser granulometry or composition

of the fine fraction) in the aim to obtain better correlations

between acoustic and sedimentological data.

TAXONOMIC AND BIOGEOGRAPHIC DISCOVERIES

FROM THE U.S. NATIONAL CANCER INSTITUTE

MARINE COLLECTIONS PROGRAM

Colin P.L.* and Lori J. Bell *Coral Reef Research

Foundation P.O. Box 1765 Koror, Palau 96940. Email:

crrf@palaunet.com

Numerous new taxa of marine invertebrates from the Indo-Pacific

have been described based on collections made for the

past 9 years for the U.S. National Cancer Institute marine

collections program by the Coral Reef Research Foundation.

Collections are identified and described by a group of over 30

taxonomists worldwide. At present 47 ascidians, 4 sponges, 1

soft coral, 1 flatworm and 1 crinoid have been described as a

result of this work. Analysis of the collections indicates that at

present there still remain at least 500 sponges (11 new genera),

40 soft corals, 16 bryozoans, 7 holothurians, 24 ascidians and a

wide variety of other marine invertebrates to be described from

the collections. In addition to the new taxa, the project is

constantly discovering new information about the geographic

distribution, variation and general biology of marine

invertebrates from throughout the Indo-Pacific region. Long-term

work at a few locations has allowed us to prepare

relatively complete inventories of invertebrate groups of

special interest. The ultimate objective of this work, beyond

the discovery of new treatments for cancer and AIDS, is the

preparation of comprehensive volumes covering groups of

“difficult” marine invertebrates to allow identification for

research and conservation purposes..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

301

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HOLOTHURIAN

(HOLOTHUROIDEA) : A COMPARISON BETWEEN

PACIFIC (GBR, Australia) AND INDIAN OCEAN (La

Reunion) POPULATIONS OF STICHOPUS

CHLORONOTUS.

Conand C.* & Uthicke S. Laboratoire Ecologie marine,

Université de La Réunion, 97 715 Saint Denis cedex,

France. Email: conand@univ-reunion.fr

Stichopus chloronotus is a widespread holothurian species, in

the Indo-Pacific which often occurs in high population

densities. Its asexual reproduction by fission was monitored in

several populations from the Great Barrier Reef (GBR,

Australia, Pacific Ocean) (Uthicke, 1997) and from La

Reunion fringing reefs (France, Indian Ocean) (Conand et al.,

1998). The results obtained at these locations are compared, to

investigate similarities in the fission pattern between the two

geographic regions. Fission rates showed distinct seasonality,

with maxima occurring during the cold season (May to July),

both in La Reunion and the GBR. The processes of external

and internal regenerations have been described in view to

understand the resumption of the nutrition and the sexual

reproduction after fission. Annual fission rates and population

densities are positively correlated in all populations studied. In

contrast, annual fission rates and modal sizes in the

populations are negatively correlated. The consequences of

fission in terms of density and size of the individuals are

discussed. Several abiotic factors, which may differ between

species, have been hypothesized to trigger fission in

holothurians. For S. chloronotus we suggest that food

availability and population densities may be involved in the

regulation of asexual reproduction. However, the comparison

of more stations remains necessary to substantiate this

hypothesis.

ZOOXANTHELLAE MORPHOMETRICS OF FIVE

HERMATYPIC CORALS SPECIES (CNIDARIA,

SCLERACTINIA) FROM TAMANDARÉ AND GAIBU

BEACH, SOUTH COAST OF PERNAMBUCO STATE,

BRAZIL.

Costa, C. F*. and Amaral, F. D. *Universidade Federal da

Paraíba, Mestrado em Biologia, Campus Universitário,

58059-900, João Pessoa, PB, Brasil. Email:

cfcosta@nepremar.ufpb.br

Zooxanthellae are symbiotic algae found within the tissues of

many marine invertebrates. In scleractinian corals, these algae

are located within the endoderm cells and form a close

symbiotic relationship. The objective of this study was to make

a comparative analysis of density and diameter of the

zooxanthellae in Agaricia agaricites, Favia gravida,

Montastrea cavernosa, Porites astreoides and Siderastrea

stellata collected from Tamandaré and Gaibu beach.

Approximately 10 colonies of each scleractinians were

collected between August 1997 and April 1998 in depths

ranging from 0 to 4 m. Zooxanthellae showed significant

differences in mean density and diameter among the

scleractinians examined. In particular, the mean density in S.

stellata (Suborder Fungiida) was significantly different from

that in F. gravida and M. cavernosa (Suborder Faviida), and

other corals belonging to this suborder. Compared to other

species of coral, F. gravida and M. cavernosa also showed a

significant difference in the mean diameter of zooxanthellae in

their endoderm cells. The results provide some evidence to

show that the density and diameter of zooxanthellae may be

used to facilitate scleractinian systematics, since corals are

collected across the same temporal and spatial scales.

DENSITY AND SIZE DIFFERENCES IN

ZOOXANTHELLAE FROM FIVE REEF-BUILDING

CORAL SPECIES FROM BRAZIL.

Costa C.F.* and Amaral, Fernanda. D.. *Universidade

Federal da Paraíba, Mestrado em Biologia, Campus

Universitario 58059-900 João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil.

Email cfcosta@nepremar.ufpb.br

Zooxanthellae are symbiotic algae found within the tissues of

many marine invertebrates. In scleractinian corals, these algae

are located within the endoderm cells and form a close

symbiotic relationship. The objective of this study was to make

a comparative analysis of the density and diameter of

zooxanthellae in the scleractinian reef corals Agaricia

agaricites, Favia gravida, Montastrea cavernosa, Porites

astreoides and Siderastrea stellata collected from Tamandaré

and Gaibu beach, on the south coast of Pernambuco state,

Brazil. Approximately 10 colonies of each species were

collected between August 1997 and April 1998 from depths of

0 to 4 m. Zooxanthellae showed significant differences in

mean density and diameter among the scleractinians examined.

In particular, the mean density in S. stellata (Suborder

Fungiida) was significantly different from that in F. gravida

and M. cavernosa (Suborder Faviida), and other corals

belonging to this suborder. Compared to other species of coral,

F. gravida and M. cavernosa also showed a significant

difference in the mean diameter of zooxanthellae in their

endoderm cells. The results provide some evidence

demonstrating that cell diameter may be a useful character in

systematic studies of algal symbionts. Since symbiont density

and cell diameter also vary in a host species-specific manner

these characters may also be useful in scleractinian coral

systematics.

PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS OF

ZOOXANTHELLAE FROM FOUR BRAZILIAN REEF

CORAL SPECIES

Costa C.F.*, Sassi, Roberto and Amaral, Fernanda. D..

*Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Mestrado em Biologia,

Campus Universitário, João Pessoa, Paraíba 58059-900,

Brazil. Email cfcosta@nepremar.ufpb.br

Despite longstanding interest in zooxanthellae and the

symbioses they form with reef corals, virtually no studies have

yet been undertaken on Brazilian coral symbioses. Here we

investigate the photosynthetic pigments of four Brazilian reef-building

corals (Montastrea cavernosa, Mussismilia harttii, M.

hispida and Siderastrea stellata) collected at Picãozinho reef

North coast of Paraiba state, Brazil (07º07’00”S, 34º48’30”W).

The study was undertaken to investigate the photosynthetic

capacities of zooxanthellae from different corals species over a

period of seven months. The data indicate high differences in

zooxanthellae pigments among the corals species studied. The

values of zooxanthellae pigments were highest for M. harttii

(58.45 mg/cm 2 of chlorophyll a and 76.2 mg/cm 2 of chlorophyll

c) and lowest for S. stellata (20.88 mg/cm 2 of chlorophyll a and

48.11 mg/cm 2 of chlorophyll c). These results suggest a higher

photosynthetic capacity in M. harttii, which may provide a

strong contribution to overall reef primary productivity. The

possible ecophysiological implications of photosynthetic

pigment concentrations of zooxanthellae are discussed..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

302

CORAL REEFS IN THE DISCOVERY COAST OF

BRAZIL: I. BENTHIC MACROALGAE

DISTRIBUTION.

Costa O.S. Jr.*; Attrill, M.J.; Nimmo, M. *Department of

Biological Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus,

PL4 8AA, Plymouth, Devon, U.K. Email:

ocosta@plymouth.ac.uk

The Discovery Coast is a small section in the South of the

Bahia State, Brazil, where Portuguese sailors first set foot in

the country on April 22, 1500. Despite of being the birthplace

of Brazil, the region remains practically unknown holding the

less studied coral reefs of the entire Bahian coast. To assess the

distribution of algae communities throughout both coastal and

offshore reefs a quantitative and qualitative survey was

performed during the dry season (July/August 1999) and the

rainy season (February/March 2000). Samples were taken from

the reef wall (at 1, 3 and 5 m depth) and from the exposed reef

flat. Algae counts were undertaken using a 25x25-cm quadrat.

Algal growth forms exhibited a distinct separation between

reef habitats, the reef flat and the internal reef wall being the

preferred place for most of the branched species whilst the

external reef wall supported predominantly encrusting and turf

species. The best-represented division is Phaeophyta, followed

by Rhodophyta and then Chlorophyta. The largest number of

infrageneric taxa recorded was during the rainy season

(February/March 2000) and the most abundant genera were

Sargassum, Padina, Dictyota, Dictyosphaeria, Caulerpa and

Amphiroa.

SEDIMENTARY AND HYDRODYNAMIC PROCESSES

AT GREAT BARRIER REER INNER SHELF CORAL

REEFS: A CASE STUDY

Costen, Andrew*; Larcombe, Piers and Woolfe, Ken.

*Marine Geophysical Laboratory, James Cook University,

North Queensland, 4811, Australia. Email

andrewc@gbrmpa.gov.au

Paluma Shoals and Phillips Reef are inner shelf platform

reefs located in Halifax Bay, GBR. Taxonomic, seismic and

sediment (core and surface) data along with 28 days of

continuous high resolution hydrodynamic and turbidity data

were collected. Mean coral cover at Paluma Shoals was

53.4±3% on the reef flat. Coral cover at Phillips Reef was not

recorded but appeared to be ‘high’. Maximum NTU values

were an order of magnitude greater at Paluma Shoals (175

NTU) than Phillips Reef (15 NTU). The wind, wave and tidal

data suggest that the same regional hydrodynamic processes

influence both systems with wind and swell waves generated

by the south east trades inducing most turbidity maximum

events. The surface sediment seaward of Paluma Shoals

consists of fine-grained mud and sand with those surrounding

Phillips Reef, mostly gravelly muddy sand. Variations in near

bed turbidity values at the sites appear to be a function of local

surface sediment texture and distribution, water depth, wind

direction and hydrodynamics. At Paluma Shoals the complex

interaction between these processes results in ‘high’ turbidity

values (which may persist for days/weeks) but limited

sediment settling. At Phillips Reef the ‘low’ NTU values may

be attributed to water depth and the coarse grained nature of

the sediment. The sediment core data suggests that both reefs

may have experienced similar sedimentary regimes since

initiation. In summary, Paluma Shoals currently exists in a

‘highly’ turbid water environment and may have initiated

under similar water quality conditions 3-3.5kya.

SURVIVAL RATES OF TRIDACNA SQUAMOSA

LARVAE EXPOSED TO DIFFERENT SUBSTRATES:

IMPACT OF SUBSTRATES COLONISED BY

CRUSTOSE CORALLINE ALGAE.

Courtois de Vicose, G. Singapore. Email:

gtricor@hotmail.com

Giant clams mariculture research and culture methods have

been developed over the last two decades. Hatchery and

farming methods are now well known and applied, however

heavy mortality at larval and early juvenile stage still remains

a major concern. This study attempt to address aspects of the

impacts of different substrates on Tridacna squamosa larvae

with an aim towards improving larval and juvenile survival.

The larvae were obtained from a spawning that occurred

naturally in our tanks. The larvae were put in culture and used

for the study at day 10. During the 14 days of the experiment

replicates of four treatments; smooth plastic, rough plastic,

smooth plastic colonised by coralline algae, rough plastic

colonised by coralline algae; were monitored and survival rates

were recorded. Overall, substrates colonised by coralline algae

showed to have a significant positive impact on T. squamosa

larvae survival. Further studies need to be completed to better

understand the effect of the coralline algae. It is still to

determine whether coralline algae have an impact on

settlement and metamorphosis of the larvae or on the benthic

algae responsible for biofouling and known to smother the

clams. If further proven to have a significant impact; the

technique of colonisation of substrate by crustose coralline

algae could be used as a tool to maximize larval settlement,

metamorphosis and juvenile survival in order to increase

natural recruitment in the wild for conservation and

mariculture purposes.

NUTRIENT DELIVERY TO AN EUTROPHICATED

CORAL REEF.

Cuet, P*. and D. Mioche. *Laboratoire d’Ecologie Marine,

Université de la Réunion, BP 7151, 97487 Saint-Denis

messag. Cedex 9, France. Email: cuet@univ-reunion.fr

The nutrient status of the reef flat at Planch’Alizés, a

degraded area of the Saint-Gilles/La Saline fringing reef

(Reunion, Indian ocean), was assessed measuring monthly,

during one year, dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) and

phosphorus (DIP) at this site, and at an undisturbed area of the

reef. Salinity and reactive silicate, therefore freshwater inputs,

were similar on the two reef flats. However, DIN was

significantly higher at Planch’Alizés than at the control site

(respectively 0.50 and 0.36 µM NO3 - + NO2 - ; 0.26 and 0.19

µM NH4 + ) ; in contrast, DIP was significantly lower at the

former site (respectively 0.07 and 0.10 µM). Besides, we

measured O2, DIN and DIP fluxes on the two reef flats, in

summer and in winter, using a Lagrangian flow respirometry

technique. In summer, there was a release of NO3 - at

Planch’Alizés (6.2 mmol.m -2 .d -1 ), and of NH4 + at the control

site (3.3 mmol.m -2 .d -1 ). An uptake of NO3 - occurred whatever

the season at the control site (–2.4 to –3.6 mmol.m -2 .d -1 ). DIP

flux was always nil at both sites. N fluxes at Planch’Alizés

mainly reflected the gross production to respiration ratio (0.87

in summer, about 1 in winter). On account of current direction,

organic matter originating from the back reef might therefore

constitute a source of N at this site. This might link macroalgal

dominance on the reef flat to an indirect impact of

groundwater discharge in the back reef. The resulting N

enrichment to the reef flat remains moderate, but does not

necessarily reflect the magnitude of the increase in N

availability..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

303

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF MULLET (FAMILY

MUGILIDAE) IN AMERICAN SAMOA.

Curren, E. Flinn*, *Department of Marine and Wildlife

Resources, P.O. Box 3730, Pago Pago, American Samoa,

USA. Email: flinnc@hotmail.com

Mullet caught by gill net and cast net were identified to

species. Staged condition of mullet gonads based on

macroscopic characteristics was verified by microscopic

examination of H&E stained gonad sections. Spawning

appeared to be widespread during the year, based on gonad

condition. Fecundity estimates, based on hydrated egg counts,

were obtained for for four mullet species: Chelon

melinopterus, Moolgarda engeli, M. perusii, and M. seheli.

These estimates do not take into account atresia, which is

especially significant for C. melinopterus.

COPPER AND ZINC CONCENTRATIONS AND

SKELETAL EXTENSION RATE IN PORITES LOBATA

AT AN ANTHROPOGENICALLY IMPACTED SITE IN

HAWAII.

Daly, Geoffrey*. *University Of San Diego, CA. U.S.A.

Email: geoffreydaly@earthlink.net

Annual growth bands of Porites lobata skeletal material

were analyzed for copper and zinc, a primary component in

anti-fouling boat paints and a supplement in fertilizers, to

evaluate anthropogenic effects on geochemistry and skeletal

extension at two sites along the west coast of Hawaii.

Keauhou Bay, the impacted site, is affected by land

degradation, human development, agriculture, and boating

activities. The control site, Makalawena is a more pristine

setting which experiences minimal human impact. The Cu and

Zn concentrations and average annual skeletal extension rates

where compared within different growth bands of a coral

colony, between corals from the same site, and between two

sites. Eight corals were collected, sectioned, and X-rayed.

Bulk aragonite samples from single annual growth bands were

extracted and the metal concentrations measured by flame

atomic absorption. Copper and zinc concentrations ranged

from 0.3 ppm to 7.5 ppm, and 0.1 ppm to 2.5 ppm,

respectively. Mean Cu and Zn concentrations were

significantly higher in corals from the impacted site (3.1 +/-0.3

ppm Cu, 1.5 +/-0.2 ppm Zn) compared to the control site (1.0

+/-0.2 ppm Cu, 0.2 +/-0.1 ppm Zn). In general, Cu and Zn

concentrations do not vary significantly among years within a

single coral but differ between a few of the corals at a single

site. Copper and zinc concentrations in P. lobata reported for

other anthropogenically-polluted locations, ranged in Cu from

2.4 ppm to 18.4 ppm, and Zn from 0.8 ppm to 122.1 ppm.

Possible sources of Cu and Zn in Keauhou Bay include anti-fouling

boat paints and golf course fertilizers, which are not

present at Makalawena. Extension rates measured for corals

from Keauhou Bay and Makalawena were generally consistent

with P. lobata measured elsewhere on Hawaii (~1 cm). The

extension rates recorded in this study found no significant

difference between corals from the same location, although

between sites, extension rates where significantly higher (0.81

+/-0.02 cm vs. 0.64 +/-0.02 cm) at the impacted site, Keauhou

Bay. Records of anthropogenic nutrients entering Keauhou

Bay have been linked previously to golf course fertilizers. It is

possible that the input of nutrients to the nearshore

environment from golf course fertilizers may contribute to the

increased skeletal extension rate of P. lobata observed in this

study. Further research could involve a proxy record of trace

metal incorporation in P. lobata throughout the history of

human activity at Keauhou Bay.

STRUCTURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF

ZOOPLANCTON AT THE BAI THU LONG

ARCHIPELAGO.

Dautov S.Sh.* *Institute of Marine Biology, RAS,

Vladivostok, Russia. Email: daut@mail.primorye.ru

The Ba i Thu Long Archipelago (Gulf of Tonkin, South

China Sea) is close to the mouths of several large rivers, which

carry out a lot of silt and fresh water which lower the salinity

of sea water (to 29-30‰) in this area. The plancton at the Bai

Thu Long Archipelago was characterized by an abundance of

phytoplancton and diversity of protozoans. By the number of

taxa distinguished, the plancton was the most diverse at Bo

Hon (Station 10), Cong Tay, Bo Hom, and Cong Do Islands,

which at the open seaside extremities of islands situated. The

least number of species was recorded in plancton at the closed

bay of Bo Hon Island and at a isolated lake with sea water at

Bu Xam Island. The density of zoo- and phytoplancton was

much lower in the lake, neverthelesss, the plancton community

consisted of copepods, pteropods, chaetognaths,

appendicularians, jelly fishes, larvae of gastropod, and bivalve

molluscs and of ascidians. Most often copepods, chaetognaths,

pteropods, and siphonophores in holoplancton, and larvae of

polychaetes, crustaceans, bivalves, and ophiurs in

meroplancton occurred at the Bai Thu Long Archipelago.

Actinotrochae, tornariae, and sea urchins plutei were recorded

at stations with the most divers plancton. The presence of these

larvae could indicate of the quality of sea water at seaside

island coasts with water is more often exchanged during the

tide.

ONSET OF SYMBIOSIS IN FUNGIA SCUTARIA:

CHANGES IN PATTERNS OF GENE EXPRESSION.

DeBoer, M.L.* and Weis, V.M. *Department of Zoology,

Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR. 97331, USA.

Email: deboerm@bcc.orst.edu

Partners in a symbiosis, such as cnidarians and

dinoflagellates, engage in genetic regulation of their

association. Carbonic anhydrase expression, for example, is

upregulated as a function of symbiosis in the temperate sea

anemone Anthopleura elegantissima. Since, in many

cnidarians, the symbiont takes up residence within host tissue

during larval development, it is likely that changes in gene

expression resulting from the symbiotic state are initiated

during the larval stage. Little is known, however, about

biochemical and molecular changes occurring in larvae upon

the onset of symbiosis. The coral Fungia scutaria acquires its

dinoflagellate symbiont (Symbiodinium spp.) during the larval

stage, after formation of the mouth and upon commencement

of feeding. To examine gene expression patterns during

symbiosis onset, we first isolated and sequenced carbonic

anhydrase (CA) cDNA from F. scutaria. Subsequently we

used RT-PCR to monitor CA expression in young non-feeding

larvae, as well as in older aposymbiotic and symbiotic larvae.

We have found CA to be expressed in all three larval types,

regardless of symbiotic state or age. However, preliminary

results also indicate trends toward differential expression of

the gene as a function of both symbiotic state and age, which

would suggest that genetic interplay between partners does

indeed commence in developing larvae upon the establishment

of the symbiosis..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

304

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION OF THE CORAL

MADRACIS MIRABILIS (SCLERACTINIA:

POCILLOPORIDAE) IN BERMUDA

de Putron S.* and Smith, S.R.. *Bermuda Biological

Station for Research, St. Georges, Bermuda. Email:

sputron@bbsr.edu

Sexual reproduction in many scleractinian coral species is

still unknown. Madracis mirabilis is an abundant reef coral in

the Western Atlantic, but there was previously no available

information on the mode and timing of sexual reproduction. In

the sub-tropical environment of Bermuda, this species often

forms dense aggregations on inshore reefs. Reproductive

patterns of Bermuda’s corals are of interest as winter

temperatures fall well below those reported for minimum coral

growth and survival. Gametogenesis was examined by

histological sections of tissue samples collected over two

summers. Colonies were also held in the laboratory for

evidence of any gamete or planulae release. Preliminary

results indicate that this species is a simultaneous

hermaphrodite with eggs and spermaries often occurring

within the same mesentery. The largest gamete diameters

were present following the full moons in August and

September, corresponding with maximum seawater

temperatures in Bermuda. No planulae have yet been detected

within polyps which may imply that it is a broadcaster.

Further analysis is in progress to accurately define the

reproductive cycle and timing of gamete release.

THE ABUNDANCE OF BIOACTIVE SPONGES IN THE

SPERMONDE ARCHIPELAGO.

de Voogd N.J.*;. van Soest, R.W.M.; Noor, A.; and

Hoeksema, B.W. *Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem

Dynamics (Zoological Museum), University of Amsterdam,

P.O. Box 94766, 1090 GT, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

E-mail: ndevoogd@indosat.net.id

Sessile marine invertebrates are sources for a wide variety of

substances with bioactive properties. Many of these substances

have a potential as pharmaceuticals or as a biochemical tools

for a variety of useful applications. Of all marine invertebrate

taxa, sponges are doubtless the most diverse in both numbers

and types of compounds. It is thought that sponge bioactivity is

enhanced in tropical environments. It is predicted that the

species-rich Indonesian reefs harbour the highest diversity in

sponge chemical compounds. As the supply-matter is a major

problem, a growing interest for alternative ways to obtain these

compounds is rising. In the near future, an attempt will be

made to set up a sponge mariculture in the Spermonde

Archipelago, SW Sulawesi, which is presently one of the best

marine explored regions of Indonesia. Presently, a descriptive-correlative

inventory is made of sponge bioactivity and the

factors that are hypothesised to act as important regulators.

These results will eventually contribute in choosing a habitat

where sponge growth and production of the bioactive

substances is optimal. A first survey is made of the abundance

of 12 sponge species, which are known to have bioactive

properties in two ecological different shelf zones. So far, the

most bioactive individuals have been found in the second shelf

zone, whereas the third zone harbours the highest number of

sponge species and sponge individuals.

A WINDOWS-BASED PROGRAM FOR IMAGE

PROCESSING CORAL SKELETAL DENSITOMETRY.

Dodge, R.E.* and Kohler, K. *National Coral Reef

Institute, Nova Southeastern University Oceanographic

Center, 8000 North Ocean Drive, Dania, FL. 33004 USA.

Email: dodge@ocean.nova.edu

Coral skeletal density information is a useful growth

parameter and may be coupled with extension rates to

determine calcification rates. The conventional process for

density determination is often cumbersome and requires some

parameters which are difficult to precisely specify (e.g., Mass

absorption coefficients). We have developed a technique and

windows based computer program which enables the rapid

collection of coral density data. The coral skeleton slab is x-radiographed

with an aluminum wedge. Thickness and density

of the aluminum wedge, thickness of the coral slab, density of

pure coral aragonite, and digitized images of the coral and

wedge x-radiographs provide necessary input. The program

uses the wedge image and an empirically determined ratio of

relative mass absorption coefficients, (thus removing

difficulties with absolute values) in an equation relating wedge

optic density and thickness to coral skeletal density. A transect

is defined on the coral x-radiograph image, normal to growth

band boundaries. Optic density of pixels are converted to

skeletal density, averaged, and plotted. Variations of skeletal

density along the transect are expressed as peaks and valleys

corresponding to high and low density band portions.

Measurements of extension, density, and calcification can be

calculated for a variety of characterizations of annual and

subannual band portions.

MASSIVE CORALS FROM THE CAPE VERDE

ISLANDS AND THE GULF OF GUINEA: PHYSICAL

AND CHEMICAL PARAMETERS WITH POTENTIAL

FOR RECONSTRUCTION OF PROXY CLIMATE /

ENVIRONMENTAL RECORDS

Dodge R.E.*, Swart, P.K., Enfield, D., Gilliam, D., White,

K., Moses, C., *National Coral Reef Institute, Nova

Southeastern University Oceanographic Center, 8000

North Ocean Drive, Dania, Fl 33004, USA. Email:

dodge@ocean.nova.edu

In the eastern Atlantic at the islands in the Gulf of Guinea

and at the Cape Verde Islands massive scleractinian corals

have been located. Specimens within the genera Siderastrea,

Montastrea, and Porites can be long-lived and have density

band records in excess of several hundred years. Growth

parameters of these corals including annual and subannual

extension rate, density, calcification rate, and skeletal

fluorescence co-vary over time. Growth parameters in the Gulf

of Guinea show a regular cycle on the order of approximately

10 years. We have examined variations of the Atlantic Dipole

and the Gulf of Guinea and Cape Verdes which have

particularly strong association with temperature variations in

the north and south sub-tropical Atlantic. At the Gulf of

Guinea location variations in the oxygen isotopes, density, and

fluorescence are correlated with discharge from the rivers

draining the Sahel region of West Africa. At the Cape Verde

location, corals are at the edge of their range and appear

suitable for determination of long-term histories of the

temperature of the northern sub-tropical Atlantic Ocean. In

addition, the location of the Cape Verde Islands makes the

corals there excellent candidates as well for monitoring dust

derived from Africa..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

305

POPULATION STRUCTURE OF THE CORAL REEF

FISHES OF THE GULF OF PAPAGAYO,

GUANACASTE, COSTA RICA.

Dominici-Arosemena, A.*; Brugnoli-Olivera, E.; Molina-Ureña,

H.; Cortés-Nuñez, J.; Quezada-Alpizar, M.

*Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, P.O Box 2072,

Balboa, Panama, Republic of Panama. Email:

dominia@naos.si.edu

We described the taxonomic composition and relative

abundance of the reef fish populations in relation to physical

parameters and types of habitats in Culebra Bay, Gulf of

Papagayo, Costa Rica. We measured the density of fishes and

the percent coverage of different types of substrates in four

different sites. The four sites differed in depth and coverage of

coral. A total of 75 species representing 28 families of reef

fishes were recorded. The diversity parameters, with the

exception of species richness, differed between different sites,

while evenness and diversity indexes showed significant

correlations with some substrates. The relative abundance of

some species differed between sites showing a higher b

diversity compared to other studies in the eastern Pacific. The

most abundant species at all the sites was Chromis atrilobata,

a plankton feeding pomacentrid, followed by Thalassoma

lucasanum, Abudefduf troschelii and Halichoeres dispilus,

which were predominant in the shallower sites, together with

Serranus psittacinus and Canthigaster punctatissima.

Haemulon steindachnederi and Haemulon maculicauda

dominated the deeper site. Coral feeding balistid species like

Sufflamen verres were significantly correlated with the percent

coverage of pocilloporid corals. Some herbivorous species like

Stegastes acapulcoensis were associated with shallower

habitats, while others like Stegastes flavilatus were associated

with deeper habitats. The chaetodontids Chaetodon humeralis

and Jhonrandallia nigrirostris were significatively correlated

with the octocoral Carijoa spp. and the ahermatipic coral

Tubastrea cocccinea in the deeper site.

MODELISATION OF THE TRANSFER OF DISSOLVED

AND PARTICULATE MATERIAL IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN

LAGOON OF NEW CALEDONIA.

Douillet P*, Ouillon, Cordier. *Centre IRD, BP A5,

Nouméa, New Caledonia. Email: douillet@noumea.ird.nc

The lagoon of New Caledonia is one of the largest in the

world and represents a rich and diverse ecosystem sensitive to

human induced environmental change. A good knowledge of

lagoon functioning is required to limit damage from open cast

mining exploitation and from the reinforcement of urban

influence around the city of Noumea. For the past 20 years,

extensive work on the environment of the New Caledonia

lagoon has been conducted at IRD (Institut de recherche pour

le développement) including the determination of tidal and

wind-driven circulation. This paper presents additional work

on the transport of dissolved and particulate matter. The

approach chosen is based upon the joint development of

numerical methods linked to field data gathering including

currents, water levels, wind and water physico-chemistry. A 2-

D model weas used to calculate current generated by tide and

3-D models were used to calculate wind driven currents, tide

and wind being the two major current driving forces in this

lagoon. By combining hydrodynamic modelling with diffusion

equations we simulated the transfer of dissolved. Further

implementation of transport equations were developed to

determine the transport of particulate matters. Results from

various typical cases are presented and confronted with field

data. Finally, we studied the possible impact of freshwater

inputs delivered by the main rivers on the transfer of dissolved

and particulate matter.

BACTERIOPLANKTON IS A POOR TROPHIC

RESSOURCE FOR THE PEARL OYSTER PINCTADA

MARGARITIFERA ; EVIDENCE FROM SPATIAL

DISTRIBUTIONS.

Dufour P.* and Jean-Pascal Torréton. *I.R.D., Station

Marine d’Endoume, rue de la Batterie des Lions, 13 007

Marseille, France. Email: dufour@ird.fr

Farming of the black-lipped pearl oyster, Pinctada

margaritifera, is the main economic resource of the Tuamotu

Archipelago. Cultivated pearl oysters are hung on long-lines

and can feed only on suspended particles. Bacterioplankton

represents about half the live suspended organic particulate

matter in Tuamotu atoll lagoons. Bacterioplankton abundance

and activity are similar in lagoons sectors and at levels with

and without dense P. margaritifera populations. It confirms

other studies showing that P. margaritifera cannot retain free

bacteria and feed mainly on particles above 3 µm in size.

Heterotrophic protists channel a large part of the

bacterioplankton production towards P. margaritifera, but this

intermediate trophic level lowers the contribution of bacteria to

pearl oyster diet. Therefore, by immobilizing a large part of

suspended organic particulate matter and nutrients in a class

size that is not retained by P. margaritifera, bacteria should

decrease the carrying-capacity of the Tuamotu lagoons for

oyster farming. This does take into account the indirect role of

bacteria, which mineralize more than 90% of the dissolved

organic matter they uptake in Tuamotu lagoons and therefore

fuel the primary production and the trophic network that

supports the pearl oysters production.

SPATIAL HOMOGENEITY IN ATOLL LAGOONS OF

THE TUAMOTU ARCHIPELAGO.

Dufour P.* and Jean-Pascal Torréton. *I.R.D., Station

Marine d’Endoume, rue de la Batterie des Lions, 13 007

Marseille, France. Email: dufour@ird.fr

Vertical profiles of particulate organic matter concentrations,

bacterioplankton and phytoplankton biomass show usual

homogeneity in atoll lagoons of the Tuamotu, except in the

near bottom layer. Coefficient of variations are typically <

20% with no coherent structure along the water column. A

vertical stratification is only observed in the deepest lagoons, >

30 meters. Surveys show even distributions for the same

parameters with CV usually < 30 %. Perturbations are limited

to the immediate vicinity of some areas like villages, reef-flat

spillways and channels through coral rims, patch reefs, and

shallow or confined waters. Such an isotropy was observed in

12 atoll lagoons in spite of their different morphology – from 1

to 400 km2, 2 to 50 m deep - and wide range of hydrological

conditions –water residence time from few days to years. This

spatial monotony may be related to some favorable

circumstances: mixing by nearly constant eastern trade winds

(5m.s -1 annual average), regular currents induced by wind or

tide, strong stability of the oceanic surrounding waters of the

South Pacific Gyre, limited organic matter and nutrients input

from coral rim and bordering islands..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

306

SOFT CORALS AND SEA FANS: A COMPREHENSIVE

GUIDE TO INDO-PACIFIC CORAL REEFS.

Fabricius, Katharina * and Alderslade, Philip. *CRC for

the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area, Australian

Institute of Marine Science, PMB No. 3, Townsville MC,

Qld 4810, Australia. Email:k.fabricius@aims.gov.au

Soft corals and sea fans are beautiful and abundant

inhabitants of the World’s coral reefs. To date, there has been

no comprehensive guide which has allowed interested people

to categorise soft corals beyond “soft coral sp.”, or “others”.

We have produced a user-friendly field and laboratory guide

which will open the door to the understanding and

identification of the 23 families and 95 genera known from the

warm shallow waters of the Central and Western Pacific, the

Indian Ocean, and the Red Sea. Each genus is represented by:

(1) a plate of underwater photographs, displaying the major

growth forms with close-ups of characteristic details, (2)

detailed drawings of the skeletal elements, and (3)

accompanying text documenting their distinctive

morphological and ecological characteristics, habitat and

abundance, and zoogeographic distribution. The present-day

knowledge of the biology and ecology of octocorals is

summarised in the 40-page introduction, and a glossary

explains the few technical terms used. Soft corals comprise a

wide range of taxa with drastically different ecological

characteristics, which may be used as environmental

indicators. The ability of non-experts to identify soft corals and

sea fans in species inventories and surveys will significantly

advance our knowledge about this abundant and important

group in Indo-Pacific coral reefs.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN THE ELLIPTICAL

STAR CORAL, Dichocoenia stokesi MILNE-EDWARDS

AND HAIME, (ANTHOZOA: SCLERACTINIA) -PRELIMINARY

RESULTS.

Feingold J.S.* and S. M. Hoke. Nova Southeastern

University Oceanographic Center, 8000 North Ocean

Drive, Dania Beach, FL 33004 USA. E-mail Address:

joshua@polaris.nova.edu

This study will document the seasonality and lunar

periodicity of Dichocoenia stokesi sexual reproduction in

populations located off Dania Beach, Florida. Details of

gametogenesis and oogenesis, and the relationship, if any,

between colony size and fecundity will be described. Gonadal

development over time is being documented by analysis of

histoslides prepared from Dichocoenia polyps collected

several times per month on or near the full and new moons

between 9/7/99 and 9/7/00. The relative abundance of gonads

belonging to each of five oogenic and six spermatogenic stages

will be plotted against date, in-situ temperature, and colony

size over the course of one year. It is anticipated that

Dichocoenia will exhibit reproductive patterns similar to other

Caribbean scleractinian coral species with activity

concentrated in the late summer. If brooding occurs, planula

release is expected to peak in August and September. The

study population is recovering from mortality associated with

an epizootic of Plague Type II disease that began affecting

South Florida scleractinians in the summer of 1995. Reduced

populations of reproductively active Dichocoenia colonies in

affected areas may have long-term consequences on

recruitment and coral cover of this species.

EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTAL

FACTORS ON THE CELL-SPECIFIC DENSITY OF

SYMBIOTIC DINOFLAGELLATES.

Ferrier-Pagès C.*, Allemand D., Shick M, Hoegh-Guldberg

O., Muscatine L. Observatoire Océanologique Européen,

Centre Scientifique de Monaco, Av. Saint-Martin, 98000

Monaco

Symbiotic dinoflagellates are abundant in the endoderm cells

of marine anthozoans and play an important role in the

nutrition of their host and the primary productivity of the

communities in which they reside. The standing stock of these

dinoflagellates in a given host is most often characterized in

terms of areal or protein-specific density. The changes in

standing stock can also be described in terms of the cell

specific density (CSD) which is the number of dinoflagellates

contained in a given host cell. We investigated the effects of

different environmental factors on the CSD in the scleractinian

coral Stylophora pistillata. CSD was measured during a series

of conditions including separate nitrogen (ammonium and

nitrate) and iron enrichment as well as under the influence of

increased levels of ultra-violet radiation (UV). Control

conditions were also performed. In the control corals, host

cells containing a single dinoflagellate predominate (singlet),

followed in decreasing frequency by those containing two

(doublets), three (triplets) and up to six cells. The average CSD

for control corals was 1.4 ± 0.2 (mean ± standard error). The

enrichment of seawater with nitrogen or iron as well as the

increase in the UV levels resulted in a dramatic increase in the

CSD (10 to 30% compared to a control value), mostly due to

an increase in the doublets and triplets. The potential

consequences of environmentally induced increases in CSD in

tropical anthozoans include decreased cell-specific

photosynthesis and decreased rates of calcification.

PICO- AND NANOPLANKTON PREDATION BY THE

ZOOXANTHELLATE CORAL STYLOPHORA

PISTILLATA.

Ferrier-Pagès C.*, Denis Allemand, Jean-Pierre Gattuso,

Jean Jaubert and Fereidoun Rassoulzadegan.

* Observatoire Océanologique Européen, Centre

Scientifique de Monaco, Av. Saint Martin, MC 98000

Monaco (Prioncipality), Email: ferrier@unice.fr

The ability of the zooxanthellate coral Stylophora pistillata

to feed on microbes such as bacteria and protozoa has been

investigated under experimental conditions. For this purpose, a

new method was developed to obtain clean cultures of 3 H-thymidine

labeled bacteria and ciliates. Coral colonies were

incubated during 4 h with labeled microbes and appearance of

radioactivity in coral tissues indicated that 7% and 90% of the

labeled bacteria and ciliates were ingested respectively. In

additional experiments, coral colonies were incubated in

medium containing different concentrations of unlabelled

ciliates (200, 500, 800 cells ml -1 ) and were exposed to three

different light levels (0, 80, 250 µmol m -2 s -1 ). Feeding rates

were dependent on prey concentrations and varied between

1.40 and 4.10 x10 4 ciliates for an initial food concentration of

200 and 800 ciliates ml -1 respectively. A plateau was observed

after a total ingestion of 4 x 10 4 ciliates, independent of the

initial prey concentration. Feeding rates were also light

dependent, the amount of carbon ingested during dark

experiments was twice as high as the amount ingested during

light experiments. This result suggests that the food capture

may be complementary to the autotrophic nutrition, with a

supply of nitrogen, phosphorus and vitamins..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

307

COMMUNITY STRUCTURE, ECOMORPHOLOGY

AND FEEDING OF INTERTIDAL FISHES FROM THE

FERNANDO DE NORONHA ARCHIPELAGO,

NORTHEASTERN, BRAZIL (PERCIFORMES:

GOBIOIDEI, BLENNIOIDEI)

Figueiredo Mendes, Liana de* *Zool. Dept., IBUSP, São

Paulo, SP, Brazil. CEP 05422-970, CP 11461 Email:

limendes@usp.br

A major component of the high species diversity in tropical

Western Atlantic coral reef fishes communities are the small,

cryptic, sedentary species such as the blennies and gobies. The

Fernando de Noronha Archipelago, situated in northeastern

Brazil, houses five Gobioidei (Gobiidae) species and eight

Blenioidei species (Labrisomidae, Blenniidae, Tripterygidae).

These fishes were studied with the main focus being the

relationship between community structure, ecomorphology and

feeding. Transects were made through visual census in the

field for the analysis of community structure, with a total of

490 samples, each 2 x 2 m. The species and units samples were

ordered in function of environmental gradients, using

multivariety analysis (PCA and CCA).The ordination diagrams

indicated the association type between the species and

substratum and these associations can be related to the feeding

and defense strategies. In the ecomorphology analysis, the

corporal form of the fish can be interpreted as indicative of the

fishes’ behavior and its adaptations to the habitat. The results

obtained on community structure and ecomorphology were

interpreted together, considering the obvious relationship

among the approaches used and the fact that the

ecomorphological associations are repeated in the community

structure diagrams. In the analysis of the species’ diet,

calculations were made of niche overlap on the values of

percentile composition. The high indexes found for niche

overlap can be minimized analyzing differences in the space

and temporary distribution.Finally, the present study seeks to

understand these intertidal fishes, a fundamental component of

the ecological sea web, specialized in facing the oscillations of

this turbulent ecosystem.

HISTORICAL BIOGEOGRAPHY OF THE SHRIMP

GENUS PONTONIA, (CRUSTACEA, PONTONIINAE)

WITH EMPHASIS ON INDO-PACIFIC SPECIES.

Fransen C.H.J.M.*. Nationaal Natuurhistorisch Museum –

Naturalis, Postbus 9517, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands.

Email: fransen@naturalis.nnm.nl

Species of the genus Pontonia occur in tropical and

subtropical waters around the world. They associate with

ascidians and molluscs. The phylogeny and biogeography of

the 26 presently recognised species have been analysed.

Analysis was performed using PAUP and McClade software.

Characters in which the apomorphic state is a reduction of a

structure (an adaptation to the associative life-style) were

avoided to keep homoplasy indices low. The basal dichotomy

splits the Indo-West Pacific from the Atlantic and East Pacific

species. Within the latter group the successive dichotomy

divides the species in a mollusc- and an ascidian-associated

group. The rather recent isolation of West and East Atlantic

and East Pacific populations can be found high in the tree. As

far as known the Indo-West Pacific species are all ascidian

associates except for two associated with molluscs. These two

mollusc-associated species are not closely related, neither are

their hosts, indicating a separate introduction to the mollusc

host.

FISH LARVAE FROM THE JORDANIAN COAST OF

THE GULF OF AQABA- RED SEA.

Froukh, T.*. *Marine Science Station (Mss), *University

Of Jordan, P.O. Box 195, Aqaba, Jordan. email:

TAWFIQFE@YAHOO.COM

Gulf of Aqaba the Northeast branch of the Red Sea.

Characterised by extensive fringing reefs, which provide wide

range of niches. Fishes are dominant group of coral Fauna with

regard to the both biomass and diversity. Despite the Gulf of

Aqaba Ichthyofauna is quite well known there was few studies

on the fish larvae in the Gulf and no previous studies in the

Jordanian Coast. Light traps were used to collect fish larvae for

one-year cycle (weekly) from May 1999 to May 2000.

Morphometric and meristic characters with the help of double

staining and radiographic techniques were taken to identify the

samples using the Indo-Pacific literatures. The present study

indicated 32 genera belonging to 22 families and 11 species

out of the 32 genera were positively identified. Clupiedae,

Apogonidae, Pomacentridae and Blennidae are the most

dominant families in the study.

SPECIES-AREA CURVE OF SOME CORAL

COMMUNITIES IN SOUTHWESTERN JAPAN.

Fujioka, Y*. *National Research Institute of Fisheries

Science, 6-1-21 Sanbashi-St., Kochi 780-8010 JAPAN.

Email: fujioka@affrc.go.jp

Twelve representative hermatypic coral communities were

investigated by means of a large quadrat method of 50 m X 50

m around Ishigaki Island, southwestern Japan, in order to

compare the community structure and species diversity. The

coral coverage was 5.1-89.8 %, in which the highest one was

observed in the Acropora digitifera community on the outer

reef flat. Totals of ranging from 31 to 132 species were

recorded in each community. Coral species diversity increased

from the coastal side to the reef margin through the reef flat,

was highest at the Acropora hyacinthus and the Mycedium-Oxypora

complex communities on the reef slope of

approximately 5-15 m depth, and began to decline below 15 m

depth. Ramous Acropora and Montipora species formed

diverse communities consisting of several allied species of the

same genera, while Galaxea astreata, Leptoseris gardineri and

Heliopora coerulea formed less diverse communities

predominantly consisting of one or a few species only. Coral

colonies distributed with more or less aggregated patterns, in

which approximately 10 % species of each community were

present in 1 m 2 quadrat. The species-area curve was

approximated to logarithmic functions for each community..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

308

CARBON SOURCE FOR CORAL CALCIFICATION

AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Furla, Paola *, Isabelle Durand & Denis

Allemand*Observatoire Océanologique Européen, Centre

Scientifique de Monaco, Avenue Saint-Martin, MC-98000

MONACO Email: Denis.Allemand@unice.fr

Sources and mechanisms of inorganic carbon transport for

scleractinian coral calcification and photosynthesis have been

studied by using a double labelling technique with H 14 CO3 and

45 Ca. Independently of lighting conditions, the major source of

dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) for calcification is the

metabolic CO2 (70-75 % of total CaCO3 deposition), while

only 25-30 % originated from the external medium (sea water

carbon pool). Sea water DIC is transferred from the external

medium to the coral skeleton by two different pathways: from

sea water to the coelenteron, the passive paracellular pathway

is largely sufficient while a DIDS-sensitive transcellular

pathway is likely present to cross calicoblastic cells.

Independently of the source, an anion exchanger performs the

secretion of DIC toward the site of calcification. Concerning

DIC supply for symbiotic Dinoflagellates photosynthesis, the

presence of a DIC pool within the tissues was demonstrated.

The size of this pool increases by 39-fold within 3 hours upon

illumination. Passive DIC equilibration through oral tissues

between sea water and the coelenteric cavity is insufficient to

supply this DIC pool suggesting that there is an active

transepithelial absorption for photosynthesis sensitive to DIDS,

EZ and iodide sea water as demonstrated in sea anemone.

These results confirm the presence of CO2-concentrating

mechanisms in coral cells. This tissue pool is however not used

as a source for calcification since no significant lag phase in

the incorporation of external sea water DIC was measured.

PALAEOCLIMATE DYNAMICS: EXPLORING THE

CORAL RECORD

Gagan, M.K. * , Ayliffe, L.K., Hantoro, W.S., Hopley, D.,

Lynch, H.S., McCulloch, M.T. and Sieh, K. Research

School of Earth Sciences, The Australian National

University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia. Email:

Michael.Gagan@anu.edu.au

Massive corals growing in the reef ecosystems of the tropics

provide some of the richest palaeoclimate archives in the

world. Seasonally resolved palaeoclimate data are essential for

reconstructing dynamic climate changes on time-scales that are

immediately relevant to society. The purpose of this poster is

to demonstrate the remarkable ability of corals to record

climate processes that are closely linked to the annual cycle.

We are developing a multi-proxy approach (d 18 O, Sr/Ca, d

13 C,

d

14 C) to coral-based palaeoclimatology that is revealing

surprisingly accurate, detailed records of the following

climatic processes:

· The seasonal expression of the ENSO in the tropical

western Pacific;

· The seasonal dynamics of the Asian-Australian monsoon;

· The seasonal magnitude of surface-ocean evaporation;

· Wind-induced coastal upwelling and changes in

atmospheric circulation;

· Volcanic aerosol-induced ocean cooling and reduced solar

irradiance.

We will first present fortnightly resolved data sets for modern

corals that have been calibrated with instrumental data

(temperature, rainfall, salinity, wind velocity, solar irradiance)

to demonstrate the accuracy of the proxy records. We will

then present data sets extracted from fossil corals (8 ka to

present) that reveal subtle (but important) changes in the

palaeoclimate dynamics of the past.

A BIOGEOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF PARASITIC

GASTROPODS AND THEIR CORAL HOSTS IN THE

INDO-WEST PACIFIC.

Gittenberger, A., B.W. Hoeksema* & E. Gittenberger.

Nationaal Natuurhistorisch Museum / Naturalis, Postbus

9517,

2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands. Email

Hoeksema@naturalis.nnm.nl

Little is known of the cause and maintenance of the high

level of biodiversity at the central Indo-Pacific. Two main

factors have been distinguished: (1) many Indo-West Pacific

species have, vast wide-spread distributions that overlap in the

Indo-Malayan Triangle of maximum diversity; and (2) many

species have complex symbiotic and parasitic relationships.

However, the evidence for these hypotheses is scant and the

details are unclear. In the first case, how can gene flow be

maintained over such long distances in putatively widespread

species, whose pelagic larvae are nonetheless relatively short-lived?

And in the second case, is it true that symbiotic

relationships among marine organisms lead to co-evolution,

co-speciation, and hence elevated biodiversity? Mushroom

corals (Fungiidae) and their parasitic gastropod snails

(Epitoniidae and Coralliophilidae) are ideally suited to answer

these questions. Understanding the population genetics and

evolutionary history of these animals will reveal: (1) whether

gene flow and the integrity of widespread species are

maintained across the Indo-Pacific; (2) to what degree the

snails and their coral hosts are co-evolving; and (3) whether

the historical biogeography and geologic timing of

reconstructed speciation events can shed light on the

evolutionary mechanisms that have led to the present diversity.

We plan to sequence multiple DNA markers for these

mushroom corals and their gastropod parasites so as to

reconstruct the historical phylogeny of host-parasite pairs and

to understand the population genetics of widespread species.

SITE- AND DEPTH-SPECIFIC VARIABILITY IN THE

CHEMISTRY OF THE CARIBBEAN SPONGE

PLAKORTIS SP.

Gochfeld D.J. * , Marc Slattery, Bonnie A. Avery and Mark

T. Hamann. Department of Pharmacognosy, University of

Mississippi, University, MS 38677-1848 USA. Email:

deborahg@olemiss.edu

In many parts of the Caribbean, sponges form a major

component of the exposed coral reef fauna. Many of these

sponges are able to persist in these exposed habitats by virtue

of their chemical defenses against diverse predators. Sponges

of the genus Plakortis contain a diversity of biologically-active

secondary metabolites, and are extracts of these sponges are

deterrent to Caribbean reef fishes. We collected individuals of

the sponge Plakortis sp. from various sites and depths along

the north coast of Jamaica, in the Bahamas, and on the barrier

reef in Belize. Chromatographic fingerprints indicated

variation in the chemical profiles of sponges from the two

locations, as well as from different sites and depths within

those locations. We are presently testing the hypothesis that

variability in chemical constituents of this sponge is the result

of differential predation regimes; spongivorous fishes are

virtually absent from Jamaican reefs but are abundant on

Bahamian and Belizean reefs..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

309

INFRALITTORAL MALACOFAUNA BIODIVERSITY

ON THE NORTH COAST OF QUINTANA ROO,

MEXICO.

Gonzalez, Alicia *, Torruco, Daniel; and Axis, Javier.

*CINVESTAV-IPN Laboratory of Coral Reef, Center for

Research and Advances Studies, A.P. 73 Cordemex, 97310

Merida, Yucatan, Mexico. Email:

alitor@mda.cinvestav.mx

Infralittoral malacofauna was analyzed from three locations

on the coast of Quintana Roo, Mexico: Chemuyil, Akumal and

Pamul. The Linear Transect method, with stations every 2 m,

was used to sample abundance and biomass. Of the 60 total

recorded species, gastropods were the most abundant and

diverse class. The most dominant species in all three locations

was Cittarium pica, and the location with greatest species

richness was Chemuyil. In the cluster analysis, Akumal and

Chemuyil had the greatest affinity and Pamul the least. There

was a marked regional variation in community composition.

High gastropod densities were found in physical habitats with

topographic depressions and biotics with filamentous algae

congregations. Refuge quality for these organisms increased as

a function of slope, and thus biodiversity levels within the

transects increased as they neared the breaking waves zone,

with the highest diversity levels being found at the end of the

transects.

COLONY SIZE, FISSION, AND EFFECT OF RAMETS

TO POPULATION GROWTH IN THE ZOANTHID

Palythoa caribaeorum.

González, M*; & Acosta, A. *Pontificia Universidad

Javeriana Kra. 7#43-82. Depto. Biología, Bogotá,

Colombia. Email: aqua06@altavista.net

Colombian populations of P. caribaeorum were quantified

during the summer of 1998 to determine whether 1) colony

size is related to frequency of fission, 2) there is a minimum

colony size for fission, and 3) ramet production via three

variants of fission affects population growth. A significant

positive linear relationship was found to exist between colony

size and the number of ramets produced per colony (r 2 = 0.2, p

< 0.01). The low correlation coefficient suggested that factors

other than colony size may also control fission frequency. The

minimum size of a colony involved in fission was 4 cm 2 ; the

regression model predicted that the average size of first fission

would be 10 cm 2 area. Fitness in P. caribaeorum may increase

with colony size. 71% of 383 colonies exhibited at least one

variant of fission. Edge Fission was the dominant fission

mode (87%). 273 colonies produced a total of 1474 ramets

during the summer, implying that asexual reproduction is most

likely responsible for a substantial contribution to population

growth in this species.

INDO-PACIFIC DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS IN

STROMBIDAE,

A SINGLE MOMENT IN A DYNAMIC WORLD.

Goud J.* &Gittenberger,E.. *Nationaal Natuurhistorisch

Museum / Naturalis, Postbus 9517, 2300 RA Leiden, The

Netherlands. Goud@naturalis.nnm.nl

Among the five extant genera of the Strombidae, Strombus is

world-wide the most speciose, with appr. 55 species, 40 of

which have an Indo-Pacific distribution. The family contains

about 80 species world-wide. Originating in the Eocene, the

genus Strombus flourished during the Pliocene and early

Pleistocene in the area of Southeast Asia. They are usually

herbivorous or detritus-feeders, living in shallow waters which

are warm enough to support the growth of coral reefs. About

50% of the Strombus species living in the Indo-Malayan

Triangle of maximum diversity area are Indian Ocean species;

70% have (also) a Pacific distribution; 7 endemic species occur

additionally. Based on fossil records there is some knowledge

of historical distribution patterns. These can be combined with

supposed phylogenies, so far largely based on shell

morphologies, resulting in hypotheses on the evolution of this

group. Certainly the diversity peak is partly caused by overlap

of two biogeographic regions. Some species probably

originated from isolated populations at the periphery of their

ranges after which they dispersed by predominant surface

currents and accumulated in the Triangle. Other species might

have originated within the area in localised basins in which

isolation took place during periods of sea level changes. Some

of these hypotheses will be tested against the fossil record,

especially if geologic timing is possible. In general molecular

techniques will be used, both to get estimates of divergence

time ('biological clock' model) and to achieve more reliable

phylogenies.

BRAZILIAN REEF FISHES: SCARCE

DOCUMENTATION AND PREDATORY

EXPLORATION.

Guimarães R.Z.P.*. *Laboratório de Biodiversidade de

Recursos Pesqueiros, NIGP/UFRJ, Depto Biologia

Marinha, Cidade Universitária, 21941-569, Rio de Janeiro,

Brazil. Email: ricardo@biologia.ufrj.br

Although the Brazilian reef-fish fauna has been subject to

study since pre-Linnean times, it stands today as one of the

least known in the world. From Marcgraff's 1648 bizarre

drawings to the present profusion of SCUBA enthusiasts, very

little has changed. Much of the investigation process still

depends upon the curiosity of foreign scientists and native

amateurs. Grants and fellowships are exiguous, as research

programs are irregularly launched by our meager agencies.

From the yat-owner spear-fishermen to the modest hook and

line fishermen, Brazilian reef fishes have been inadvertently

exploited as a food source. Combine that with our long history

of predatory capture of ornamental organisms and unplanned

occupation of the coastal zone and we get the unpleasant

scenery of local extinction of many species. Such silent

destruction has been generally overlooked by both national and

international agencies. The IUCN Red List includes only two

Brazilian endemics and Brazilian official lists of threatened

species are both deficient and ignored. Overexploitation of

Brazilian reef resources are also barely reported in the

scientific literature. As it seems hard to believe that the

national government is capable of financing or planning a

serious research and development program on the subject,

those who depend upon Brazilian reef-fishes are eager to see

some international help..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

310

VICARIANT SCENARIOS UNDERLYING ENDEMISM

IN BRAZILIAN REEF FISHES.

Guimarães R.Z.P.* & Nunan, Gustavo W. *Laboratório

de Biodiversidade de Recursos Pesqueiros, NIGP/UFRJ,

Depto Biologia Marinha, Cidade Universitária, 21941-569,

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Email: ricardo@biologia.ufrj.br

Examination of specimens belonging to several supposedly

Western Atlantic species (e. g. the blenioids Scartella cristata

and Malacoctenus triangulatus and the gobioid Elacatinus

randalli) revealed these are in fact species complex, with

distinct representatives present in the Caribbean, the Brazilian

continental margin, and two insular complexes: Atol das

Rocas-Fernando de Noronha and Trindade-Martin-Vaz.

Appearance of such zones of endemism within the tropical

western Atlantic has been associated with Pleistocene glacial

cycles, when available habitats were compressed and expanded

as the sea level varied. As it has been suggested for reef corals,

the presence of Caribbean-sibling reef-fishes endemic to the

Brazilian coastline is a result of a pleistocenic refugee of a

tertiary fauna. Both insular complexes mentioned are the

outposts of a series of continental-ward sea-mounts that were

exposed in the last glacial peak (16.000 - 14.000 yr B P).

Subsequent rising of the sea level extinguished populations in

the intermediate sea mounts, thus isolating those in the

outposts.

BIOSEDIMENTOLOGY, TAPHONOMY AND

CARBONATE BUDGET FOR HALIMEDA

(CHLOROPHYTA) ON REEFS IN FIJI.

Gussmann O. A.* University of Otago, Department of

Marine Science, PO Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand.

Email: GUSOL423@student.otago.ac.nz

The green algae Halimeda is well known as a producer of

loose carbonate sediment in warm-water reef areas. The

important contribution Halimeda makes to a coral reef

carbonate sediment budget is well documented by geo-sedimentological

evidence, but there is only scant information

available on growth and production rates. Due to the tropical

affinities of Halimeda, its presence in sedimentary deposits has

been used as a diagnostic feature in the interpretation of

palaeoenvironments, but little detailed attention has been paid

to its preservation potential (taphonomy). This poster, based

on Ph.D. research in progress, will present research which

addresses the issues of growth, production and taphonomy

through field and laboratory work in order to define the

important processes in the carbonate sediment budget of

Halimeda on two shallow-water reefs in Fiji. Particular

attention is paid on determining growth and production

parameters (growth rate, turnover rates, potential carbonate

production), and the relative importance of abrasion and

dissolution on preservation potential and taphonomic signature

of several species of Halimeda.

MORPHOLOGIC AND GENETIC VARIATION OF THE

GORGONIAN PSEUDOPTEROGORGIA ELISABETHAE.

Gutiérrez-Rodríguez, Carla * and Howard R. Lasker.

Department Of Biological Sciences, University At Buffalo,

Buffalo, N.Y. 14260, Usa.

Email: CG8@BUFFALO.EDU

Colonies of the Caribbean gorgonian Pseudopterogorgia

elisabethae vary in appearance between and among

populations, and it is unclear whether the observed

morphologic variation is genetically based. Anecdotal

evidence of differences in time of spawning in different sites,

and the fact that the environmental conditions are similar

between sites suggests that the differences may be caused by

factors other than phenotypic plasticity. We compared colony

morphology and genetics of P. elisabethae from three islands

of the Bahamas to determine if the observed pattern of

morphological variation is genetically based. We measured

branchlet length, angle, curvature, internode distance between

branchlets of the same and opposite side as well as total colony

height of individuals from Hog Cay and Abaco. Discriminant

function analysis and principal component analysis identified

differences in morphology of colonies between Abaco and

Hog Cay. DNA sequences of the internal transcribed spacers

(ITS-1 and ITS-2) of the ribosomal DNA multigene family

also varied between islands. Maximum parsimony and distance

analyses of the ITS sequences identified clear differences

between colonies from Hog Cay versus those from Abaco or

San Salvador.

PATTERNS OF CORAL SPAWNING ON

SUBTROPICAL REEFS FROM EASTERN AUSTRALIA.

Harrison, Peter L. * *School of Resource Science and

Management, Southern Cross University, PO Box 157,

Lismore, NSW, 2480 Australia. Email:

pharriso@scu.edu.au

Reproductive patterns have been well documented for many

tropical coral communities, however, little is known about

sexual reproduction in subtropical corals. Accordingly,

patterns of sexual reproduction and spawning periods were

studied at three subtropical reef regions along the East Coast of

Australia. At Moreton Bay (27ºS) in southeast Queensland,

faviid species spawned gametes in December, while other

faviid and mussid species probably spawned in January. Coral

communities at the Solitary Islands (30ºS) in northern NSW

had an extended spawning season. Some Acropora and

Acanthastrea species spawned during the week following the

full moon in February, while other corals still contained

maturing gametes after full moon periods in March and April.

These are the first records of coral reproduction along

subtropical eastern Australia, south of the Great Barrier Reef.

More extensive studies of coral spawning have been completed

at Lord Howe Island (31ºS), located 630 km east of the

subtropical East Coast of Australia. Synchronous multispecific

spawning by a range of Acropora, faviid, and other species

occurred following full moon periods in January and February,

and sometimes resulted in coral spawn slicks. Spawning on

subtropical reefs tended to be less synchronous among species,

and in some cases less synchronous within populations,

compared to the more highly synchronised mass coral

spawning events on the Great Barrier Reef. Furthermore,

spawning periods are delayed compared to the GBR, and

appear to follow the later rise in sea temperatures down the

East Coast. These data show that many subtropical corals are

capable of successful reproduction, and may contribute

significantly to local recruitment..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

311

TECHNIQUES FOR DETERMINING THE IMPACTS

OF NATURAL AND POLLUTION STRESSORS ON

SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS IN

SCLERACTINIAN CORALS.

Harrison P.L.* *School of Resource Science and

Management, Southern Cross University, PO Box 157,

Lismore, NSW, 2480 Australia. Email:

pharriso@scu.edu.au

Sexual reproduction processes have a narrower tolerance to

natural and pollution stressors than other life functions such as

growth and survival. Therefore, studies of the effects of stress

on critically important reproductive processes can provide

sensitive indicators of sublethal impacts of natural and

pollution stress on reef corals, which are key elements of coral

reef ecosystems. Knowledge of predictable gamete spawning

and planulae release periods in many corals provides access to

vast numbers of spawned gametes, embryos and larvae for

experimental purposes. This paper details a recently developed

method for quantifying the impacts of stressors on fertilization

success in broadcast spawning scleractinian reef corals.

Spawned coral gametes are collected, groups of ~100 eggs are

photographed and placed into replicate glass vials, sperm

density is adjusted to quantify any decrease or increase in

fertilization response, and aliquots of sperm are added to

another set of replicate glass vials. The replicate vials of eggs

or sperm are exposed to various treatments including control

conditions and a range of altered water quality or pollutant

conditions for 30 minutes. Eggs and sperm are then combined,

and after a 5 hour incubation, the percentage fertilization and

normal embryo development are determined.

SPAWNING PATTERNS AND THE EFFECTS OF

STRESS ON REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS IN REEF

CORALS FROM KUWAIT.

Harrison P.L.*, Alhazeem, Shaker H.; Alsaffar, Adel H.;

and Al-Sabah, Iman. *School of Resource Science and

Management, Southern Cross University, PO Box 157,

Lismore, NSW, 2480 Australia. Email:

pharriso@scu.edu.au

Despite the harsh environmental conditions in the northern

Arabian Gulf, scleractinian reef corals from Kuwait are

capable of successful reproduction. The coral species studied

exhibited an extended spawning pattern, with Acropora

arabensis and Acropora downingi colonies spawning gametes

during May. Spawning began prior to the full moon in May,

with more extensive spawning observed during the week after

the full moon. Thousands of Acropora larvae were reared from

spawned gametes, and some of these larvae survived for more

than one month. One A. arabensis larva was able to settle

successfully four weeks after spawning, hence there is

considerable potential for dispersal of Acropora larvae within

the Arabian Gulf. Colonies of the brain coral Platygyra

daedalea spawned synchronously mainly 4-5 nights after the

June full moon, while colonies of Porites and Favia species

probably spawned in August or September. An experiment on

the effects of altered salinity on fertilization success of A.

downingi gametes indicated that the elevated salinity around

Kuwait’s coral reefs does not inhibit fertilization, whereas

fertilization rates were reduced at 27 ppt, and blocked at 21 ppt

and below. An experiment on the effects of the water

accommodated fraction of Kuwait crude oil on settlement rates

of A. arabensis larvae, showed that larval settlement was

significantly reduced at relatively low hydrocarbon

concentrations of 0.1-0.3 ppm, while larval settlement was

blocked at 1 ppm.

EFFECTS OF SEDIMENTATION ON GENE

EXPRESSION OF THE SCLERACTINIAN CORAL

POCILLOPORA DAMICORNIS.

Hashimoto K.*, Eiko Kayano, Toshiaki Kayano, Takuro

Shibuno, Osamu Abe and Yoshitake Takada. Ishigaki

Tropical Station, Seikai National Fisheries Research

Institute, Fukai-Ohta 148-446, Ishigaki, Okinawa 907-0451,

Japan. Email: hashimot@snf-its.affrc.go.jp

Differential display was used to identify specific coral genes

induced or suppressed under sediment loading. Four-centimeter

branches of the scleractinian coral Pocillopora

damicornis were exposed to 500ppm of reddish silt-clay. Total

RNA was extracted from the branches using a commercially

available AGPC-based RNA extraction kit. Following the

DNase treatment, first-strand cDNA synthesis was performed.

The cDNA was then amplified in a PCR mixture containing an

arbitrary primer (10-mers). The PCR products were visualized

on an 8% denaturing polyacrylamide gel. There were several

bands appearing only in the control or in the sediment-treated

sample, which imply that sedimentation changes the pattern of

gene expression of the coral. The sequences and deduced

functions of these candidate bands will be discussed.

ORGANIC CARBON FLUX IN SHIRAHO REEF

(ISHIGAKI ISLAND, JAPAN).

Hata H.*, Setsuko Kudo, Hiroya Yamano and Hajime

Kayanne. Japan Science and Technology Corporation, 113-

0033 Japan. Email: hata@eps.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp

The studies of coral reef productivity have been conducted in

many sites. Recent results indicate that many reefs have excess

community production of organic materials (i.e. P/R>1.0). On

the other hands, few data on the fluxes of organic materials are

available at present and little is known about the fate of

organic materials produced on the coral reef. We studied

organic carbon flux together with community production rate

in Shiraho reef (Ishikgaki Islands, Japan) during 21-23, Sep.

1998. Estimation of daily community production rate was

carried out using the data of total inorganic carbon (TIC) and

total alkalinity (TA) in seawater during slack-water period,

with the data of photon flux density and water depth. The

concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and

particulate organic carbon (POC) in seawater generally

increased during slack-water period both in daytime and

nighttime, attributable to exudation of organic materials by the

reef organisms. We estimate that about 60 % of excess

community production of organic carbon are released to water

column and the rest (40 %) are stored as biomass..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

312

ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC OBSERVATIONS ON

THE SETTLEMENT OF ACROPORA PLANULAE.

Hayashibara T.* Iwao, K.; Sano, M.; Minagawa, M.;

Tamaki, M.; Fukuoka, K.. *Ishigaki Tropical Station,

Seikai National Fisheries Research Institute, 148 Fukai-Ohta,

Ishigaki, Okinawa 907-0451, Japan. Email:

hayat@snf-its.affrc.go.jp

In order to understand the mechanism of larval settlement,

laboratory-reared planula larvae of reef-building corals

Acropora spp. were examined by electron microscope prior to

and immediately after the settlement. The surface of free-swimming

larva was uniformly ciliated and apical tuft of

elongate flagella was not observed. At least two types of cnida

(basitrichous isorhiza and spirocyst) were observed in the

ectodermal layer. Particularly the spirocysts were found on the

surface of aboral region where a larva attached with

substratum, and also on the substratum vicinity of the settled

larva. Thus the spirocysts in Acropora planula might be used

for the settlement, along with the gland cells which secrete the

adhesive substances.

GORGONIAN AND SCLERACTINIAN CORAL

COMMUNITIES OF THE TURKS AND CAICOS

ISLANDS.

Hoshino, K.*; Manfrino, C; & Riegl, B.. *Bren School of

Environmental Science and Management, University of

California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-5131.

Email: khoshino@bren.ucsb.edu

Shallow-water (4-21m) coral communities were surveyed at

24 sites spanning over 100km of reef around the Turks and

Caicos Islands (TCI) in August 1999. Line transects were used

to survey scleractinian and gorgonian communities in the

vicinity of Grand Turk, Providenciales, South Caicos, West

Caicos and the Mouchoir Bank. A total of 26 scleractinian

species among 18 genera and 11 gorgonian genera were

recorded in 68 transects. Scleractinian coral species diversity

(H') was 1.77 on average, ranging from 1.04 to 2.29.

Comparison among different locations revealed that

Providenciales and West Caicos had higher scleractinian

diversity than other locations. The number of Gorgonian

genera was also highest in West Caicos, but overall

scleractinian and gorgonian diversity did not show a

correlative relationship. Q-mode cluster analyses of

scleractinians, gorgonians and the whole coral communities all

showed the formation of distinct communities separated

mainly by locations (islands). However, scleractinians and

gorgonians showed a somewhat different way of clustering:

gorgonian communities were characterized more strongly by

the location, suggesting overall environmental conditions to be

an important determinant in gorgonian communities. On the

other hand, water depth seemed to play an important role in

structuring scleractinian communities. These results implicitly

support the hypothesis that different factors are responsible for

structuring scleractinians and gorgonians communities.

HAWAIIAN PELAGIC PORTHOLE.

Hughes, Marc*. *University of Hawaii at Hilo, P.O. Box

390414 Kailua Kona, Hawaii 96739. Email

marchugh@hawaii.edu

The diversity of marine organisms surrounding the Hawaiian

Islands is limited due to the archipelagos’ isolation. A

photographic diary of animals that inhabit the marine

environment of Hawaii reveals a variety of specialized food

webs. The nekton that navigate in the pelagic areas of Hawaii

include cetaceans such as the humpback whale (Megaptera

novaeangliae) and Hawaiian spinner dolphins (Stenella

longirostris). The ocean currents also carry with them an

amazing menagerie of zooplankton. Many types of

zooplankton make a vertical migration from the deeper waters

of the mesopelagic region at night. The zooplankton

represented by these photographic images reveal relatively

unknown secrets about the lives of these animals. Many types

of gelatinous zooplankton are hosts to symbiotic crustacean

larvae. Certain larval fish display trailing dorsal and anal fin

rays (Trachipteridae family), that are a mirror image of

poisonous siphonophore (Physophora hydrostatica) tentacles,

to discourage hunting predators. The bioluminescence,

mimicry, symbiotic relationships and food webs associated

with these animals’ rivals that of any other ecological niche.

DEGRADATION OF ORGANIC CARBON IN CORAL

REEF SEAWATER.

Ikeda Y * , Hiroshi Hata , Kimio Fukami, Hajime Kayanne.

Hazama Technical Research Institute, Tsukuba, Japan. E-mail

yikeda@hazama.co.jp

Seawater of Shiraho Reef on Ishigaki Island, Okinawa Japan

was incubated with initial volume of 10 litters. Degradation of

organic carbon in the coral reef seawater was followed for

about three months in the dark statical condition by monitoring

the concentration of organic carbon, nutrients, cell density and

biomass of bacteria etc. in the seawater. The concentration of

dissolved organic carbon (DOC) gradually decreased

remaining the refractory gradients. The ratio of labile organic

carbon to total organic one (TOC) was 19 to 31 percents in the

reef water and 31 percents in the offshore. The rates of particle

organic carbon (POC) to TOC were 3.0-4.6% at the initial

stage and 0.6-1.0% after incubation. This suggests that labile

organic matter is mainly composed of POC. On the other hand,

the concentration of inorganic nutrients was increased

gradually with the decomposition of the organic matter. In

terms of the cell density and cell biomass, they became at the

top within one day, however, then slowly decreased until less

than the initial value..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

313

COMPOSITION AND DISTRIBUTION OF

RELATIVELY FINE-GRAINED SEDIMENTS OFF

MIYAKO-JIMA, RYUKYU ISLANDS, JAPAN.

Iryu, Yasufumi*; Ogoshi, Takayuki; and Tsuji, Yoshihiro.

*Institute of Geology and Paleontology, Graduate School of

Science, Tohoku Univ., Sendai 980-8578, Japan. Email:

iryu@dges.tohoku.ac.jp

Examined were composition and distribution of relatively

fine-grained (< 4 mm in diameter) sediments in reef to shelf

areas off Miyako-jima, Ryukyu Islands, Japan. The sediments

from selected 50 sites were embedded in an epoxy resin and

then made into thin sections. Composition of organic skeletons

(benthic foraminifera, planktonic foraminifera, corals,

bryozoans, molluscs, coralline algae, Halimeda, and other

bioclasts) and intra-/extraclasts were determined by point

counting method. Eight sedimentary facies were discriminated

by Q-mode cluster analysis. They are: coralline algal-molluscan

facies (no particular environment), coral facies

(reef), intra-/extraclast facies (shelf edge to upper shelf slope),

benthic foraminiferal gravelly facies (outer shelf), benthic

foraminiferal sandy facies (reef to inner shelf), planktonic

foraminiferal facies (shelf slope), fine bioclast facies (shallow

(< 50 m) restricted environment and deep (> 200 m) shelf

slope), and coarse bioclast facies (shelf to upper shelf slope).

Our investigation will provide a useful basis to determine

paleoenvironment of ancient reef deposits such as Pleistocene

Ryukyu Group.

GROWTH AND FORMATION OF Vibrio Shiloi VBNC

STATE INSIDE THE CORAL EPIDERMIS.

Israely, T.*, E. Banin, Y. Loya And E. Rosenberg. *Faculty

Of Life Science, Tel-Aviv University, Israel. Email:

EUEQENE@CCSG.TAU.AC.IL

The causative agent of bleaching of the coral Oculina

patagonica along the shores of Israel in the Mediterranean Sea

is the bacterium Vibrio shiloi. The bacterium becomes virulent

at elevated temperatures, adhering to the coral through a

specific receptor. After V. shiloi adheres to the coral, the

bacteria penetrates into the epidermis as observed by electron

microscope and the use of specific anti - V. shiloi antibodies.

Using the gentamicin invasion assay, we were able to measure

the kinetics and extent of V. shiloi penetration into the coral.

Shortly after penetration, the bacteria are converted to a viable

but not culturable (VBNC) state. Although V. shiloi can not be

detected by the usual plating techniques they can be detected

by fluorescent microscopy using a polyclonal antibody and a

viability kit (LIVE/DEAD Kit) that confirms that they are alive

inside the coral tissue. The bacteria multiply, reaching an

intracellular concentration of ca. 10 8 per cm 3 . The high

concentration of intracellular bacteria, close to the

zooxanthella, should facilitate the targeting of the V. shiloi

toxins. One implication of the VBNC state is that isolation of

other bleaching pathogens may require techniques other then

direct plating on agar media.

INDUCTION OF METAMORPHOSIS WITH LW-AMIDE

NEUROPEPTIDES IN THE GENUS

ACROPORA.

Iwao, Kenji*, Fujisawa, Toshitaka and Hatta, Masayuki.

*Akajima Marine Science Laboratory, 179 Aka, Zamami-son,

Shimajiri-gun, Okinawa, Japan. Email: address:

iwao@amsl.or.jp

Coral larvae may sense appropriate environments and start

metamorphosis by converting external signals into internal

cues. A family of neuropeptides, LW-amides, can induce

metamorphosis in some hydrozoans, and are thought as

internal metamorphosis cues with hormonal properties. We

tested various peptides isolated from freshwater hydra for

metamorphosis inducing activity on coral larvae in culture.

Three members of the LW-amide family peptides induced

metamorphosis of acroporids in a concentration dependent

manner. Metamorphosis processes seemed normal. One of the

active peptides was further investigated. The planulae were

irreversibly entered the metamorphosis pathway by incubation

with the peptide for more than 4hrs. The peptide was effective

only for Acropora but not for the other genera so far tested. It

is still unclear whether the genus specific action is due to

differences of metamorphosis mechanisms or structure of

active peptides. The LW-amide motif was detected by

immunohistochemistry in neurons in acroporid's planulae.

LW-amide neuropeptides may act as internal messengers to

start metamorphosis also in Acropora. This finding potentially

provides application of LW-amides to produce primary polyps

for reconstruction of reefs by transplantation.

THE MICROBIAL ECOLOGY OF BIOHERMS IN THE

TIMOR SEA.

Johnson, Johanna E. *. *Department of Tropical Studies &

Geography, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld, 4810,

Australia. Email: johannaj@gbrmpa.gov.au

The northwest shelf of Australia is a region within the Timor

Sea known for its petroleum reserves. Recent geological

investigations have revealed carbonate knolls postulated to be

of biological origin. The bioherms have been investigated for

their diversity of invertebrate organisms and found to support

large communities of hard and soft corals, algae and bryozoans

at great depth. The microbial ecology of sediments at three

sites on the northwest shelf, Pee Shoal, Mermaid Reef and

Scott Reef, were investigated for the presence of hydrocarbon-degrading

bacteria. 246 bacterial isolates were purified from

two sampling trips and 182 of these isolates displayed

preferential growth on hydrocarbon selective media. Isolates

were tested for nutrient specificity using single hydrocarbon

fermentations. Metabolic profiles were constructed using

biochemical testing, fatty acid analysis and metabolic rate

experiments. Three particularly active isolates were also tested

for metal tolerance. 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis of five

strains identified these strains as members of the genera

Sphingomonas, Bacillus, and Microbacterium, one strain as a

member of the Alpha-proteobacteria and another closely

related to the methanogens. These results indicate that the

natural hydrocarbon seepage is locally eutrophicating the area

and supporting a unique assemblage of microbes and higher

invertebrates..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

314

PATCH REEF ISOLATION AFFECTS FISH

ASSEMBLAGE STRUCTURE- A STUDY USING

REPLICATE REEF MODULES.

Jordan, L.K.B.*, D.S. Gilliam, R.L. Sherman and R.E.

Spieler. *Nova Southeastern University Oceanographic

Center, National Coral Reef Institute, Guy Harvey

Research Institute, 8000 North Ocean Drive, Dania Beach,

Florida 33004 USA. Email: JordanL@ocean.nova.edu

To examine the effects of patch reef isolation on fish

assemblage structure, replicate concrete reef modules (1m 3 )

were positioned at the apices of four equilateral triangle

configurations. These four triangular treatments (each with

two replicates) had module isolation distances of: 25m, 15m,

5m, and 0.33m. In order to examine fish abundance and

richness with regard to substrate surface area two additional

treatments: 1) a solitary module and 2) two modules 1/3m

apart, also with two replicates, were deployed and compared

with the 0.33m triangular treatment. Scuba divers censused

fishes monthly, recording the species present, their abundance

and sizes (tl). Statistical analysis on 22 months of ranked data

revealed that the 0.33m triangular treatment yielded the highest

mean abundance and species richness, however, the next

highest abundance and richness values appeared on the 25m

treatment, followed by the 15m and 5m treatments. It appears

that the 0.33m treatment acted as a larger, single patch reef

where as modules in the other triangular treatments performed

as three separate patch reefs negatively interacting with each

other. Examination of treatments differing in substrate surface

area (i.e., Number of modules) revealed a positive, nonlinear

correlation with fish abundance and richness.

TERRIGENOUS INFLUENCE ACROSS THE CENTRAL

GREAT BARRIER REEF SHELF DETECTED FROM

CORAL SKELETAL FLUORESCENCE.

Kan, H.*, Hopley, D., Isdale, P., Rasmussen, C.E. *Faculty

of Education, Okayama University, Okayama 700-8530,

JAPAN. Email: kan@cc.okayama-u.ac.jp

Cross-shelf gradient in terrigenous influence in the central

Great Barrier Reef is examined by fluorescence intensity of

five Porites cores collected from a research transect between

Barnett Patches and Orpheus Island. Fluorescence bands in

coral skeletons show that the river plume and its influence

reached to the outer Great Barrier Reef shelf at the major flood

events of Burdekin River in 1974, 1979, 1981 and 1991. The

fluorescence intensity decreases drastically off the continental

island and then gradually decreases to the middle shelf reef at

each flood event. This gradient conforms to the terrigenous

bottom sedimentation in the Great Barrier Reef lagoon, which

causes another terrigenous influence by resuspension in case of

strong SE trade wind and cyclones. Detected from the

maximum fluorescence intensity, strength of terrigenous

influence at resuspension events is estimated to be around 60%

against the strength at the major flood events.

EFFECTS OF 1997-98 EL-NINO SOUTHERN

OSCILLATION ON CORAL REEF ECHINODERMS

FROM NORTHERN BAHIA, BRAZIL.

Kelmo, Francisco*, & Attril, Martin. *Coral Reef Ecology,

Benthic Ecology Research Group, Department of

Biological Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus,

PL48AA, United Kingdom. Email: fkelmo@plymouth.ac.uk

The present study commenced in 1995 throughout the coral

reefs of Northern Bahia, Brazil. The aim was to assess the

effects of the 1997-98 El-Nino Southern Oscillation on the

structure and composition of the echinoderm community. Two

different reef structures were investigated: (1) Coastal Reefs:

(i) shallow pools and meandering channels from the reef top

(exposed during low tide); (ii) reef walls (6-14 m depth) and

(2) Shallow bank reefs (a few kilometres off the coast, 10-40m

depth range). Annually from 1995-99 (April/May), the

echinoderm community and associated physico-chemical

conditions were assessed. The echinoderms were randomly

quantified with 35 1m 2 quadrats at each site. Twenty-four

species were recorded from all five main classes (Asteroidea,

Ophiuroidea, Echinoidea, Holonthuroidea and Crinoidea).

Their densities were significantly different (ANOVA,

F=31.338, P<0.0001) between pre and post El-Nino years, and

multivariate analysis suggested siginificant changes in

community composition. BIOENV analysis identified turbidity

(r=0.653), mean temperature variance (r=0.641) and cloud

cover (r=0.641) as the main factors best explaining changes in

the community. Most of the asteroid and ophiuroid species

were unrecorded in 1998 and 1999. In contrast, the densities of

Echinometra lucunter and Diadema antillarum (Echinoidea)

increased significantly during and after El-Nino disturbance

(ANOVA, F=57.698, P<0.0001), suggesting that this stressor

had a differential effect on the investigated community.

A SPECIES-LEVEL MOLECULAR PHYLOGENY OF

THE UNICORNFISHES (GENUS: NASO).

Klanten, Selma O. *, Lynne van Herwerden, and Howard

Choat. *James Cook University, Dept. of Marine Biology,

Douglas QLD. 4811, Australia.

Email: Selma.Klanten@jcu.edu.au

The unicornfishes (Genus: Naso) are one of six genera in the

family Acanthuridae. This genus is well established as a basal

clade of the acanthurids which include the genera of

Zebrasoma, Ctenochaetus and Acanthurus. Nuclear (ETS2)

and mitochondrial (16S) genes were sequenced for 8 species of

Naso, 8 species of Acanthurus, and 2 species of Ctenochaetus

and Zebrasoma respectively. Preliminary phylogenetic

relationships were inferred for the Naso and acanthurid genera

from each marker. Morphological characters were mapped

onto the phylogenetic trees and these results are presented..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

315

CORAL-ASSOCIATED BIVALVE PEDUM: HOST

CHOICE, POPULATION DENSITY AND FACIES

INDICATOR.

Kleemann, Karl * & Martin Zuschin, Institute of

Palaeontology, University of Vienna, Geocentre,

Althahnstr. 14, A-1090 Vienna, Austria. Email:

karl.kleemann@univie.ac.at

Pedum spondyloideum occurs in living corals, where it lives

embedded and byssally attached as a facultative borer. The

host-specific Pedum seems to reach extraordinarily high

densities in the northern Red Sea. There, it inhabits a wide

range of host corals from seven families, partly causing intra-specific

competition. In the Northern Bay of Safaga, it was the

most abundant molluscan species >2 cm on reef associated

hard substrata (reef flats, reef slopes, coral carpets, coral

patches, and rock grounds): A total area of 340.5 m_ was

investigated and 2846 molluscan individuals were counted at

68 sample localities ranging from shallow subtidal to 40 m

water depth. Pedum made up >25 % of the total molluscan

content and showed a mean density of 1.6 individuals per m_.

Its distribution, however, is not uniform, but shows a clear

preference for water depth <20 m and areas with high densities

of living massive (e.g. Goniastrea) to foliate corals (e.g.,

Pachyseris). Pedum is preferentially associated with

Montipora spp., followed by Porites and Cyphastrea, while

occurring in fewer numbers in Turbinaria, Pavona, and

Hydnophora. Pedum density ranged within a single host from

1.9 to 18.6 individuals per 100 cm_, occupying up to 12.5 % of

the live coral surface. Pedum density seems to depend on the

amount of available host area and nutrition, rather than specific

hosts. Heavy infestation indicates a rather near-shore locality

with an ample nutrient content suspended in the water. When

corals live longer than the bivalves, the hosts may carry several

generations of Pedum or their traces on the surface and within

the skeleton. Yet, so far no fossil record is known.

ORIGIN AND TRANSPORTATION OF BIOCLASTICS

ON THE REEF FLATS OF SOUTHERN BALI ISLAND,

INDONESIA.

Koba*, M., T. Kaigara, And K. Yoshida. *Department of

History and Geography, Faculty of Letters, Kansai

University, Suita-shi, Osaka, Japan 564-8680. Email:

moto@ipcku.kansai-u.ac.jp

Many structures for beach protection are distributed in the

southern coast of Bali Island, where tourist hotels stand

together in large numbers and coastal erosion is a great distress

to them. Environmental surveys in “Bali beach conservation

project”, were carried out to restore rich beach landscapes here

by the Indonesian government in 1992/93 and 1997/98. Koba

was in charge of aerial photo interpretation and monitoring of

coral and bioclastics on the reef flat then, as requested by

Nippon Koei. Beach nourishment is thought to be most

effective to restore beaches. The following results 1 to 3 stated

in the meeting will contribute to the beach management. 1.The

distributional comparison of sea-weed/sea-grass, living coral,

reefs rock and bioclastics in 1992 and 1997 showed that

coastal structures enhanced turbidity on reef flat for the

duration, and it increased the coverage of sea-weed/sea-grass

considerably. 2.The route of transportation of bioclastics

showed that, although longshore sand drifting often explained

erosion and accretion of beach deposits, most of beaches were

strongly affected by transportation perpendicular to shorelines.

3.The shallow subsurface radiocarbon structure off Kesuma-sari,

Sanur, obtained by a small engine drilling, showed that

the top layer of a relatively broad sand cay was only one meter

thick or so, and the time gap between the top and its

subordinate layers was big.

CORAL COMMUNITIES AND CORAL REEFS OF THE

SEYCHELLES ISLANDS.

Kosmynin V*. *Institute of Paleontology Russian Academy

of Sciences, Moscow, Russia. Email: kosmyninv@cofc.edu

Coral reefs of the Seychelles Republic spread over the vast

area in the Western part of the Indian Ocean between 3º30´S

and 10º30´S, and 46ºE and 58ºE. The study of this area was

conducted in several expeditions of the USSR Academy of

Sciences and Moscow State University in the 1970s and 80s.

Reefs in this region develop in the environment close to

optimal for reef building corals. Coral reefs of northern area

develop in the moderate wave energy condition, while

southern groups of reefs are exposed to waves of high energy

and lie in the area of hurricane tracks. Most of major

morphological types of reefs, including atolls, fringing reefs,

variety of uplifted and submerged reefs, can be found around

the Seychelles. The zonation of reefs is characterized by

asymmetry. In the open oceanic reefs and atolls, windward

slopes are gentle and lack almost all coral growth. Leeward

sides are steep and have high projective cover by reef building

corals. Some atolls like Farquhar possess well-developed algal

ridge and reef-flat on windward side, though others do not

have these relief features. The development of rhodolithes

fields in outer terraces or on the flat of submerged reefs is

another characteristic feature of Seychelles reefs. Numerous

submerged wave-cut forms demonstrate inheritance of major

morphological features from Pleistocene growth. The total list

of reef building corals in Seychelles comes close to 200

species, which is considerably more than the number listed

before.

STEROID LEVELS IN A BI-DIRECTIONAL SEX

CHANGING GOBY.

Kroon* and Munday. NSW Fisheries, Private Bag 1,

Nelson Bay, NSW 2315, Australia.

Email:kroonf@fisheries.nsw.gov.au

The phenomenon of bi-directional sex change in adult

individuals provides an excellent opportunity to study the

physiological mechanisms underlying sex determination and

differentiation in teleosts. In particular, it enables the

relationship between the concentrations of the steroid

hormones and sex change in each direction (ie male to female

and female to male) to be investigated in the same species,

thereby avoiding problems inherent with interspecific

comparisons. In this study, we detect and describe correlations

between steroid concentrations and sexual function in the coral

goby, Gobiodon histrio, a bi-directional sex changer. Sex

change was induced by placing two adult fish of the same sex

on a coral colony. After sex change, we confirmed sex of

individual fish using histology, and examined whole-body

concentrations of the gonadal steroids testosterone (T), 11-

ketotestosterone (11-KT), and 17b-estradiol (17b-E2). Our

results show that T, 11-KT and 17b-E2 are naturally occurring

steroids in G. histrio. We discuss our results in light of recent

theory in reproductive endocrinology..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

316

EFFECTS OF OIL POLLUTANTS ON SURVIVORSHIP

OF LARVAE OF THE SCLERACTINIAN REEF

CORALS ACROPORA TENUIS, GONIASTREA ASPERA

AND PLATYGYRA SINENSIS FROM THE GREAT

BARRIER REEF.

Lane, Alison.* and Harrison, Peter L.. *School of Resource

Science and Management, Southern Cross University, PO

Box 157, Lismore, NSW, 2480 Australia. Email:

pharriso@scu.edu.au

Coral reefs are highly vulnerable to impacts from oil

pollutants due to production, refining and transportation of oil

products in coral reef areas, and the shipping hazards presented

by the reefs themselves. Oil hydrocarbons and dispersants are

known to stress adult reef corals, and adversely affect a range

of reproductive processes in corals. This study examined the

effects of various concentrations of the water accommodated

fraction (WAF) of fuel oil, Ardox 6120 dispersant and

dispersed fuel oil on 3 day old larvae of the faviid corals

Goniastrea aspera and Platygyra sinensis, and 3 and 9 day old

larvae of the branching coral Acropora tenuis. The results

clearly showed that dispersed oil was far more toxic than fuel

oil WAF or dispersant alone to larvae of these species.

Dispersed oil 96-hour LD50 values ranged from 0.6 to 1.5 ppm,

which is far lower than would be likely to occur where an oil

slick had been chemically dispersed in a reef environment. In

contrast, LD 50 values ranged from 3.8 to 5.9 ppm for fuel oil

WAF, and 8.3 to 25.4 ppm for dispersant alone. Both dispersed

oil and dispersant alone generally resulted in very high larval

mortality at low concentrations within 12 to 24 hours of

dosing, whereas mortality in larvae exposed to fuel oil WAF

was generally not evident for at least 48 or 96 hours after

exposure. These findings have important implications for oil

spill management in coral reef areas, and indicate that the use

of chemical dispersants during coral spawning periods would

be likely to result in high rates of larval mortality in a range of

scleractinian coral species.

REGIONAL VARIATION IN INTERNAL TIDAL

FORCING ON FLORIDA, BAHAMAS, AND JAMAICAN

REEFS.

Leichter, James J.* Department of Biology, MS #34,

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA

02543 USA, jleichter@whoi.edu

Forcing by internal tides and broken internal waves

represents an important mechanism of cross shelf transport and

delivery of cool, subsurface water to coral reefs throughout the

Florida Keys, USA. Near bottom hydrographic time series

data collected at 10 to 35 m depth between 1991 and 2000

show repeated arrival in summer of cool water fronts. Cooling

events are characterized by sharp temperature drops (2 - 8 ºC

within 1 - 20 min), increased salinity, increased concentrations

of dissolved nutrients and chlorophyll a, and the onset of rapid

upslope flows. One to several such events can occur per day

with typical durations of one to four hours. Thus, a significant

portion of overall hydrographic variability on Florida Keys

reef is concentrated at daily time scales. This high frequency

variability may have important impacts on a range of benthic

ecological processes including larval transport, suspended

particle delivery, and nutrient uptake rates for corals and

benthic algae. By contrast, comparative studies on reef slopes

in the Exuma Keys, Bahamas, and on the north coast of

Jamaica show much more constant oceanographic conditions

with variability concentrated at seasonal but not at daily time

scales. Differences between Florida, Bahamas and Jamaica

reefs result from differences in regional hydrographic regimes

as well as local reef morphology and slope angles.

EVALUATION OF THE USE OF OOCYTE NUCLEUS

SIZE ON STUDIES OF CORAL REPRODUCTION.

Lins de Barros Monica M., Clovis B. Castro and Débora O.

Pires. Museu Nacional, Universidade Federal do Rio de

Janeiro, Departamento de Invertebrados, Quinta da Boa

Vista, s/n, São Cristóvão, 20940-040, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Email: mlbarros@acd.ufrj.br

This paper proposes the use of measurements of nucleus axis

to evaluate the reproductive cycle development of corals,

instead of oocyte axis, which is most used on this studies. A

correlation analysis between the variation of oocytes and

nuclei mean sizes throughout the oogenesis of Siderastrea

stellata showed a high positive coeficient (r = 0,92). Therefore

both structures could be useful to illustrate and quantify the

development of the reproductive cycle. However, in some

cases, oocytes do not seem to be an adequate quantitative

variable, due to microanatomical characteristics which are not

found in the nucleus. These include: 1) oogonia are

characterized by an agglomeration of cytoplasmatic

components, without clearly defined limits, which are difficult

to measure; 2) by the end of the oogenesis, mature oocytes

ofme coral species may present extremely irregular shapes,

which makes it difficult to determine which axis should be

measured; 3) in most coral species oocytes are ovoid in shape,

with a potential high variability of any measurements taken

from histologi sections. This last feature was tested on five

coral species (S. stellata, Mussismilia braziliensis, M. harttii,

M. hispida and

PLEISTOCENE AND RECENT CORAL AND MARINE

INVERTEBRATE COMMUNITIES IN THE SOUTHERN

BAJA CALIFORNIA PENINSULA: CHANGE OF

BIODIVERSITY THROUGH TIME.

Lopez-Forment M.* Schwennicke T. and Hickman C.

Integrative Biology, University of California Berkeley.

3060 VLSB, Berkeley, CA 94720. Email:

mforment@socrates.berkeley.edu

Pleistocene fossil records found in marine terraces are an

excellent database from which to gauge responses of coral

communities to global changes. The Mexican Eastern Pacific

area contains well studied marine invertebrates and the Gulf of

California is one of the richest zones in coral species diversity

in the tropical eastern Pacific (12 species, 5 genera) (Reyes-Bonilla,

1990). Pleistocene marine invertebrate communities in

Southern Baja California provide a good ecological baseline

with which to compare modern marine invertebrate and coral

communities. Several well- preserved marine terraces at Cabo

Pulmo and near La Paz provide data on what communities

looked like in the Pleistocene. Preliminary transect information

from Pleistocene deposits indicate a biozonation of marine

invertebrates on different terraces. Terraces were found to be

dominated by a molluscan-rhodolith associations (i.e. Chione,

Pinctata and Lithophyllum), an echinoderm associations

(Encope, Echinometra and Diadema) or coral associations

(Pocillopora, Porites and Astrangia). Fossil data are to be

compared to Recent marine invertebrate assemblages in the

southern Gulf of California to determine the changes in species

composition and ecological interactions amongst communities,

since the late Pleistocene..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

317

FAUNAL TURNOVER AND EXTINCTION

SELECTIVITY OF EASTERN PACIFIC CORAL

GENERA IN THE CENOZOIC.

López Pérez R.A.* and H. Reyes Bonilla. *Universidad del

Mar. Ap. Postal 47, CP 70902. Puerto Angel, Oaxaca,

México. Email: alopez@angel.umar.mx

In spite of recent advances in the knowledge of the

biogeography of reef coral communities of the eastern Pacific,

there is still a patent lack o studies on fossil communities of

this region. We made an exhaustive bibliographic review of

the Cenozoic fossil record of hermatypic coral genera reported

for the eastern Pacific, Indo West Pacific and Atlantic Ocean.

Fifty-seven coral genera, from 17 families, have lived in the

eastern Pacific between the Paleocene and Recent. Today, only

10 genera exist, from seven families. The maximum richness at

genera level occurred in the Eocene (39 genera), but since then

richness have decreased drastically, reaching its lowest value

in the Pleistocene (8 genera). The biogeographic affinities of

the scleractinian genera have changed from almost entirely

Atlantic to Indo Pacific taxa, completed after the closing of the

Central American seaway. During the Cenozoic there have

been three important periods of origination and also three

periods of extinction. Extinction have been the most important

macroevolutionary event in the history of scleractinian corals

of the eastern Pacific in the Cenozoic. This process has not

been random. Brooders survived preferentially over

broadcasters and other genera with mixed reproductive modes.

This differential survival was caused by the greater tolerance

of brooding corals to cold, high-nutrient waters, conditions

established in the eastern Pacific especially after the Miocene.

EFFECTS OF NUTRIENT ENRICHMENT ON

PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESOURCE USE IN

SYMPATRIC MANGROVE SPECIES.

Lovelock C. E. *, I. C. Feller. Smithsonian Environmental

Research Center, PO Box 28, Edgewater MD 21037, USA.

Email: lovelock@serc.si.edu

The effect of nutrient enrichment of mangrove environments

on delivery of nutrients to near shore marine environments will

depend on the response of the component members of

mangrove forests. Alterations in competitive interactions

among mangrove tree species could influence the quality of

organic material exported to marine environments. We tested

whether nutrient enrichment alters competitive interactions

among mangrove tree species. In a hypersaline mangrove

scrub forest in northern Florida, coexisting trees of

Laguncularia racemosa and Avicennia germinans were either

fertilized with nitrogen or phosphorus, or not fertilized

(controls). Avicennia germinans responded to fertilization

with nitrogen by increasing leaf nitrogen concentrations and

rates of photosynthesis such they were equivalent to

photosynthesis in L. racemosa. Laguncularia racemosa did not

show a response to nitrogen additions. Neither species showed

strong responses to phosphorus fertilization. Avicennia

germinans had high photosynthetic water use efficiency

(photosynthesis/transpiration), but low photosynthetic nitrogen

use efficiency (photosynthesis/leaf nitrogen), while L.

racemosa had comparatively low photosynthetic water use

efficiency and high photosynthetic nitrogen use efficiency.

Leaf level characteristics led us to hypothesize that

A.germinans is likely to be a better competitor in highly saline,

nutrient rich environments.

CARTERINA SPICULOTESTA FROM ARTIFICIAL

SUBSTRATE.

Machado Altair J.* and Facelucia B. C. Souza.

Laboratório de Estudos Costeiros, CPGG/IGEO/UFBA.

Rua Caetano Moura 123, Salvador, 40210-340, Bahia,

Brazil. Email altair@cpgg.ufba.br

The biomonitoring study of benthic communities from the

northern part of the coast of the State of Bahia (Brazil) was

undertaken throughout 10 sampling stations between the

isobates of 24 to 34 m of depth. The sampling stations were

placed in an area under influence of two industrial outfalls

(Arembepe Beach). Compositional analysis were performed on

artificial substrate (aluminum plates of 19 X 19 cm),

submerged and trimestrially analyzed between 1997 and 1998.

On these plates was recorded the foraminifera Carterina

spiculotesta, represented by 91 live specimens. 55% were

living in direct contact with the plate and 45% was found on

incrusting bryozoans: Rhyncozoon verruculatum, Celleporaria

ahubarti and Schizoporella sp. The recorded specie has a

trocospiral test with lobulate and round periphery. Dark-brown

color found in the first chambers, changes gradually to soft

brown. In the following chambers, the color becomes softer

until the hyaline white. The walls of the test are thin and

transparent (hyalines) and they are composed by glassy

spicules, which are more evident in the whitish chambers.

Carterina spiculotesta was recorded in 6 of the 20 plates

investigated throughout the summer of 1997 (78,2% of the

individuals), and only in one plate of the control station

(21,9%) during the spring 1998. The higher frequency of this

foraminifera (60.4%) was recorded in the area closest to the

organic compounds outfall (CETREL), and at the ciaphyllic

side of the plates (93,3%). In the area closest to the

MILLENNIUM outfall (chemical) no specimens of this

organism were found. The species demonstrated resistance to a

stressed environment, as well as its preference for low

luminosity.

GROWTH RATE AND LIFE CYCLE OF JAPANESE

GORGONIAN MELITHAEA FLABELLIFERA

(KÜKENTHAL, 1908).

Matsumoto A.K.* Ikegami Lab., College of Arts and

Sciences, University of Tokyo, Komaba 3-8-1, Meguro-ku,

Tokyo, 153-8902, Japan. Email: amatsu@sacral.c.u-tokyo.

ac.jp

The shallow water gorgonian Melithaea flabellifera

(Octocorallia) is a typical and predominant gorgonian species

of sublittoral communities in shore of Japan. Colonies grow

below 3-5 m water depth, and thrive on vertical and

overhanging surfaces. Although Melithaea flabellifera is one

of the most common gorgonian species in shallow bottom

communities of Japan, little is known of its life history, pattern

of growth. Annual growth rate and monthly growth rate were

calculated by field measurements at 138º 56'E, 34º 39'N. In

addition, the relationship between growth and development of

a fan was investigated by field measurements and observation

of life history. In November and December, the growth rate

was highest through the year, in which water temperature was

about 16-19 ºC. However, the growth rate was not so high

between mid-April and May, in which water temperature was

about 16-19 ºC. The lowest temperature during the year was

about 12.5-14ºC in February or March, and the highest

temperature was about 24-25 ºC in August and September.

Based on these data, it considered that there are no direct

relations between water temperature and monthly growth rate..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

318

CARBON-13 ISOTOPIC FRACTIONATION DURING

ORGANIC CARBON PRODUCTION OF CORAL.

Miyahira, K.*, H. Fujimura, T. Oomori. *Graduate School

of Engineering and Science, Univ. of the Ryukyus, Senbaru

1, Nishihara, Okinawa 901-0213, Japan. Email:

koze@wonder.ocn.ne.jp

The purpose of this study is to present the relationship

between coral organic carbon production(OP) and d

13 C

variation in sea water in the incubation experiments and to

apply for the estimation of organic carbon production of the

natural coral reefs. Diurnal variation of DIC, d

13 C of DIC, total

alkalinity, pH and dissolved oxygen in seawater were

measured for 48 hours, and then determined d

13 C of

zooxanthellae. The OP value calculated from DIC, d

13 C of DIC

and d

13 C of zooxanthellae was consistent with that of

calculated from pH-alkalinity or dissolved oxygen

methods(correlation coefficient=0.64). The d

13 C value of

produced organic carbon from seawater estimated by Reyleigh

distillation model were –18.2‰ in April and –13.6‰ in

August 1999, respectively, which are consistent with that d

13 C

in zooxanthellae were –18.2 in April and –13.5‰ August. This

agreement of d

13 C value suggests that the source of

photosynthetic CO2 taken up by zooxanthellae is mainly

derived from DIC in seawater. Net primary productions

obtained by DIC and d

13 C of DIC were –6 mmol m -2 day -1 in

April, and 3 mmol m -2 day -1 in August, respectively. In the

natural coral reefs, d

13 C in zooxanthellae and coral tissue were

measured. The values of d

13 C in zooxanthellae and coral tissue

range –13.3~ –10.0‰, –14.2~ –11.8‰ respectively. Estimated

net primary productions were 5~8 mmol m -2 day -1 in coral

reefs from June to November.

SECONDARY METABOLITES FROM BAHAMANIAN

BLUE-GREEN ALGAE.

Molinski, Tadeusz F. *, *Department of Chemistry,

University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA. Email:

tfmolinski@ucdavis.edu

Blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) occupy several niches in

coral reef environments including symbiotic relationships with

sessile invertebrates such as sponges and tunicates.

Occasionally, blue-green algae occur in massive form in

relatively axenic states. These are commonly seen as

filamentous red-brown or greenish patches, filamentous films

or larger aggregations of mixed speciation. Marine blue-green

algae, like their fresh-water counterparts, may be indicators of

the water quality, or the state of health of coral reefs. The

secondary metabolites of blue-green algae have attracted

interest not only for their interesting biological activities but

for the interesting relationships with the metabolites of reef-dwelling

sponges. We present in this poster recent

investigations of blue-green algae, mainly Lyngbya majuscula,

collected from reefs in the Southern Bahamas in August, 1999.

The molecular structures and chemistry of chemical

constituents will be described along with bio-geographic

variations in chemical structures and content among specimens

obtained on an approximate north to south transect from

Nassau to San Salvador Island.

EFFECTS OF A SITE-ATTACHED PREDATORY FISH

ON THE RECRUITMENT OF GORGONA ISLAND

REEF FISHES.

Mora, C.* Zapata, F. *Departamento de Biologia,

Universidad del Valle, Cali, Colombia. A. A. 25360. Email:

moracamilo@hotmail.com

Understanding the influence of predation on fish

postrecruitment mortality may improve our knowledge about

population dynamics of coral reef fishes. To document the

effects of predation on the recruitment of reef fishes, we

manipulated the presence of a small site-attached predator fish

(Serranus psittacinus) on four isolated standard coral units

(ISCU) at Gorgona Island (Tropical Eastern Pacific). We used

other four ISCUs without S. psittacinus as controls.

Recruitment of Scorpaenodes xyris, Canthigaster

punctatissima and three combined species of Antennariidae

was similar on control and S. psittacinus-present-ISCUs. The

even recruitment on treatment and control ISCUs indicates an

absence of predation by S. psittacinus that can be due to

antipredatory traits of these species such as poisonous fins,

body toxins and cryptic appearance. Lutjanus guttatus,

Halichoeres dispilus, and S. psittacinus exhibited lower

recruitment in S. psittacinus-ISCUs than in control ISCUs.

Furthermore we obtained direct observational evidence of

predation of S. psittacinus on L. guttatus and H. dispilus. In P.

psittacinus, that showed mean recruitment size larger on

conspecific than controls-ISCUs, we support a complex

mechanics of habitat preference without predator by the

settlement larvae and a subsequent competent-size recruitment

into the adult habitat, for explain the low recruitment of small

S. psittacinus fishes at conspecific-ISCUs. This study indicate

the importance of predation on postrecruitment survival of

some reef fishes and antipredatory characteristics and

behaviors determining a successful recruitment of some other

species.

THE SCLEROSPONGE GROWTH BAND AND THE

CARBON AND OXYGEN ISOTOPES

Mori M.*, T. Omori. *Graduate School of Engineering and

Science, University of the Ryukyu's, Senbaru 1,Nisihara,

Okinawa, 901-0213, Japan Email: k9886561@sci.u-ryukyu.

ac.jp

Sclerosponge inhabits in the shallow part of sea nearby reef

front where the direct sunlight radiation is restricted. They

form high magnesium carbonate skeleton with annual growth

bands, however symbiotic alga(zooxanthellae) doesn’t exist

within the tissue. The growth rate is about 1mm/yr which will

be advantageous for analysis of long term palaeo

environmental change. In this study, modern sclerosponge

specimen from Zamami Island of Okinawa was shaved along

annual growth bands in different manner. The d

13 C,d

14 C and

d

18 O of the each samples were determined. One was shaved

into 1mm depth in order to study annual change for about sixty

years during 1920’s-1980’s. Other was shaved into 0.1mm

depth in order to study for seasonal variation for about three

years at 1980’s. As a result, annual d

13 C change showed an

obvious decrease since about 1960. The decrease in d

13 C will

be caused by mighty fossil fuel 12 C through industrial activity .

Other results will be presented..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

319

EVOLUTIONARY INSIGHTS FROM THE

EVALUATION OF ASSOCIATED REEF FISH

DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS DERIVED FROM

NATIONWIDE FISH CENSUS INFORMATION.

Nañola, Cleto L. Jr*, Arvin L. Dantis, Vincent V. Hilomen,

Domingo G. Ochavillo, Maria Catalina G. Rañola and

Porfirio M. Aliño. College of Arts and Sciences, University

of the Philippines-Mindanao, Buhangin, Davao City,

Philippines. Email: tingnanola@yahoo.com

Previous reviews on the community structure of reef fishes

in the Philippines highlighted the significance of ecological

forcing to explain the emergent distribution patterns. The

suggestion of an evolutionary mechanism for this distribution

has often been derived based on inferred life history features

taken from the literature and also the concordance of

community structure affinities with the archipelagic

classification based on clinal depth analyses. Recent analyses

of the relative proportions of the number of species in the

families Pomacentridae, Labridae, Scaridae, Acathuridae,

Serranidae and Chaetodontidae based on fish visual

observations from around the country suggests the following:

a) that the relative proportions of the families can show a

consistent biogeographic trend (i.e., East to West and North to

South) for most of these families; b) the proportion of the

Pomacentridae and Labridae in the Luzon Archipelago seems

to be different from the rest of the marine biogeographic areas;

and c) an assemblage associated with the South China Sea

basin and Pacific Ocean seems apparent. The significance of

these patterns in relation to their consistency with the tectonic

origins of the Philippine Archipelago and the island arc

hypothesis vis-à-vis the dispersal hypotheses of previous

authors is discussed.

SHOREFISHES OF THE TROPICAL EASTERN

PACIFIC: AN INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR

IDENTIFICATION AND BIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS.

Navin, K.* and Robertson, D.R. *Vagabond Odyssey, PO

Box 139, Berridale, NSW 2628, Australia . Email

:kim@vagabondoddysey.com.au

An electronic, bilingual (English and Spanish) information

system that allows the identification of the shorefishes of the

tropical eastern Pacific (TEP) biogeographic region and

comparison of their biological attributes is presented. A taxon

page for each of 1,184 species includes: an illustration(s) with

key features indicated; links to illustrations & pages of similar

species; a TEP range map; link to a comprehensive

bibliography; text on identification, geographic range, habitat,

diet, size, synonymies. An engine allows identification of

species using data on range, habitat, shape and color pattern.

Similar taxon pages are included for 134 families and 470

genera. A zoogeographic engine allows: comparison of TEP

range-maps of up to 5 species; assembly of taxon lists for

locations at different spatial scales (coastal sites, islands,

countries, provinces); comparison of similarities of faunal lists

from different locations; display of relative and absolute

species richness of coastline segments and islands based on

range-limits data; assembly of lists of endemic species by

location. “Access” databases on biological attributes

(zoogeographic, habitat-use, diet, size, reproductive mode)

allow complex comparisons to be made of the structure of fish

faunas of different locations. A checklist of the shorefishes of

the TEP is included. This system initially will be available in

as a CD, with a web-based application to follow shortly

thereafter.

NOTES ON LARVAE RELEASING AND SETTLEMENT

BEHAVIOR OF BRAZILIAN SIDERASTREA STELLATA

VERRILL, 1868: A TAXONOMICAL APPROACH.

Neves, EG* & da Silveira, FL. *Universidade de São Paulo,

Inst. Biociências - Depto. Zoologia, Rua do Matão trav. 14,

n 321, CEP: 05508-900 - São Paulo, Brasil. Email:

egneves@acd.ufrj.br

The present study provides first evidences on planula

releasing and settlement behavior of Siderastrea stellata, an

endemic reef-building species which occurs along the

northeastern and southeastern coast of Brazil. Siderastrea

radians, Siderastrea siderea and Siderastrea stellata form the

Atlantic Siderastrea complex, presenting patterns of

morphology highly variable. Ecomorphs of the three species

show overlapping of characteristics resulting taxonomical

misunderstanding. It has been suggested that differences in

reproductive trends may be useful to distinguish between

morphollogically similar species. Siderastrea siderea is a

hermaphroditic broadcasting species, whilst Siderastrea

radians is a gonochoric brooding species. Colonies of

Siderastrea stellata, collected in coral communities situated at

Rio de Janeiro, were kept in aquaria, where they released

larvae. Larvae extrusion and settlement process followed the

observations described for Siderastrea radians. Data on larvae

behavior may indicate a probable relationship between

Siderastrea stellata and Siderastrea radians. After complete

extrusion, the ciliated larvae stayed for a long time among the

oral tentacles. Larvae presented zooxanthellae, and

lecithotrophic pattern of development. Peculiar bentonic

behavior during free early stage provided some likely

important clues on the ability of dispersion of the Brazilian

species.

SEDIMENT QUALITY ASSESSMENT STUDIES AT

THE FLOWER GARDENS NATIONAL MARINE

SANCTUARIES, GULF OF MEXICO.

Nipper, M* and Carr, RS. *Texas A&M University-Corpus

Christi Center for Coastal Studies, NRC Suite 3200, 6300

Ocean Dr., Corpus Christi, TX 78412 USA, Email:

mnipper@falcon.tamucc.edu;

Coral reef communities are endangered worldwide and can

be deleteriously affected by exposure to anthropogenic

contaminants. Sediments in the vicinity of coral reefs can

accumulate contaminants and porewater toxicity tests from

such areas can be used as early warning signals of chemical

contamination with potential deleterious effects to the biota, as

shown in previous studies in Hawaii and Mexico. Small

amounts of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and

organochlorinated hydrocarbons were measured in semi-permeable

membrane devices deployed at the East and West

Flower Garden Banks coral reefs, in the Gulf of Mexico. These

could have been introduced by the numerous petroleum

production platforms in close proximity to the Banks, the

Mississippi River plume which extends a considerable distance

into the Gulf, or by aerial deposition, among other potential

sources. In the present survey, pore water from sediments at

several stations in the Flower Garden Banks was collected by

two different vacuum extraction methods and analyzed for

toxicity with sea urchin fertilization and embryological

development tests. No toxicity was observed, and therefore

there was no evidence of bioavailable contaminants that could

threaten the health of these coral reefs at present..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

320

PARTIAL MORTALITY AS INDICATOR OF

SEDIMENT STRESS IN MASSIVE REEF CORALS.

Nugues, M.M.*. *Environment Department, University of

York, York YO10 5DD, UK. Email: mmn100@york.ac.uk

Concern over the decline of reef ecosystems has promoted

the need to develop practical and “one-shot” means of

assessing reef condition. This study examined partial mortality

and fission in colonies of four common massive coral species

along nearshore-to-offshore gradients differing in their

exposure to river sediments in St. Lucia, West Indies. Results

indicated a strong increase in rates of partial mortality at the

nearshore reefs exposed to river sediments in three coral

species, while frequency of fission did not strongly increase

approaching river mouths. Results did not differ after

correcting for variation in colony size. In addition, the percent

of change in coral cover from 1994/5 to 1998 was highly

correlated with rate of partial mortality (surveyed in 1998) in

one species (p < 0.001) and was nearly significant in the other

species (p < 0.1). I suggest that partial mortality in massive

reef corals, as measured by the amount of dead surface area

per colony, could provide a reliable indicator of sediment

stress from river runoff.

REEF FISHES EXPLOITATION IN TELUK BANTEN

WEST JAVA, INDONESIAWITH SPECIAL

REFERENCE TO THE DOMINANT SPECIES

Epinephelus coioides, Lutjanus johni and Pomadasys

kaakan.

Nuraini, Siti *; Machiels, Marcel; van Densen, Wim; and

Linde Boom, Han. *Balai Penelitian Perikanan Laut

Jakarta Jakarta, Indonesia. Email: nuraini@indo.net.id

Teluk Banten is a shallow bay located about 80km northwest

from Jakarta, where recently industrial area and port container

development take place in the west part of the bay. While the

fishery in the bay characterized by multi gear targeted for all

species and all sizes. This study explained the exploitation of

reef species taken from Teluk Banten, west Java Indonesia. In

seagrass, the juvenile of dominant reef species that caught by

bondet (beach seine) and sudu (push net) were Green grouper

(Epinephelus coioides) and Russell’s snapper (Lutjanus

russelli). Larger fish were caught at deeper water using trap,

hook & line. In trap catches, we determined 123 species.

Among those 45 species of reef fishes were caught contributed

67% of total catch. E. coioides, and Plectropomus maculatus

appeared to be the most dominant species representing 14.3%,

and 7.87% of the total catch. Of the 77 species caught by

H&L, 34% (46 species) of the catches consist of reef fishes.

The dominant species caught were Pomadasys kaakan and

Lutjanus johni representing 13.0% and 10.5% of the total

catch. From their size distribution, the E. coioides, L. johni

and P. kaakan used seagrass as their nursery ground. Grouper

and snapper inhabit in seagrass up to the size at about 30

and16 cm in TL, each respectively. They migrate to deeper

water of the reef or rocky area. Size selective gear appeared for

grouper, and snapper in the bay. Destructive fishing techniques

are sometime practice in the bay such as blasting and use of

cyanide to catch ornamental fish, grouper and other marine

resources. From monitoring gear used in the area, indicated

that serious over exploitation occur in the bay.

CALIBRATION OF STRONTIUM/CALCIUM AND

OXYGEN ISOTOPIC RATIOS VERSUS SEA SURFACE

TEMPERATURE FOR PORITES CORAL SKELETONS.

Ohuchi, Takefumi, Abe, Osamu. * Typhoon LEE and Eiji

MATSUMOTO. *Institute for Hydrospheric-Atmospheric

Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya, 464-8601, Japan.

Email: oabe@ihas.nagoya-u.ac.jp

Since 1996, we have monitored the sea surface temperature

(SST) at Yasurazaki, Ishigaki Island, southwestern Japan, a

site of luxuriant growth of long-lived massive Porites colonies.

In 1999, we obtained a core from the upper portion of a Porites

lutea colony using hand drill driven by the SCUBA tank. The

colony is identical with the one used in Mitsuguchi et al.

(1996). The Sr/Ca and oxygen isotopic ratios were analyzed at

0.5-mm intervals for the latest 3 years to obtain precise

relationships between these proxies and measured SST. The

Sr/Ca was measured by thermal ionization mass spectrometery

with the double-spike isotope dilution method, which used

43 Ca and 84 Sr spikes and is more convenient than the

conventional triple-spike method. We obtained a precision

better than 0.3 °C (2d) adequate for practical use of SST

reconstructions. The Sr/Ca-SST calibration line for coral

thermometer deduced by us for Porites lutea is Sr/Ca = -0.05553SST

+ 10.46, which is in excellent agreement with the

calibration of Shen et al. (1996).

ASSAY OF INTER-SPECIFIC INTERACTION OF

CORALS USING DISSOCIATED CELLS AND

CELLULAR AGGREGATES.

Oshiro W*. and M. Hidaka. Department of Chemistry,

Biology and Marine Science, University of the Ryukyus,

Nishihara, Okinawa, 903-0213 Japan. E-mail Address:

hidaka@sci.u-ryukyu.ac.jp

We attempted to establish a short-term assay system of inter-specific

interaction of corals using dissociated cells and

cellular aggregates. When dissociate cells of a coral were

incubated, they aggregated to form spherical bodies (tissue

balls), which began to swim by ciliary movement. When high

concentrations of dissociated cells were incubated in a round-bottom

multi-well plate, they accumulated at the bottom of the

well and formed a large aggregate. However, when dissociated

cells from different species were mixed, they never formed

large aggregates. Instead they remained dispersed on the

bottom of the well or formed many small tissue balls. In such

cases, tissue balls of two distinct characters were observed.

They could be distinguished based on color, zooxanthella

density and surface texture. Hence they might consist of cells

derived from one of the corals. When dissociated cells from

different colonies of the same species were mixed, large

aggregates were formed in some combinations but were not

formed in other combinations. When two spherical bodies

derived from the same coral were brought into contact, they

fused after a few hr and formed a spherical body. In contrast,

those derived from different species did not fuse. The present

method using dissociated cells or cellular aggregates provide a

useful tool to study inter- and intra-specific interactions of

corals..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

321

COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF CORAL REEFS AT

CIENAGA DE OCUMARE DE LA COSTA BAY,

VENEZUELA.

Paul s S.M.* *In st itu to de Zool ogia Tropi cal, UCV, A.P.

47058, Caracas 1041-A, Venezu ela. Email :

smarquez@strix.ciens.ucv.ve

T he centr al coast of Venezuel a is a mar gi nal area f or

development of coral r eefs due t o the i nput of terrest rial

fr eshwater and sedi ments. T he Ci enaga de Ocumar e de la Cost a

Bay (67 o 48' 30" W and 10 o 28' 15'- 10 o 29' 20" N) is an except ion

wi th two devel oped reefs. S ur veys wer e made at 17 st at ions in

dept hs of 0.3 to 20 m, using transect s per pendi cular t o t he coast

wi th 1 m_ quadrat s. Di versi ty and per cent cover were esti mated at

2 m int er val s along the transect s. The cor al comm uni ti es were two

coastal r eef s, a shoal and a com munit y associat ed wi th rocks i n

the mouth of t he bay. The wester n coast reef was mor e devel oped

and com pl ex than the easter n reef. Thir ty- two cor als species wer e

recorded including 3 hydrocor als. The coral assem blage observed

in t he bay i s sim il ar to species l ist s from other s Venezuel an

coastal coral com munit ies. The diversit y decreased f rom 19

species i n t he mout h of the bay to 6 speci es in t he inner

comm uni ti es. T his gradient may be rel at ed to envi ronmental

fact ors, such as sedim entat ion and low tur bulence. Cor al cover

vari ed between 6.3 and 34.5 % and cor al cover death varied

between 24.7 and 68 %. Mi ll epora al ci corni s, Di pl ori a strigosa,

Colpophyl lia natans and Mont ast rea annulari s consti tuted m ore

than 70 % of all cover . In the depth gr adi ent, the highest diver sit y

was recor ded between 7 and 9 m wit h 17 speci es. T he resul ts

suggest t hat t he coral comm uniti es of t he bay are comparabl e t o

some ot hers Venezuelan coral com munit ies.

BIOEROSION OF CORAL REEFS: RELATIONSHIPS

BETWEEN BORING ORGANISMS AND PHYSICAL

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SUBSTRATE.

Peyrot-Clausade M*, Fallot L, Tribollet A, Zubia M and

MP Etcheverry. Centre d’Océanologie de Marseille,

Station Marine d’Endoume. Rue de la batterie des Lions,

13007 Marseille (France). Email: peyrot@com.univ-mrs.fr

Porosity and rugosity were determined on Hydrolithon

onkodes, Porites lobata and Acropora formosa, in Moorea

Island (Pacific Ocean) and La Reunion Island (Indian Ocean)

in order to relate the endolithic community with the properties

of the substrate and to define the ability to be eroded of this

different substrates. Porosity was determined using the

mercury intrusion method with pressure from 0.0036 to 200

Mpa. Mosaics of back-scattered electron images of polished

sections of the samples were digitalized from a Scanning

Electron Microscope in order to observe and analyse the

microstructures (microporosity) of the substrates and to

determine their surface rugosity. Four classes of micro-porosity

have been established to differentiate the erosion

effects of each organism. The endolithic species were the

microboring flora with Plectonema terebrans, Mastigocoleus

testarum, Ostreobium quekettii and Hyella caespitosa and the

boring fauna which included the polychaetes Polydora sp,

Dodeceria sp and the sipunculans Aspidosiphon sp.,

Phascolosoma sp. and Apionsoma sp.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION OF THE SOLITARY

CORAL SCOLYMIA WELLS LABOREL (CNIDARIA:

SCLERACTINIA) FROM THE ABROLHOS REEFS,

BRAZIL.

Pires, Débora O.*, Clovis B. Castro, Cláudio C. Ratto.

*Museu Nacional/Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro,

Departamento de Invertebrados, Quinta da Boa Vista, s/n,

São Cristóvão, 20940-040, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil.

Email: dopires@openlink.com.br

Brazil has the only t rue coral reefs known i n the S out h Atl antic.

Abrolhos (18º S) is the lar gest and t he most di verse r eef area i n

Br azil. The sexuality, reproductive mode, and timing of

reproduction of Scolymia wellsi from the Abrolhos Reef

Complex were assessed by collecting specimens bimonthly

during 1996 and sporadically in 1997 and 1999. Specimens

were studied histologically and by a dissecting microscope.

MOLECULAR IDENTIFICATION OF

ENDOSYMBIOTIC DINOFLAGELLATES OF SORITID

FORAMINIFERA.

Pochon, Xavier*, Jan Pawlowski, Louisette Zaninetti, Rob

Rowan *Department of Zoology and Animal Biology,

University of Geneva, 154, rte de Malagnou, 1224 Chêne-Bougeries,

Switzerland. Email:

xavierpochon@hotmail.com

Soritidae are a family of large calcareous benthic

foraminifera known to host Symbiodinium-like zooxanthellae.

Soritids are common in all Indo-Pacific coral reefs, however, it

is unknown if they share their endosymbionts with corals and

other zooxanthellae-bearing invertebrates. In order to identify

the genotypes of symbionts present in foraminiferal hosts and

compared them to other symbionts, we have obtained and

analysed the sequences of a 1700 bp fragment of the ribosomal

DNA, including partial SSU, ITS1, 5.8S, ITS2, and partial

LSU, from 20 foraminiferal specimens and 20 coral samples

collected in Guam (Mariana Islands). Additionally, we have

examined 36 foraminiferal and 90 coral samples by RFLP

analysis. The phylogenetic analysis of our data show that

foraminiferal symbionts group in six different clades. Five

clades are specific for foraminifera. One clade, previously

identified as type C, group together symbionts from

foraminifera, corals, sea anemones, and ciliates. 80% of

symbionts from Guam scleractinian corals belong to type C,

while the remaining 20% form a new clade that branch

between clade A and B..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

322

LOW-TECHNOLOGY FEEDING SYSTEM FOR

REARING SETTLEMENT-STAGE REEF FISHES.

Power, Robert M.*. *The University of Plymouth School

of Biological Sciences and International Center for Living

Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM),

Caribbean/Eastern Pacific Office 158 Inland Messenger,

Road Town, Tortola, British Virgin Islands. Email:

rpower@surfBVI .com

Late pelagic stage reef fish experience very high predation

when they settle onto juvenile habitats. Capture of reef fish

with light traps before settlement, may be a sustainable method

for concurrently avoiding this mortality and harvesting fish for

the aquarium trade. Potentially, this harvest method could

replace existing commercial methods, some of which are

destructive to reefs and damaging to reef fish populations. Late

pelagic stage reef fish are very fragile and prone to stress-related

mortality. A short rearing program could grow them to

a size where they may be robust enough for sale to the

aquarium trade. Very young fish often require live food, which

may be technically difficult or expensive to supply. This poster

describes a simple airlift pump with a light attraction

component, which can be used to supply naturally occurring

plankton for rearing very young fish in floating cages or tanks.

This technology is intended for small-scale community based

aquaculture in developing countries. Composition of plankton

collected by this ‘Plankton Pump’ is compared with

composition of stomach contents of wild caught fish.

Alternative applications are discussed; in particular, rearing

juvenile reef fishes past the early juvenile mortality hurdle for

subsequent release in order to rebuild wild populations.

BACKSTEPPING OF HOLOCENE REEFS ALONG

FLORIDA’S EAST COAST

Precht, William F. *, Ian G. Macintyre, Richard E. Dodge,

Kenneth Banks, and Louis Fisher. PBS&J, 2001 NW 107 th

Ave., Miami, FL 33172, USA. Email: bprecht@pbsj.com

The northern end of the Florida Reef Tract is comprised of

numerous shore-parallel ridges and terraces that crest at depths

of about 15m, 10m, and 5m. The deepest ridge is most distinct

and the shallow terraces are often more gradational. A hard-bottom

community of octocorals, sponges and corals

characterizes the present-day surfaces of these bathymetric

highs. By contrast, exposures in at least two of these ridges

indicate that they were formed by rapidly accreting, shallow-water

facies dominated by Acropora palmata. In the 1970’s

the construction of a sewage outfall near Hillsboro Inlet,

exposed a cross-section of the deepest ridge. Earlier studies

have shown that radiocarbon dates of corals from the lower

ridge range from 8900+95 to 7145+80 ybp. In 1993 a

submarine ran aground on a more shallow terrace near Dania

Beach, exposing a 3m deep by 28m long trench. Radiocarbon

dates of corals collected from this exposure at depths of 9.8m

to 7.8m yielded dates ranging from 6520+60 to 5950+90 ybp.

When compared with well-established sea-level curves for the

western Atlantic, the dates from these exposures show these

shallow-water reefs intermittently tracked the rising sea. There

appears to be a backstepping pattern of the reefs, possibly

related to local or global stresses from a variety of causes.

Inimical conditions related to these events could have abruptly

halted reef growth. As more hospitable conditions returned, a

‘new’ reef apparently formed in a shallower, shoreward

position from its predecessor.

BRAZILIAN REEF FISHES OF THE FAMILY BRAZILIAN REEF FISHES OF THE FAMILY

BLENNIIDAE (TELEOSTEI: BLENNIIOIDEI). BLENNIIDAE (TELEOSTEI: BLENNIIOIDEI).

Rangel, Carlos A. * , Gasparini, João L., Mendes, L. F. &

Guimarães, R. Z. P. * Laboratório de Biodiversidade de

Recursos Pesqueiros, Núcleo de Inovação em

Gerenciamento Pesqueiro, Departamento de Biologia

Marinha – CCS, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro –

UFRJ Cidade Universitária, CEP: 21941-569, Rio de

Janeiro, RJ, BRAZIL Email: caugusto@mn.ufrj.br

Seven reef-associated species of the family Blenniidae are

currently recognized in Brazilian waters: Scartella cristata,

Hypleurochilus fissicornis, H. pseudoaequipinnis,

Parablennius pilicornis, P. marmoreus, Entomacrodus

vomerinus and Ophioblennius atlanticus. In this work, we’re

informing the discovery of four new species, three belonging

to the genus Scartella and one belonging to the genus

Entomacrodus and indicating geographical range extension of

other four. The species of the genus Scartella from the

Brazilian coast is, in fact, an undescribed species. The other

two new species identified are one from Trindade Island and

the other from Fernando de Noronha Archipelago. A fourth

new species belonging to the genus Entomacrodus, was

recorded from Trindade Island. Hypleurochilus

pseudoaequipinnis and Ophioblennius atlanticus, previously

known from the Northeastern coast of Brazil were collected

600 kilometers to the south, Hysoblennius invemar and

Parablennius marmoreus, previously known only in the

Caribbean area were recorded as south as Rio de Janeiro State.

The purpose of this study is to clarify the systematics and

distribution of the Brazilian family members and emphasize

the importance of preserving the National reef environment.

REDUCED IMPACT OF PARROTFISH SCHOOLS ON

TERRITORIES OF DAMSELFISH IN HIGH DENSITY

AGGRIGATIONS

Rassweiler, A J; Hamilton, S L; Samhouri, J F; Sandin, S

A; and Pacala, S W. *Department of Ecology and

Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ

08544-1003 USA. Email: arass@alumni.princeton.edu

Three-spot damselfish, Stegastes planifrons, aggressively

defend territories, preventing other herbivores from taking

advantage of the high quality grazing within. In this study, we

demonstrate that the movements of large schools of marauding

parrotfish are affected by damselfish aggregation. Damselfish

living in high density aggregations are visited less often and

for a smaller amount of time than those living at low density.

To illuminate these effects, we observed schools of striped

parrotfish, Scarus iserti, mapping 630m of their trajectory in

total. We measured the speed of the school, the position of

nearby damselfish, and the local substrate type and height. We

then fit a biased random walk model from our data using

maximum likelihood methods. S. iserti tended to slow down

in algae rich habitat, speed up in areas of high damselfish

density and turn away from high concentrations of damselfish.

We approximated the effect of these biases on individual

damselfish through simulation. We found that damselfish at

high densities experienced 40% less feeding by S. iserti and

50% fewer visits than those at low densities. Because large

schools of parrotfish are often observed overwhelming even

the highest natural densities of damselfish, previous

investigators have concluded that damselfish are not effective

at deterring such schools. We demonstrate that incursions by

even these large schools are reduced by damselfish

aggregation. This deterrent effect of high damselfish densities

may well provide an explanation for their clustered distribution

on the reef..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

323

SPECIFIC RICHNESS OF THE MACROBENTHOS IN

THE FIDJIAN LAGOONS (VITI LEVU).

Richer de Forges, B.*, Garrigue, Laboute, Bernard,

Ferraris, Newell, Lapetite, Mohammed, Nating. Centre

IRD BP A5, Nouméa, New Caledonia Email:

richer@noumea.ird.nc

In 1998 And 1999, Two Cruises Of The Ecotrope Program

(Suva 2 &4) Were Carried Out Onboard The French Research

Vessel Alis To Sample The Macrobenthos Of The Fidjian

Lagoons. The Aims Were To Describe A Very Poorly Known

Benthos, To Compare It With The New Caledonian One And

To Evaluate The Anthropogenic Effects Of The Suva City.

The First Results Concerns The Specific Richness In Different

Lagoons : Near Suva, Between Nadi And Lautoka And In

Beqa Atoll. A Total Of 124 Samples Was Collected With 3

Different Gears That Worked At Different Scales : A Smith

Mac-Intyre Grab (1/10m_), A Waren Dredge (About 100 M_)

And A Beam Trawl (> 8000 M_). The Morphospecies Were

Counted For Each Station And Recognised At The Family

Level. The Specific Richness Defined As The Number Of

Morphospecies Is Very Variable Between 9 And 352 By

Station. For A Same Site, 15, 85, 50 Morphospecies Were

Obtained Respectively With The Grab, The Dredge And The

Trawl. The Western Lagoon Situated Between Nadi And

Lautoka Is Significantly Richer Than The Suva Lagoon That

Suffer From Anthropogenic Effects. It Is Also Richer Than

The Beqa Atoll Lagoon.

A RECORD OF RIVER DISCHARGE IN CORAL

SKELETONS FROM MORETON BAY, SOUTHEAST

QUEENSLAND, AUSTRALIA.

Roberts,Lisa.* *School of Resource Science and

Management, Southern Cross University, PO Box 157,

Lismore NSW Australia. 2480 Email: lroberts@scu.edu.au

Coral skeletons from Moreton Bay were examined to

determine their ability to record environmental signals. One

such environmental signal is the discharge from nearby rivers.

Large discharge events often produce lines in the coral

skeleton that are luminescent under ultra-violet light. Moreton

Bay is a large semi-closed body of water located in South-east

Queensland and is under the influence of two large river

systems (the Brisbane and Logan Rivers). The catchment has

undergone major changes in land use over the last 100 years

and provides an ideal site to study the incorporation of

substances into coral skeletons. Luminescence was measured

using image analysis and the intensity of the luminescence was

compared with discharge/flow data for the Brisbane River

catchment. X-radiographs were used to determine the age of

the corals. Luminescent bands found to correlate with major

discharge events for the Brisbane River.

CHANGES IN GORGONIAN MORPHOLOGY ALONG

A DEPTH GRADIENT.

Rodriguez-Lanetty, Mauricio*; Losada, Freddy; Marquez,

Luis M.. *Centre for Marine Studies. University of

Queensland. St Lucia QLD 4072. Australia. Email:

m.Rodriguez@mailbox.uq.edu.au

It has been suggested that water currents may determine

gorgonian morphology. Under a high current, gorgonians tend

to grow with a fan shape (flattened vertically) and facing

perpendicular to the current. Alternatively, gorgonians grow

with an arborescent morphology under low current regimes.

Changes in this morphology along a depth gradient seems to

mirror the changes in hydrodynamic regime associated with

this gradient. In this study, we evaluate the changes in

morphology of several species of gorgonians in terms of shape

(fan vs. arborescent) along a depth gradient. Our study site was

a fringing Caribbean coral reef located in a coralline key on the

coast of Venezuela. Within forty-two 3x2 m quadrats placed

between 6m and 19m depths, we measured the longest and

shortest diameter of each colony from the five most abundant

species of gorgonians in the location. To quantify colony

morphology we used the coefficient or ratio between the

longest (LD) and the shortest diameter (SD). When LD/SD

was equal or greater than 2, colonies were considered “fan”

and they were considered “arborescent” when LD/SD< 2. The

results suggest that the effect of hydrodynamic regime on

gorgonian morphology is species-specific. Only two out of five

species showed the morphology pattern predicted on the basis

of hydrodynamic changes along the depth gradient. The other

three species showed different patterns, which can be related to

differential trophic selective pressures along the depth

gradient. Our results call the attention to the risks involved in

generalizing ecological processes from observations on single

species.

BIOEROSION CAUSED BY GRAZING ACTIVITIES ON

CORAL COMMUNITIES IN THE GULF OF

THAILAND.

Ruengsawang, Nisit* and Thamasak Yeemin. Marine

Biodiversity Research Group, Department of Biology,

Faculty of Science, Ramkhamhaeng University, Huamark,

Bangkok 10240, Thailand.

Email: nruengsawang@hotmail.com

The over exploitation and poor management of coastal

ecosystems in Thailand led to the deterioration of many coral

reefs. Studies in detail concerning coral reef science in

Thailand are very limited. The process of bioerosion has been

recognized as an important role in coral reef ecology. Diadema

setosum is a dominant echinoid species in coral communities

in the Gulf of Thailand. The aim of the present study is to

estimate bioerosion rates by D. setosum in coral communities

at Khang Khao Island, Inner Gulf of Thailand in February,

June, and November 1998 by acidification method. Bioerosion

rates were in the range of 0.34-1.43 g CaCO3/individual/day or

1.64-5.50 Kg CaCO3/m 2 /year. The highest bioerosion rates

were found in the shallowest zones due to mainly high

population density of D. setosum. The first severe coral

bleaching event in the Gulf of Thailand during April-May

1998 was a factor which resulted in increasing of population

densities of D. setosum and consequently enhancing bioerosion

rates during that period. In general, bioerosion rates by D.

setosum obtained from the present study were in the same

range of those reported by previous workers from several

localities. Bioerosion caused by grazing of D. setosum plays a

major role on calcium carbonate budget in coral communities

in the Gulf of Thailand..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

324

PLEISTOCENE REEF DEVELOPMENT AND SEA-LEVEL

CHANGES: EVIDENCE FROM THE RYUKYU

GROUP OF SOUTHWESTERN JAPAN.

Sagawa, Natsume; Nakamori, Toru; and Iryu, Yasufumi.

*Institute of Geology and Paleontology, Graduate School of

Science, Tohoku Univ., Sendai 980-8578, Japan. Email:

nasa@mail.cc.tohoku.ac.jp

Conducted were sedimentological studies of the Ryukyu

Group, Pleistocene reef complex deposits, by investigating 13

cores as well as surface outcrops in Irabu-jima and Shimoji-jima,

Ryukyu Islands, Japan. Ten carbonate lithofacies were

recognized and their depositional environment was determined

in comparison with the present-day marine sediments and biota

around the Ryukyus. Five coral assemblages were defined

based on species composition and morphology of fossil forms

within the coral limestone, each indicating particular

environment. The group is up to 110 m thick and comprises 13

units. The reconstructed relative sea-level curve clearly shows

that this area was subsided during the deposition of units 1 to

12 and then uplifted while unit 13 was deposited. Calcareous

nannofossil biostratigraphy suggests that the group was

deposited at 1.5 to 0.3 Ma. These 13 units seem to respond the

4th-order global eustasy and may be correlated with oxygen

isotope stages 49 to 9. Our investigation strongly suggests that

there exist considerable variations in coral reef developments,

in relation to the Quaternary sea-level changes and local

tectonic movement.

ORIGINAL OXYGEN ISOTOPIC COMPOSITION OF

PLANKTIC FORAMINIFERS PRESERVED IN

DIAGENETICALLY ALTERED PLEISTOCENE

SHALLOW-MARINE CARBONATES.

Sakai, Saburo*. *Graduate School of Science and

Technology, Kumamoto University, 2-39-1, Kurokami,

Kumamoto, 860-5555, Japan. Email:

saburo@aso.sci.kumamoto-u.ac.jp

Shallow-marine carbonates are potential materials for a high-resolution

climatic analysis, however the primary isotopic

composition as climatological signals are normally erased by

the effects of post-depositional diagenesis. In order to solve the

problem of diagenesis, the author carefully examined the

diagenetic effect of shallow-marine carbonates (the Ryukyu

Group; Okinawa, Japan). The result indicates that the planktic

foraminifer tests (low-Mg calcitic skeletons) have a significant

po-tential in preserving their oxygen isotopic composition,

despite the meteoric diagenesis altered the oxygen and carbon

isotopic compositions of the whole-rock samples. The

downcore dlta18O records of the planktic foraminifers

represent a cyclic change which is adjusted to Middle

Pleistocene glacial/interglacial stages. By comparison, isotopic

measurements based on whole-rock samples can be obtained

diagenetic environmental signals, but misleading with regard

to paleoclimatic inferences.

CONFOCAL MICROSCOPY AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL

IMAGING OF SYMBIOTIC

DINOFLAGELLATES FROM CORALS REVEALS

THEIR MORPHOLOGICAL DIVERSITY.

Salih, Anya* and Guy Cox. *School of Biological Sciences

A08 and Electron Microscope Unit F09, University of

Sydney, Sydney NSW 2006, Australia. Email:

anya@emu.usyd.edu.au

Despite considerable molecular, biochemical and

physiological diversity among the symbiotic dinoflagellates

from scleractinian corals, morphological approaches have

provided relatively few useful criteria for their effective

systematic resolution. Mature coccoid zooxanthellae from

various coral species all possess a peripheral multilobed

chloroplast, a large nucleus, a single stalked pyrenoid and a

large accumulation body. We used confocal and multi-photon

microscopy, combined with serial reconstruction of optical

sections through individual cells, to image zooxanthellae in

three-dimensional (3-D) mode. Samples from several coral

species from the Great Barrier Reef, Lord Howe Island

(Australia) and Red Sea (Egypt) were fixed in glutaraldehyde

and the extracted algae confocally imaged by their

autofluorescence. The 3-D imaging of the chloroplast envelope

revealed distinct variability in the shape, number and thickness

of the chloroplast lobes of zooxanthellae extracted from

different coral species. Moreover, multi-photon microscopic

images of DAPI stained algal chromosomes also revealed high

species-specific variability in their number and morphology.

Results of this preliminary study suggest that zooxanthellae

show a greater morphological diversity than has been

previously shown.

ANNUAL VARIABILITY OF WATER

TEMPERATURES FROM BEACH TO OCEAN IN A

CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEM, MOOREA, FRENCH

POLYNESIA.

Salvat, B.*, J. Algret, Y. Chancerelle, B. Delesalle. *EPHE,

ESA CNRS 8046, Université de Perpignan, France, and

CRIOBE, B.P. 1013 Moorea, Polynésie Française. Email:

bsalvat@univ-perp.fr

The water temperature has been recorded each hour along a

1500 m transect from the shore to the ocean in Tiahura sector

(north west of Moorea Island) for several periods between

1991 and 1999. In the context of potential bleaching events,

the aim of this study was to determine the high frequency

variations of temperature endured by the living communities

(corals, algae, molluscs, echinoderms and fish) in various

geomorphological units (fringing reef, channel, barrier reef and

the outer slope at 4 depths). As expected, the fringing reef

community experienced the most extreme temperature (21.3 to

33.0°C), with a maximum of 6°C in 24 hours. The barrier reef

community was subjected to less extreme temperature (23.1 to

30.9°C) and the maximum variation in 24 h never exceeded

4.7 °C. On the outer slope, there was little difference according

to depth and the maximum within-day variation was 2.0-3.4°C.

At the depth of 14 m where the living communities were the

most diversified and coral cover c.a. 50%, the minimum and

maximum recorded values were 25.8°C and 30.6°C

respectively. The highest temperatures occurred in the

afternoon of the first 3 months (austral summer) whereas the

lowest ones were observed at the end of the night in August

and September (austral winter). If mean daily temperatures are

considered instead of hourly ones, the range of variation is

lower by 2.4 to 4.4 °C in the lagoon and by 1.0 to 2.7 °C on the

outer slope. This expected smoothing effect must be taken into

account when analysing long-term series of data..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

325

GENERATIONAL ORDER AND MODULE

HIERARCHY: BRANCHING PATTERNS AND

COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT OF GORGONIAN

CORALS.

Sanchez, Juan A.* & Howard R. Lasker. Dept. Biol. Sci.,

SUNY at Buffalo, NY 14260, USA. Email: js15@buffalo.edu

The branching pattern of colonial marine invertebrates is one

of their fundamental characters but it is poorly understood.

Models that mimic colony development and architecture are

often species specific and based on rules with little biological

meaning. We followed growth of taxonomically diverse

gorgonian species using series of digital photographs of

marked colonies (Plexauridae: Muriceopsis flavida and

Muricea pinnata; Gorgoniidae: Pseudopterogorgia

elisabethae, P. americana and Gorgonia ventalina; Caribbean,

Bahamas). Colony development among these branching

species followed a common pattern. It can be characterized as

the production of generations of polyps, which are linearly

linked forming a branch. New generations arise when a branch

forms as a tributary to the source branch. As a self-similar

structure, each generation has the capability of producing

daughter branches (sub-generations). Older generations (e.g.

main stem) continue to grow producing a colony composed of

overlapping generations of polyps. This pattern occurs among

species with sub-apical growth (production of branches below

the apex), which is the case for most gorgonian corals. Using

this generational ordering system, branching ratio for

gorgonian colonies is a non-linear function, which differs from

the fixed branching ratio found using other ordering systems

(e.g. Horton-Strahler and Tokunaga).

THE DISTRIBUTION OF MASSIVE PORITES IN THE

MIYARA FRINGING REEF, ISHIGAKI ISLAND,

JAPAN: POPULATION MAINTENANCE THROUGH

FRAGMENTATION.

Satoh, Takanori*. *Tokyo Metropolitan University, Tokyo,

Japan. Email: kiko@comp.metro-u.ac.jp

The spatial distribution, size frequencies and morphologies

of massive Porites colonies were investigated over a large area

(1100 m x 200 m) in the sandy moat of Miyara Reef, Ishigaki

Island, Japan. Large massive Porites, > 50 cm, showed a

preferential distribution for deeper depths (i.e., 2 to 3 m) while

small colonies (50 to 100 cm) tended to be found in shallow

areas (<2 m). This distribution pattern suggests that large

colonies do not survive in shallow habitats or, and more likely,

that large colonies are transported to deeper more stable

habitats, like 'rolling stones'. Twenty-three percent of the large

colonies were mushroom shaped, with narrow necks attached

to the substratum. Significant portions of the mushroom

shaped colonies (69%) were dislodged and 66% of them were

tilted toward the direction of net water flow. The mushroom

morphologies appear related to the high mobility of sandy

sediments around the colonies, which interferes with ordinary

growth of the colony base through sand abrasion.

Fragmentation and/or mobile colonies seem to maintain local

coral populations in sandy habitats, which are often unsuitable

habitats for larval settlement. In this case, physical

environmental factors, such as water movement and micro-geomorphology,

regulates the distribution and population

structure of coral communities in the sandy shallow habitats.

SPONGES OF THE ‘CLIONA VIRIDIS COMPLEX’

Schönberg, CHL. Carl von Ossietzky University

Oldenburg, Dept. of Zoosystematics & Morphology, FB 7 -Biology,

Geo- & Environmental Sciences, D-26111

OLDENBURG, Email: christine.schoenberg@mail.uni-oldenburg.

de

The ‘ Cliona viridis complex’ is a group of clionid sponges

sharing important taxonomic characters: a spiculation of

tylostyles and spirasters, and symbiosis with zooxanthellae,

which cause brown to olive-green clour. Identifying and

separating species belonging to this group has caused much

confusion in the past. However, through thorough study of

spicule morphology in comparison with that of other species

respectively, makes it possible to identify a given species of

the ‘Cliona viridis complex’. Additional characters including

bioerosion traces are listed and may help, where variable

spicule features impede the decision. Characters of Cliona

orientalis from the Australian Great Barrier Reef are portrayed

to illustrate the problem as an example. A summary table of

species characters and a key are provided to facilitate future

work on the ‘Cliona viridis complex’.

CARBON TRANSFERS BETWEEN A REEF

ECOSYSTEM AND THE OCEAN THROUGH A

LAGOONAL PASS (MOOREA, FRENCH POLYNESIA)

Schrimm, M.*, R. Buscail, B. Delesalle, T. Courp, S.

Heussner. EPHE, ESA CNRS 8046, Université de

Perpignan, France. Email: schrimm@univ-perp.fr

The export of particulate organic (OC) and inorganic carbon

(IC) was quantified at the annual scale, from the inshore part

of a reef system to the ocean, through a lagoonal pass. The

study area, the Tiahura reef, was divided into 3 compartments:

(1) the lagoon, source of the material exported (2) the sandy

plain, intermediate compartment and (3) the open ocean,

considered as a definitive carbon sink. For each compartment,

the hydrological and nephelometrical water masses structures

(water samples and CTD/transmissometry profiles) and the

particle fluxes (sediment traps) were investigated. The export

of turbid lagoonal water is revealed by surficial nepheloids,

which spray around outside the pass. The concentrations of

particulate OC and IC decreased from the pass offshore. The

fluxes recorded in sediment traps showed that the particulate

lagoonal export increased 5 fold the ambiant external flux on

the outer reef sandy plain. Meanwhile, fluxes were 10 times

lower in the deep compartment than in the vicinity of the pass.

Finally, the net annual amount of particulate carbon exported

in the water masses can be estimated at 6.2 10 8 g OC y -1 and

3.2 10 8 g IC y -1 (i.e. respectively 26% of P, the organic net

production and 30% of G, the net calcification evaluated in the

lagoon). The OC and IC collected by sediment traps represents

up to 5% of P and 15% of G. Thus, export is far from being

negligeable and should be taken into account in carbon and

carbonate budgets..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

326

SELECTION OF MARINE ORGANISMS FOR

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS BASED ON ECOLOGICAL

TESTS, OBSERVATIONS AND PHARMACOLOGICAL

SCREENS.

Schupp, Peter J.* *Center for Marine Biofouling and

Bioinnovation, University of New South Wales, Sydney

2052, Australia. Email: P.Schupp@unsw.edu.au

There are few studies that examine the correlation between

the ecological and pharmaceutical activities of secondary

metabolites from marine organisms. To assess possible

correlations between ecological and pharmacological activities

a total of 21 marine invertebrates from the Indo-Pacific region

were examined. Organisms were selected if they were brightly

colored, had unusual growth forms, or had symbiosis with

other organisms, or were dominant. Ecological activity was

assessed using fish feeding experiments in the field and

laboratory. The pharmaceutical activity of samples was

determined at the Institute for Pharmaceutical Biology at the

University of Würzburg. Tests screened for insecticidal

activity with the polyphagus pest insect Spodoptera littoralis ,

cytotoxicity using L5178y mouse lymphoma cells and 11

different cyclin and tyrosine kinases. Antimicrobial activity

was assessed using the gram-positive bacteria Bacillus subtilis

168 (BS), Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923 (SA) and the

gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 (EC) and

Escherichia coli HB 101 (HB). Antifungal activity was

assessed using the phytopathogenic fungi Cladosporium

cucumerinum. Results demonstrated a strong trend, with

extracts which are active in fish feeding assays exhibiting

pharmacological activity.

OLIGO/MIOCENE EXAMPLES OF ACROPORA

DOMINATED PALEO-ENVIRONMENTS:

MESOHELLENIC BASIN (NW GREECE) AND

NORTHERN GULF OF SUEZ (EGYPT).

Schuster, Frithjof*. *Research Institute Senckenberg,

Senckenberganlage 25, D-60325 Frankfurt, Germany.

Email: fschuste@sngkw.uni-frankfurt.de

Assemblages dominated by Acropora are rare during the

Paleogene and the early Neogene. The emergence of Acropora

as a dominant species is thougth to have begun during the

Pliocene. Two examples of much older Acropora dominated

assemblages are presented from Late Oligocene shallow

sublittoral environments of the Mesohellenic Basin and Early

Miocene (Burdigalian) lagoonal deposits of Egypt. Both

examples show stratified deposits with accumulations of

mainly redeposited branches. In situ growth of Acropora

colonies is rarely observed. It is suggested that the formation

of these deposits was caused by storm events which destroyed

densely growing thickets. In the Mesohellenic Basin the lateral

extension of such layers of several hundreds of meters and

associated sediments indicate environments without major

relief and of shallow water depth. Burdigalian Acropora layers

of the northern Gulf of Suez are thinner and of less lateral

extent. They co-occur with Halimeda layers and corallinacean

red algal float- to rudstones. Both examples show that

Acropora was more abundant during the Paleogene and early

Neogene than previously thougth. It seems to occur

preferentially in shallow lagoonal or lagoonal like

environments where it formed extensive thickets mostly

preserved in stratified, redeposited layers. These environments

represent calm, low energy hydrodynamic conditions and show

that Acropora, which is regarded today as a moderate to high

energy coral, probably shifted its ecological adaption from low

to higher energy environments.

COMMUNITY STRUCTURE AT THE ABROLHOS

ARCHIPELAGO, BRAZIL.

Segal, Bárbara * and Clovis B. Castro. *Museu

Nacional/Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro,

Departamento de Invertebrados, Quinta da Boa Vista s/n o ,

São Cristóvão, 20940-040 – Rio de Janeiro RJ, Brasil.

Email: bsegal@pobox.com

The Abrolhos Reefs, Brazil, form the most developed and

diverse reef assemblages in the South Atlantic Ocean. The

Abrolhos Archipelago is located inside the area of Abrolhos

National Marine Park. Patterns of coral community structure

were analyzed at three sites in the Abrolhos Archipelago at

depths (stations) between 1.9 and 4.0 m. Five replicates of 20m

point intercept transects, marked with 500 random points, were

surveyed at each station. The size of 30 random colonies of the

most frequent or abundant coral species was measured at each

site. A non-metric MDS analysis was undertaken to test

zonation patterns in each site. Sites were compared with a

multivariate similarity test (ANOSIM). Simpson’s diversity

index and Heip evenness index were used to compare coral

diversity among the three areas. Dominant reef building

organisms were the endemic coral Mussismilia braziliensis

(1.8 to 24.5% cover) and calcareous algae (12.3 to 19.5%

cover). Total coral coverage was low (7.4 to 31.8%). Eleven

coral species were recorded for the entire area studied.

Shannon diversity indices were also low, ranging from 0.28 to

0.53. No zonation parn was detected among depths (stations)

analyzed. The main biotic differences among the three sites

referred to total coral cover and diversity parameters. We

suggest that some of these factors may be affected by physical

differences between the three ss, mainly wind direction and

intensity.

IMPACTS OF SOME NATURAL AND

ANTHROPOGENIC PERTURBATION ON THE REEF

FISH ASSEMBLAGES IN THE SOUTHERN TIP OF

TAIWAN.

Shao, K.T.*, C.Y. Lin and J.P. Chen. Institute of Zoology,

Academia Sinica, Nankang, Taipei, Taiwan. Email:

zoskt@gate.sinica.edu.tw

Fish assemblages in the southern tip of Taiwan were

monitored during November 1997 to March 1999 to study their

short-term and long-term temporal and spatial fluctuations as

well as the impact of nature (typhoon and global warming) and

human disturbances (sand-mining, explosive fishing). The

results shown: 1. Spatial effect is more important than

temporal effect to the fish assemblage and no seasonal

variation was shown. 2. Two typhoons passed by within one

month had caused the decrease of fish abundance and the

recruitment of juvenile fishes temporarily. 3. In 1998, due to

the global warming, the coral bleaching decreased the species

and individual number of reef fishes, but they are now

gradually recovering. 4. Sand-mining will affect certain groups

of fishes. 5. A station destroyed by the dynamite fishing in

1990 has so far not recovered yet. 6. Diving activities

apparently damage those near-shore reefs more than those off-shore

reefs.7. The intake area of the Nuclear Power Station

function like a no-take zone (MPA) create the most prosperous

coral reefs in Taiwan. The reef fish assemblages here are

unique and much dominant by zooplankton feeders..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

327

A DECADE OF STUDY ON CORAL SPAWNING AT

AKAJIMA ISLAND, OKINAWA, JAPAN.

Shimoike, K.* and T. Hayashibara. Akajima Marine

Science Laboratory, 179 Aka, Zamami-son, Okinawa 901-

3311, Japan. Email: shimoike@amsl.or.jp

Spawning behavior of scleractinian corals around Akajima

Island was observed in the field consecutively from 1989 to

1999. In total, 108 species belonging to 27 genera and 11

families spawned from May to early September during the 11

years. Most of the spawning events occurred during the period

from four nights before the full moon to eight nights after the

full moon, but 4 species of Acropora (A. divaricata, A.

latistella, A. subulata , A. willisae) and 2 species of Merulina

(M. ampliata, M. scabricula) spawned around the new moon

from July to September. The date of mass spawning of

Acropora spp. in all years but 1998 when serious breaching

occurred showed a clear relationship to the temperatures

experienced since March lst of each year. The water

temperature apparently influences maturation of gonad. Thus,

the cumulative water temperature will be a useful indicator to

predict the date of mass spawning.

CHEMICAL AND STRUCTURAL DEFENSES

MEDIATE GORGONIAN PREY PREFERENCE OF

CYPHOMA GIBBOSUM.

Slattery, Marc*. Deborah J. Gochfeld, Bryan C. DeBusk,

Gary R. Gaston, Daniel K. Schlenk. *The University of

Mississippi, Department of Pharmacognosy, NCNPR &

RIPS, School of Pharmacy, Oxford MS 38677-1848. Email:

mslatter@sunset.backbone.olemiss.edu

Grazers can play an important role in benthic community

structure; their impact is directly related to the abundance of

their prey species and to their own prey preferences. The

-grazing mollusc Cyphoma gibbosum is a common member of

Caribbean reef systems and exhibits distinct prey preferences

in the field. We tested the feeding deterrent activities of

extracts and sclerites from 10 species of gorgonians against C.

gibbosum. The species-specific differences in feeding

deterrence explained much of the prey preference data based

on our field observations. The aftermath of natural stresses,

Hurricane Mitch and a sea fan fungal pathogenesis event,

resulted in significant changes in the gorgonian community

composition which led to changes in host preference by the C.

gibbosum populations in Belize C.A. We re-examined feeding

deterrence in Briareum asbestinum and Gorgonia ventalina,

two species that exhibited changes in extract and sclerite levels

following these events. These results further support chemical

and structural defenses as mediators of gorgonian prey

preference and community-level grazing patterns by C.

gibbosum. Recent shifts in the gorgonian prey preferences

back to pre-stressed grazing patterns indicates that C.

gibbosum responds to plastic changes in its host in a manor

consistent with optimal foraging strategies.

CALIBRATION OF GULF OF MEXICO CORAL

SKELETAL PARAMETERS WITH IN SITU PHYSICAL

MEASUREMENTS.

Smith, J. M. *, N. C. Slowey. *Texas A&M University,

Department of Oceanography – 3146, College Station,

Texas 77843, Email: jennifer@ocean.tamu.edu

The Flower Garden National Marine Sanctuary is located in

the northern Gulf of Mexico, 180 km off the Texas-Louisiana

coast at the shelf edge. The Flower Gardens are isolated from

significant riverine influence and disturbance from human

coastal activities and are therefore an ideal site to investigate

how temporal changes in environmental conditions are

reflected by coral skeletal material. A suite of short coral

cores was collected from Montastrea faveolata and Diplora

strigosa corals. These cores were cut into slabs and X-rayed,

allowing their density bands to be analyzed and the skeletal

material to be sampled by micro-drill for geochemical

measurements. Variations in the stable isotopic (d 18 O, d

13 C)

compositions of the skeletal material (determined by mass

spectrometry) will be compared with in situ measurements of

light, salinity and temperature taken from a period of up to

eight years. Empirical relations established from this

comparison will contribute to our understanding of how corals

monitor environmental change and will provide a framework

for using corals to study the regional history of inter-annual

and inter-decadal climate change.

THE IMPACT OF HERBIVORES ON THE SURVIVAL

AND GROWTH OF RECENTLY SETTLED CORAL

RECRUITS.

Smith Luke. Australian Institute of Marine Science PO

BOX 264, Dampier Western Australia 6713 Email:

l.smith@aims.gov.au

These studies assesses whether herbivorous fishes enhanced

the survival and growth of coral recruits by reducing the

standing crop of turf algae or, alternatively increase coral

mortality through accidental grazing. Conditioned settlement

plates were seeded in the field with cultured coral larvae

(Acropora hyacinthus), removed two days later and the

recently settled larvae mapped. The cultured corals upon the

settlement plates were re-deployed upon the reef into one of

three treatments 1. cages that excluded herbivorous fishes 2.

cage controls or 3. open to herbivores. In the treatment

excluding herbivores, turf alga thrived, while no differences

were seen in the standing crop of turf algae within the open or

cage control treatments. Coral recruits survived best in the

open and cage control treatments, with 45% and 42%

remaining alive after 3 weeks, respectively. Alternatively,

coral recruits excluded from herbivores survived poorly, with

only 22% surviving in the corresponding period. Furthermore

coral recruits excluded from herbivores, had substantially

lower growth compared to those either in the open or cage

controls. The higher mortality and lower growth rate of coral

recruits excluded from herbivores was attributed to recruits

being smothered by sediment rather competition with the

algae. Sediment load was far greater on settlement plates

excluded from herbivorous fishes due to sediment becoming

trapped in the higher standing crops of turf algae found upon

these plates. Herbivores are likely to play a vital role in

enhancing the survival and growth of coral recruits by

preventing the accumulation of sediment within turf algal

communities..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

328

SPATIAL VARIATION OF CORAL RECRUITMENT IN

TAIWAN.

Soong K.*, Chen, Ming-hui; Chen, Chao-lun; Dai, Chang-feng;

Hsieh, Herhyi Fan, T.Y.; Kuo, Kun-ming; Li, Jan-jung.

*Institute of Marine Biology, National Sun Yat-sen

University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan 804, Rep. of China. Email:

keryea@mail.nsysu.edu.tw

Coral settlement at Nanwan Bay, southernmost Taiwan was

investigated using artificial substrates between 1997 and 1999.

Eleven 15 x 15 cm plates were placed at each of 2 spots (10 m

apart) at each of 2 sites (about 1 km apart) at each of the 4

regions, i.e., East, North, West and Out of the 10-km-across

bay, for 1.5-2 months (covering the annual mass spawning

time between April and May for 1997 and 1999). Scales of

spatial variation in Nanwan Bay were analyzed for the above

nest-design for 3 consecutive years. A similar design was

extended to isolated coral reefs around Taiwan, covering

north-east Taiwan, Orchid Island, Nanwan, Hsiao-liu-chiu,

Penghu and Yun-an, with a total span of 400x200 km, in 1999.

Overall densities of coral recruits were low, when compared to

that of the Great Barrier Reefs, and most recruits belonged to

brooding species, i.e. pocilloporids with some acroporids.

Significant spatial variation occurs among sites, at the scale of

about 1000 m, in 1997 and 1998. However, in 1999,

significant spatial variation occurred at a lower level of among

spots (10 m apart). In Nanwan, the highest recruitment

occurred at Hobihu for 3 consecutive studies, whereas other

sites locations had virtually no recruits. The pattern of

settlement variation suggests that self-seeding is a possible

explanation for broodings species. And the spatial scale of

distribution may be limited to restricted areas even within a

reef.

THE EFFECTS OF PREDATION ON CORAL

SURVIVORSHIP IN MALINDI / WATAMU MARINE

NATIONAL PARKS, KENYA.

Starger, C. J.* *Center for Environmental Research and

Conservation – Columbia University, MC 5557, 1200

Amsterdam Ave. New York, NY 10027, USA. Email:

cjs52@columbia.edu

Global warming is the greatest threat to coral reef

ecosystems worldwide. It is also the most difficult to manage

on an effective scale. Coral reef restoration may prove to be an

effective method for restoring reef communities which have

suffered otherwise irreversible damage from the effects of

hurricanes and bleaching events; communities where the

natural recruitment of corals is inadequate. In working towards

developing protocols for reef restoration, it is necessary to

study the survivorship of coral colonies with respect to many

variables. My study, part of a larger project of the Wildlife

Conservation Society’s Coral Reef Conservation Project, takes

place the Summer of 2000 in Malindi and Watamu Marine

National Parks, Kenya. I study the survivorship of transplanted

and naturally occurring colonies of Porites, Acropora,

Galaxea, and Pocillopora species. Treatments include

predation pressure, and reef zone. I hypothesize that the

greatest survivorship will occur among colonies of large size,

intermediate depth, rugose substrate, and low predation

pressure.

SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF

BIOERODERS, AND EFFECTS IN AN

EUTROPHICATION GRADIENT WITHIN CORAL

FRAMEWORK AT ZANZIBAR, TANZANIA

Stromberg H* *Zoology Department, Stockholm

University, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden. Email:

helena.stromberg@zoologi.su.se

In February to April 1999 a study of the distribution and

abundance of bioeroders was conducted across an

eutrophication gradient from the runoff of Zanzibar town

situated on the west coast of Zanzibar (Unguja), Tanzania.

Four sites were chosen in a gradient from town: outside the

Island Capwani with a reef nearest the runoff, outside Bawe

Island 2 NM from town, In the Chumbe marine park 7 NM

from town and at Mnemba reef outside the east coast of

Zanzibar. Dead standing corals of three genera ( Acropora spp.,

Porites spp.and synaraea spp.) were collected plus coral-rubble

from the bottom. From each of the different types

replicates were collected at two different depths. All corals

were cut into slabs and photographed. The percentage erosion

from different eroding groups i.e. sponges, polychaetes,

sipunculans, bivalves and balanoides were analyzed and

representation of the benthic taxa in the dead coral was

collected in an attempt to identify higher-level interactions

between water quality and community composition.

Preliminary results show that the variance of bioeroding

organisms within and among sites was very high. This

indicates that the common method of using corals for

bioerosion studies were the time of mortality is unknown can

be questioned.

CONTRIBUTION OF METABOLIC ACTIVITY BY

CORAL TO THE BALANCE IN ORGANIC MATTER

Suzuki, Y.*; Casareto, B.E.; Kurosawa, K.; and Katsumi,

Y. *Department of Biology and Geosciences, Graduate

School of Science, Shizuoka University, 836 Oya Shizuoka,

422 Japan. Email: seysuzu@sci.shizuoka.ac.jp.

A large part of the organic matter produced and released in

coral reef communities is introduced into the coral reef

ecosystems. The organic matter produced enters into the food

chain as suspended, and also as dissolved organic matter.

Carbon cycle in coral reef depends upon the "biodynamic

convertor" related to the production and decomposition of

organic matter. We performed a metabolic experiment on the

balance between inorganic and organic carbon for the coral

Montipora digitata in an incubation tank. The tank was filled

with unfiltered and Whatman GF/F filtered sea water, and

temperature (27°C), flow rate of water (5 ml.min. -1 ) and light

intensity (50 µMes, light/dark 12/12 hrs.) were monitored. The

organic fraction of coral was divided into two fractions:

zooxantellae and organic tissue. Total inorganic carbon

concentration decreased under the light, and increased under

the dark. The increase of total organic carbon concentration

(TOC) was 2.41 gC.m -2 day -1 under both light and dark

conditions. This value is in the same range than the primary

production rate (1.82 gC.m -2 .day -1 ) measured by the 13 C-isotope

method. The translocation and respiration of organic

matter measured using the 13 C-isotope method were 0.48

gC.m -2 .day -1 , and 1.34 gC.m -2 .day -1 , respectively. Therefore,

the uptake of organic matter by coral was 2.89 gC.m -2 .day -1

(translocation + uptake of TOC related to the metabolic

activity of coral). This suggests that the metabolic activity of

coral plays an important role in the carbon balance within coral

reef ecosystems..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

329

“WHERE DO THE BETTER CONDITION CARANGID

LARVAE GET THEIR NUTRIENTS FROM?”

Syahailatua, A* and Suthers, I. *School of Biological

Science, The University of New South Wales, Sydney NSW

2052, Australia.

Email: augy@student.unsw.edu.au

Two species of Carangidae ( Pseudocaranx dentex and

Trachurus novaezelandiae) were sampled along the north and

central coast of NSW during two cruises on the CSIRO RV

"Franklin" in November 1998 and January 1999. On both

cruises dramatic upwelling was observed with 2-4°C cooler

water off Foster and a strong East Australian Current offshore.

These two carangid species were found with higher abundance

in November 1998 than January 1999. However there were

only slight differences in their length distribution (1.5-16.0

mm) between species and among regions, providing ideal

material to investigate the effect of oceanographic nutrient

upwelling and sewage discharge. Determining growth and

condition, and also source of its food will be conducted by

using three methods (recent otolith growth increments,

RNA:DNA and stable isotope analysis). Recent otolith growth

over the past 3-7 days pre capture provide a robust back-calculated

estimate of growth, while RNA:DNA ratio indicates

the amount of protein synthesis relative to the number of cells.

Stable isotopes analysis of carbon and nitrogen show distinct

signatures of upwelled versus sewage derived nutrients.

THE GENETIC STRUCTURE OF POPULATIONS OF

THE UBIQUITOUS CORAL, STYLOPHORA

PISTILLATA IN TWO CONTRASTING REEF

SYSTEMS.

Takabayashi, M. * , Ridgway, T., Hoegh-Guldberg, O.,

Carter, D.A.

Centre for Marine Studies, The University of Queensland

QLD 4072 Australia. Email: misaki@bio.usyd.edu.au

The genetic structures of marine populations are driven by

the reproductive characteristics of an organism, as well as the

oceanography of the reef habitats within which populations

exist. We studied the population structure of Indo-Pacific reef-building

coral, Stylophora pistillata, within two contrasting

reefs the Great Barrier Reef (Raine Island, RI; 12°S, 144°E

and One Tree Island, OTI; 23°S, 152°E). Multilocus allozyme

analysis and nucleotide sequence analysis of the internal

transcribed spacer-1 (ITS-1) in the ribosomal RNA gene were

used. A substantial genotypic diversity at the local scale was

found at RI. Go values were similar to those expected for

outcrossed sexual reproduction (mean Go:Ge = 0.81), although

single-locus heterozygote deficits indicate small amounts of

inbreeding on reefs. Genetic subdivision was evident among

sites within RI. The relatively high level of genetic divergence

at RI was also reflected in the ITS-1 sequence variability. The

analyses of molecular variance (AMOVA) showed that the

proportional variance of among populations 8.23% for RI

compared to 0.17% for OTI. The low variance of populations

at OTI is probably due to the enclosed nature of lagoonal water

masses, which is likely to promote within population mixing

and hence greater homogeneity.

VARIATION ON THE CEMBRANOID DITERPENES IN

SARCOPHYTON SOFTCORALS IN OKINAWA.

Tanaka, Junichi* Takumi Yoshida, and Yehuda Benayahu.

University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan Email:

jtanaka@sci.u-ryukyu.ac.jp

Chemical constituents of softcorals have been intensively

investigated in the last three decades, and species of the genus

Sarcophyton are known to be rich in unique secondary

metabolites. In 1979, Kobayashi reported sarcophytol A from

S. glaucum, and the compound was later found to have an

antitumorpromoting activity. In early 90s, we investigated the

bioresources of sarcophytol A in Okinawa and found that the

compound was contained not only in S. glaucum, but in two

other species S. trocheliophorum and S. crassocaule.

Furthermore, some specimens of S. glaucum did not contain

the compound suggesting that chemical contents of

Sarcophyton species are not so simple. Recently, we started

chemical investigation on the biogeographic variation of

cembranoids in Sarcophytons species using a gradient HPLC

and other spectral methods together with morphological

characterization. We have found that there is considerable

variation on diterpene constituents of Okinawan Sarcophytons

species. Results on the chemical characterization of the

studied softcorals will be reported.

SMALL-SCALE MORPHOLOGICAL VARIATION IN

THE SCLERACTINIAN CORAL FAVIA SPECIOSA

(DANA 1846) AROUND SINGAPORE.

Todd, P.A.*, Sanderson, P.G., Chou, L.M. Department of

Geography, National University of Singapore, 1 Arts Link,

Kent Ridge, Singapore, 117576. Email:

artp8501@nus.edu.sg

A photographic technique was used to examine

morphological differences in the polyps of Favia speciosa

sampled from three sites around Singapore. Eight characters

were measured, seven of which differed significantly between

sites. Characters tended to decrease in size with increasing

distance from the mainland shore. Land reclamation and

dredging contribute to high sediment rates in Singapore

waters; these rates also decrease with increasing distance from

shore. Large polyps close to the main island of Singapore are

possibly an adaptation to high levels of sediment.

SCLERATIN CORALS IN THE CAMPECHE SOUND,

MEXICO.

Torruco, Daniel *, Gonzalez, Alicia and Axis, Javier.

*CINVESTAV-IPN Laboratory of Coral Reef, Center for

Research and Advances Studies, A.P. 73 Cordemex, 97310

Merida, Yucatan, Mexico. Email:

dantor@mda.cinvestav.mx

The spatial distribution of 33 hermatypic coral species was

analyzed for six coral reefs in the Campeche Sound, Mexico.

For the statistical analysis, the grouping technique was

employed using the Second Order Information Content

division criteria, coded with qualitative and quantitative data.

The total information content was 130 natural beles/ind. Three

large groups were produced in the cluster analysis, with very

narrow affinities. The multifactorial analysis showed strong

associations between Arcas Key – Triangulos Oeste Reef and

Arenas Key – Obispo Bank, the remaining stations all

associating with this second group. The ecological architecture

is solid, with strong interspecies interactions. The low diversity

in the area is principally attributed to meteorological events in

the area, though recuperation from these impacts, as well as

anthropogenic impacts from oil exploitation, was noted..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

330

STATUS OF KNOWLEDGE OF THE INDO-PACIFIC

SOFT CORAL GENUS SINULARIA (OCTOCORALLIA:

ANTHOZOA).

van Ofwegen, L.P.*. *Nationaal Natuurhistorisch Museum

/ Naturalis, Postbus 9517, 2300 RA Leiden, The

Netherlands. Email: Ofwegen@naturalis.nnm.nl

For several coral groups and other reef-associated fauna,

centres of species diversity have been recognized. Due to lack

of taxonomic knowledge, such diversity patterns for soft corals

are so far only based on rough estimations. Of all soft coral

genera found on the Indo pacific reefs, the genus Sinularia

undoubtedly is the largest. More than 125 species have been

described so far. Occasionally, species of this genus have been

observed even dominating vast regions of the reef. Much

additional research has to be done before all species are

sufficiently well known, but after a taxonomic revision of this

genus in 1980, species of Sinularia can be identified with

reasonable certainty. After this revison, a number of papers

with data about Sinularia have been published, providing

additional information about the genus. This information and

the revision are used together to examine patterns of species

diversity for Sinularia in the Indo Pacific. The outcome of this

examination gives a picture of the present status of knowledge

of the genus. The results are compared with the diversity

patterns known for hard corals. The differences found and

regions that need further research are discussed.

REPRODUCTIVE AND SPAWNING PATTERNS IN SIX

CLOSELY RELATED MADRACIS SPECIES

Vermeij, M., K., Nijgh-deSampayo, E. and Bak, R.P.M.*,

*Netherlands Inst. for Sea Research, Landsdiep 4, Texel,

The Netherlands.Email: rbak@nioz.nl

To study the relatedness between six species comprising the

Caribbean coral genus Madracis we studied the reproductive

cycles of six closely related Madracis species whose

taxonomical status is uncertain at the moment. Temporal

variation in reproductive cycles might result in reproductive

isolation between species excluding introgression or

hybridization as an explanation for the observed similarity

between species. All species proved to be hermaphroditic

brooders whose male and female gonads are found within the

same septa. Spawning and presence/absence of gonads was

monitored (daily, monthly) in all species over a 13-month

period. The production of female gonads starts in May whereas

the production of male gonads begins in August. Both mature

and immature gonads (male and female) are found in all

species from September till November when seawater

temperature reaches its yearly maximum. During these months

all species release larvae in low numbers (0.02-0.05

larvae/cm 2 /day) with no obvious relation to lunar, tidal or

temperature cycles. M. senaria showed a exceptional pattern. It

spawned large numbers of larvae (1.34 larvae/cm2/day) three

days after the last quarter moon and spawning of larvae was

observed in May when no gonads could be found. The two

Madracis species producing the lowest number of larvae are

characterized by a life history depending on fragmentation. We

show that reproductive behavior is plastic within the genus but

temporal reproductive isolation is absent in our six Caribbean

Madracis species.

THE EFFECT OF REDUCED SALINITY, COPPER,

AND IRON ON FERTILIZATION SUCCESS OF

GAMETES OF ACROPORA SURCULOSA. Victor, S.*

and. Richmond, R.H. *Marine Laboratory, University of

Guam, UOG Station, Mangilao, Guam USA 96923.

svictor@uog9.uog.edu

Fertilization of gametes from reef-building corals is an

important life history event leading to successful larval

production and eventually recruitment of new corals to

maintain populations. Fertilization can be inhibited by the

presence of pollutants, such as heavy metals in the water

column and/or altered salinity. Tropical islands surrounded by

coral reefs, have come under tremendous development

pressure that has increased runoff which carries pollutants and

fresh-water to affect coastal waters. Inhibition of fertilization

by reduced salinity and heavy metals (copper and iron) was

assessed using laboratory-based bioassay. Gametes of

Acropora surculosa were exposed to reduced salinity and

nominal concentrations of copper and iron. Reduced salinity

at 29.3 ppt (15% fresh-water dilution) and 27.7 ppt (20%

fresh-water dilution) caused 13% and 78% reduction in

fertilization success compared to 96% successful fertilization

in the control, respectively. Nominal concentrations of copper

(as CuSo4) at 100 ppb and 200 ppb caused a statistically

significant decrease in fertilization from 89% in the control to

61% and 60 %, respectively. Iron (as FeSo4) produced no

appreciable effects on fertilization success up to nominal

concentrations of 10 ppm. As spawning events are predictable,

management initiative can be developed to protect coastal

waters during these critical periods.

ENERGETIC IMPLICATIONS OF THE SYMBIOTIC

ASSOCIATION BETWEEN Tetralia fulva (XANTHIDAE)

AND Acropora millepora (SCLERACTINIA) ON THE

GREAT BARRIER REEF, AUSTRALIA.

Vytopil, Elaine*; Willis, Bettte. *Dept Marine Biology,

James Cook University, Townsville, Australia, 4811. email:

elaine.vytopil@flinders.edu.au

Branching corals of the genus Acropora dominate mid- and

outer-shelf reefs of the Great Barrier Reef and provide discrete

microhabitats for a variety of symbiotic epifauna. Despite the

abundance of Acropora in the reef environment, little is known

of the energetic implications of these associations to the

success of the coral genus. The role of Tetralia crabs in the

health of their Acropora hosts was assessed over a two-month

period using a crab removal experiment. The production of

mucus by Acropora millepora was significantly increased by

the presence of a Tetralia fulva pair. This did not have an

energetic cost to the corals in terms of either tissue health or

growth. In fact, colonies supporting a crab pair showed trends

for increased growth and tissue health, although trends were

not statistically significant. It is possible that the stimulation

of mucus production by Tetralia acts to keep the coral surface

clean thereby enhancing tissue health, and that crab excretory

products provide their coral hosts with a supplementary

nitrogen source which may act to enhance growth. Thus, we

suggest that Tetralia have no obvious energetic costs to their

coral hosts (although reproductive output was not measured),

and that since crabs benefit nutritionally from coral mucus

production, this association may be considered energetically

commensal and possibly mutualistic in nature..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

331

FIRST DATA ON COMMUNITY STRUCTURE AND

TROPHIC FUNCTIONING OF UVEA (WALLIS AND

FUTUNA) CORAL REEF FISH ASSEMBLAGES.

Wantiez L*, Chauvet C, Coutures E, Allendach M.

Lervem, University Of New Caledonia, Bp 4477, 98847

Noumea, New Caledonia. email: wantiez@univ-nc.nc

The first quantitative study of the coral reef fish communities

of Uvea, main island of Wallis and Futuna archipelago, was

conducted in 1999. Visual censuses techniques were used on 4

transects. On each transect, fringing reef, mid-lagoon reef,

inner barrier reef slope and outer barrier reef slope were

sampled. A total of 194 fish species in 32 families were

censused. The main families being the Labridae (34 species),

Pomacentridae (33 species) and Chaetodontidae (23 species).

Several common commercial reef species in tropical Indo-Pacific

coral reefs (Epinephelus spp, Plectropomus leopardus,

Lethrinus nebulosus, Gymnocranius spp, Naso unicornis,

Siganus spp) were not recorded during this survey. Mean

density (2.5 fish m -2 ) was comparable to other Pacific reefs

fish communities whereas mean biomass (43 g m -2 ) was within

the smallest known values. Four assemblages have been

identified along an inshore-offshore gradient and linked to

substrate characteristics: One coastal assemblage located in a

coral reef and seagrass bed environment; Two lagoonal

assemblages, one in an algae and rubble environment, and one

in a live coral and coral stone environment. The third

assemblage was located on the outer barrier reef slope and

linked to live coral substrate. The main path for the transfer of

energy was microalgae à grazers à piscivores.

Macrocarnivores and zooplanctivores were the other important

trophic groups.

SETTLEMENT, MOVEMENT AND EARLY

MORTALITY OF YELLOWTAIL SNAPPER OCYURUS

CHRYSURUS.

Watson, Maggie*. *ICLARM CEPO, 158 Inland

Messenger, Road Town, Tortola, British Virgin Islands.

Email: iclarm@candwbvi.net

Light trapping near fringing reefs in the British Virgin

Islands documented a clear pulse of late pelagic stage

yellowtail snapper (Ocyurus chrysurus) in September 1999.

Daily visual censuses of a grid covering 1250 m 2 of shallow

seagrass (Thalasia testudinium) revealed a concurrent peak of

newly settled fish. Censuses continued while the cohort was

distinguishable from older juveniles (approximately four

weeks while length was <= 3.5cm). Abundance declined

exponentially: y= 74.831exp -0.045x R 2 0.83. Three experiments

were undertaken to separate post settlement movement from

mortality. Firstly, total lengths of censused fish were estimated

to the nearest 0.5cm. Fish <= 8cm were regularly observed in

the seagrass but individuals <8cm were never recorded from

schools of older juveniles in adjacent rocky habitat. Thus fish

<=3.5cm were considered resident in seagrasses. Secondly, 96

late pelagic stage Ocyurus chrysurus caught in light traps were

tagged (tagging mortality 13.6%) and released at the centre of

the grid between 6 th and 9 th September. Eight fish (the

maximum seen on one day) were resighted on the 9 th . Between

the 9 th and the 17 th only one of 32 resightings was more than a

few meters distant from a sighting on the 9 th , providing a

convincing picture of site fidelity after settlement. Thirdly,

average home range was estimated at 2.27m 2 for fish 2 –

2.5cm (convex polygon method). Thus movement of newly

settled individuals is minimal, and immigration was assumed

to balance emmigration. Post settlement mortality was

estimated as at least 80% of peak settlement abundance in the

first month.

FEEDING ECOLOGY AND FUNCTIONAL

MORPHOLOGY OF WESTERN ATLANTIC

GROUPERS (SERRANIDAE: EPINEPHELINAE) .

Weaver D.C.*. *United States Geological Survey,

Biological Resources Division, 7920 NW 71 st Street,

Gainesville, FL, USA. Email: doug_weaver@usgs.gov

Groupers are common apex predators that occur on tropical

and warm-temperate reef systems throughout the world. The

genus Mycteroperca and Cephalopholis exhibit an early onset

of piscivory, and have diets dominated by fishes throughout

the majority of their life history. In contrast, crustaceans

dominate the diets of juveniles and remain important in the

diets of adults for members of the genus Epinephelus. Patterns

of dentition, jaw morphology, and lever ratios of the lower jaw

were compared for representative species within each genus to

identify potential morphological adaptations for feeding. All

members of the genus Mycteroperca examined have enlarged

teeth in the upper jaw, a reduced number of fixed teeth in the

lower jaw, and relatively low lever ratios (.10 closing/.17

opening). In contrast, Epinephelus spp. have teeth of reduced

size in the upper jaw, a greater number of teeth in the lower

jaw, and higher lever ratios (.17 closing/.24 opening).

Members of the genus Cephalopholis have high numbers of

greatly enlarged teeth, low closing lever ratios (0.9) and high

opening lever ratios (0.26). Increasing tooth size, a reduction

in tooth number, and decreased jaw lever ratios are likely to

increase capture success of evasive, soft-bodied prey,

particularly fishes and squids, and reflect the dietary patterns

observed. Groupers exhibit ecomorphological trends in

feeding morphology that parallel more “specialized” reef

fishes, such as wrasses (Labridae).

COMMUNITY STRUCTURE, HABITAT

ASSOCIATION, AND TROPHIC RELATIONSHIPS OF

REEF FISHES ON A STAGHORN CORAL (ACROPORA

CERVICORNIS) REEF IN BROWARD CO., FLORIDA,

U.S.A.

Weaver, D. C.*, D. S. Gilliam, D. Anderegg, and R. E.

Dodge. *United States Geological Survey, Biological

Resources Division, 7920 NW 71 st Street, Gainesville, FL,

USA. Email: doug_weaver@usgs.gov

The recent demise of Acropora cervicornis populations

throughout the Florida Keys and Caribbean requires an

investigation of the population dynamics and community

ecology of this once dominant reef type. Simultaneous

surveys involving high-resolution coral mapping/ monitoring

and fine-scale spatial reef fish censuses will not only lead to

increased understanding of processes that drive colony

dynamics, including mortality and subsequent erosion, but

identify impacts on the diverse assemblage of reef fishes

associated with these monotypic populations of A. cervicornis

“thickets” or “haystacks”. Photoquadrat analysis and belt

transect surveys were initiated in April 1999 on a broadly

distributed, high-latitude A. cervicornis reef off Broward

County, FL to document spatial distribution and percent cover

of living coral colonies and associated reef fishes. Ongoing

research efforts will document the food web structure of reef

fishes associated with living and dead A. cervicornis reefs to

identify associated shifts in species abundance, spatial

distribution and trophic ecology of resident reef fishes. This

project will provide a more comprehensive understanding of

the biological processes linking hard coral and reef fish

community dynamics in this geographically unique biological

assemblage..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

332

JUVENILE CORALS: SEWAGE IMPACT AND THE

DETECTION OF POPULATION RESPONSE TO

STRESS.

Webster, Graham*, S.R. Smith. *Bermuda Biological

Station for Research, 17 Biological Station Lane, Ferry

Reach, St. George’s GE 01, Bermuda. Email:

gwebster@sargasso.bbsr.edu

Detection of the impact of a stressor can be achieved by

observation of those individuals most susceptible to the

mechanisms in operation. A major effect of sewage impact on

coral reefs is indirect through increased competition from

enhanced benthic macroalgal growth; consequently, the most

susceptible individuals will be the smaller or juvenile corals.

Coral community and population parameters were investigated

among replicate reef sites impacted by untreated macerated

sewage and control sites off Bermuda. Surveys of juvenile

(£50mm) coral abundance in marked permanent quadrats at

impact and control sites in 1997 indicated mean densities of

juvenile Diploria spp., the major framework building corals, to

be less than half as abundant at impact sites than at control

sites (0.50 m -2 compared to 0.97 m -2 ; p<0.01). Total juvenile

coral densities of all species varied from 8.6 to 10.3 m -2 , with

Porites astreoides comprising approximately 70% of all

juveniles. No significant difference was detected between size-frequency

distributions of Diploria, although size-frequency

distributions of juvenile P. astreoides were skewed toward

larger sizes at impact sites. Re-sampling of the same quadrats

in 1999 revealed no statistically significant trends over time

among sites.

BIOGEOGRAPHY AND TAXONOMY OF THE INDO-PACIFIC

REEF CAVE DWELLING CORALLINE

DEMOSPONGE ASTROSCLERA WILLEYANA – NEW

DATA FROM NUCLEAR ITS GENE SEQUENCES.

Woerheide, G.*; Degnan, B. M.; Hooper, J.N.A.; Reitner,

J. Queensland Museum, P.O. Box 3300, South Brisbane, Q

4101, Australia & Molecular Zoology Lab., Dept. of

Zoology and Entomology, University of Queensland.

Email: GertW@qm.qld.gov.au

Astrosclera willeyana Lister, 1900 is a pyriform-half

spherical, predominantly bright orange colored, coralline

demosponge commonly living in cryptic and light reduced

environments of Indo-Pacific coral reefs, with the taxon

Astrosclera present at least since the Triassic. Variability in

spicule morphology of the allegedly 'cosmopolitan' A.

willeyana from different geographic localities has been

reported and the idea of there being more than one species of

Astrosclera has been discussed. In a previous study we have

undertaken empirical testing of the question whether variation

in spicule morphology represents geographic variation or

separate species, with examination of spicule morphology of

specimens from 26 geographically distinct populations.

Furthermore, we carried out a study on restriction fragment

length analysis of the nuclear ITS regions for twenty

specimens from five geographically distinct populations - this

analysis supported the 'cosmopolitan' distribution of A.

willeyana. We have now undertaken to sequence about 860

base pairs of the nuclear ITS regions of the previously

investigated specimens and present a phylogenetic analysis of

these sequences shedding new light on the biogeographic and

taxonomic relationships of Astrosclera, with additional

evidence on the old question: is there more than one species in

Astrosclera?

PLANULATION PERIOD OF STYLOPHORA

PISTILLATA AND SERIATOPORA HYSTRIX.

Yamazato, K.*, M. Sai, H. Tioho and S. Sultana. *Meio

University, Nago, Okinawa, Japan 905. Email: ris-yama@

ii-okinawa.ne.jp

Planulation of Stylophora pistillata and Seriatopora hystrix

are known to take place monthly throughout a year in tropical

areas, but they were found to planulate only during three

months, namely May, June and July or June, July and August

in Okinawa. The purpose of this study is to make clear the

reason for this. It was assumed that they do not planulate in

August and September because of high water temperature, and

because of low sea water temperature during the rest of a year,

with the critical temperature being about 26C. In order to test

this assumption, four to five colonies of S. pistillata were kept

at a constant temperature of 26C during April, 1995 to June,

1996. The planulation was observed in some months when

control corals kept in natural condition did not. The result

showed the assumption was correct, but was not conclusive.

Further studies for both species are in progress.

PATTERNS OF CORAL RECRUITMENT IN THE

GULF OF THAILAND.

Thamasak Yeemin* *Marine Biodiversity Research

Group, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science,

Ramkhamhaeng University, Huamark, Bangkok 10240,

Thailand. Email: thamasakyeemin@hotmail.com

Composition and rate of coral recruitment and their spatial

and temporal variations in the Gulf of Thailand were examined

by using appropriate experiments. Species richness and density

of juvenile colony of corals observed in natural habitats were

comparatively low. Several coral species were very abundant

in terms of number of large colony and percentage of live coral

cover but only a few juvenile colonies of them were found.

The most important factors controlling distribution pattern and

mortality rate of juvenile colonies were position of available

substrate, sediment, grazing activity of a sea urchin, Diadema

setosum, and territory of damselfish. The data of coral

recruitment on settlement plate experiments revealed that rates

of coral recruitment in the Inner Gulf of Thailand were very

low, compared to other reports from different geographic

regions. Most coral recruits on the settlement plates were spats

of Pocillopora damicornis. Recruits of other dominant coral

species were rarely observed on the settlement plates. The

important limiting factor of coral recruitment was shortage of

larval supply. Clearly, grazing activities of D. setosum and

territory of damselfish played significant roles on coral

recruitment in a small scale. The coral bleaching event in 1998

affected coral recruitment rates as well as mortality rates of

juvenile colonies..9ICRS Posters A: State of Knowledge

333

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION OF TWO DIFFERENT

POPULATION STRUCTURES OF ACROPORA

HYACINTHUS IN THE GULF OF THAILAND.

Yeemin T.*, J. Buaruang, P. Nopchinwong, S. Asa and N.

Ruengsawang *Marine Biodiversity Research Group,

Department of Biology, Faculty of Science,

Ramkhamhaeng University, Huamark, Bangkok 10240,

Thailand. Email: thamasakyeemin@hotmail.com

Sexual reproduction, especially patterns of gametogenesis

and fecundity of a scleractinian coral, Acropora hyacinthus,

from Khang Khao Island and Nok Island, in the inner Gulf of

Thailand were examined during March 1997-January 1999.

Marked colonies of the coral were collected monthly for

histological studies. Colony sizes of A. hyacinthus from Nok

Island were much larger. A. hyacinthus was a

simultaneous hermaphrodite and had a single annual

gametogenic cycle. The gamete releasing was asynchronous

and lasted for several months. The commencement of

gametogenesis and gamete releasing times of A. hyacinthus

from the two study sites were different. The fecundity was

much variation between colonies and study sites. A. hyacinthus

from Khang Khao Island had higher fecundity. This exhibited

the difference in energy allocation for colony growth and

gamete production. The fecundity of A. hyacinthus from Nok

Island was much lower than that of other Acropora species.

The result supported the data on recruitment of Acropora in

the Gulf of Thailand which were comparatively low. The coral

bleaching phenomenon in the Gulf of Thailand during April-May

1998 had profound effects on gonad development and

population structure of A. hyacinthus from the two study areas..9ICRS POSTERS Posters B: Resource Management

B: RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

334

STATUS AND PROSPECTIVE OF CORAL REEF

MANAGEMENT IN CUBA.

Alcolado, Pedro M.*. *Instituto de Oceanología, Ave 1ª No.

18406, Reparto Flores, Playa, Ciudad de La Habana, Cuba.

Email: alcolado@unepnet.inf .cu and

alcolado@oceano.inf.cu

Main human induced impacts on Cuban coral reefs are land

based organic pollution and sedimentation, as well as reduction

of stocks (due to both commercial and illegal fishing and

probably regional scale mismanagement) of some predators

and herbivore fishes, which enhance algal proliferation and

coral damage and disease. These factors act in synergy with

the Diadema sea urchin pandemic dye-off, coral bleaching due

to increased temperatures during ENSO, and several

pathogenic coral diseases. The term “coral reef” begins to

appear explicitly in a currently improving Cuban

environmental legislation since 1997. A recently approved

Decree-law on Protected Areas, among others, opens the way

to the urgent protection of several coral reefs in Cuba.

Agreement between fishery and tourism stakeholders is

converting diving sites in “no take areas” but illegal fishing

still poorly controlled in some of them. A great effort is being

devoted to organic pollution control after increasing awareness

about its importance for coral reef health and for tourism

development. Enhancing public awareness (mainly directed to

decision-makers) and extending undergoing coral reef rapid

assessment have to be next prioritised actions. Lacks of

funding and yet insufficient public and decision-makers

awareness are among the main constraints for achieving reef

protection and sustainable use in Cuba.

CORAL REEF MANAGEMENT IN THAILAND

Chansang H.*. Phuket Marine Biological Center. P.O. Box

60, Phuket 83000, Thailand. E-mail:

pmbcnet@phuket.ksc.co.th

Two main government agencies are responsible for

management i.e. Department of Fisheries which is responsible

for aquatic resources management and Department of Forestry

which is responsible for marine park management. The

Department of Fisheries has set up a coral reef management

program since 1995. The project include research,

management, training of government officials and public

education. Reefs are distributed in 13 coastal provinces both in

the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman Sea. The management

of reefs are under responsibility of Provincial Fisheries Offices

and Division of Fisheries Resource Conservation. Training

program on reef management has been conducted for the

officials. Public education has been conducted both in general

level and with certain target groups. The program has achieved

only limited success. Research has provided valuable

information. The management is still effective only in certain

provinces. Twelve marine parks have coral reefs as their

valuable resources. Management is carried out entirely by park

officers. Reef management is still limited to only certain

activities. Public education centers are established. Reef

management in Thailand is mainly on hand of government

officials. Thus new strategies will evolve including local

district government and/or concern parties to have more direct

share in manage their own reef resources. However, lack of

public awareness and involvement in resources management is

a major obstacle.

SHOULD CORAL REEF MPAS INCLUDE LARGE

PELAGIC MIGRATORY FISHES? THE CASE OF

WHALE SHARKS AND THE BELIZE BARRIER REEF.

Graham, Rachel T. *, Callum M. Roberts and William D.

Heyman. University of York (UK) & Darwin Initiative,

Box 170, Punta Gorda, Belize. Email: rtg@btl.net

Large pelagic migratory fish are rarely if ever considered in

coral reef MPA design. This is primarily due to the species’

peripatetic natures and lack of information on their foraging,

migratory and reproductive behaviours in coral reef areas. Yet

reefs are well known to attract pelagic fish and several large

pelagic species show predictable reef visitations. Working

with local fishermen can help to identify and characterise the

movements of pelagics in reef areas. Yet, this information is

poorly documented. Recent research on the foraging and

migratory behaviour of whale sharks at Gladden Spit, a

promontory on the Belize Barrier Reef, prompted by one such

collaboration, reveals strong links between this species and

coral reef fish. Every April and May full moons, since local

fishermen can remember, whale sharks aggregate at Gladden

Spit to feed on the spawn of Lutjanids and several other reef

species. As a result, this is the first site in Belize proposed as

an MPA based, in part, on the temporary but predictable

visitations of a large pelagic migratory species. MPA

designation and management meets the objectives of

protecting both coral reefs and large pelagics. Well-managed

tourism associated with the whale sharks will help to offset the

operational costs of this coral reef reserve.

THE FORMATION OF MARINE PRESERVES ON THE

PACIFIC ISLAND OF GUAM.

Gutierrez, Jay T. * and Trina J. Leberer. Division of

Aquatic and Wildlife Resources, 192 Dairy Road,

Mangilao, Guam 96923, U.S.A. Email: jgut@ite.net

Based upon the need to restore fish stocks in the coastal

areas of Guam, five marine preserves, representing 11 % of the

coastline, were created in May, 1997 (Public Law 24-21). To

monitor their effectiveness, baseline surveys of the reef flat

and fore reef slope were conducted at two of the five marine

preserve sites and appropriate control sites. Eight strip

transects, each 50 m x 5 m, were surveyed for each habitat

type (reef flat or fore reef slope) at each site. Permanently

marked transects were located at different depths and

microhabitats. Fish counts and video transects were performed

to determine fish densities and substrate composition.

Preliminary data indicate low fish densities and coral cover for

both experimental and control sites. Transects will continue to

be surveyed for two years, in order to assess the effect of

marine preserves on the restoration of fish populations..9ICRS POSTERS Posters B: Resource Management

335

CAN NEW LARGE-SCALE ECOLOGICAL STUDIES

ENHANCE THE DESIGN OF A NONFUNCTIONAL

MARINE PROTECTED AREA? A CASE STUDY FROM

BOCAS DEL TORO, CARIBBEAN PANAMA.

Guzmán, Héctor M*. *Smithsonian Tropical Research

Institute, PO Box 2072, Balboa, Republic of Panama.

Email: guzmanh@naos.si.edu

The structure, distribution and conservation status of 71 coral

reefs along 564 km of coastline were described between 1997

and 1999 in the Province of Bocas del Toro, Panama. The

region encompasses an archipelago of nine large forested

islands, 251 mangrove cays, and a 11,730 ha marine protected

area. Coral cover averaged 26% (range 2.7-74.7%) for the

entire region. Species diversity of three major taxa was 61

scleractinian corals (91% of national diversity), 58 sponges,

and 32 octocorals. The Parque Nacional Marino Isla

Bastimentos includes extensive mangrove forests, seagrass

beds and coral reefs, and was created in 1988 with the goals of

protecting marine ecosystems, and endemic and endangered

species. Twelve years later, no management plan has been

designed or implemented for the area. Moreover, the

conservation status of reefs and diversity are considerably

higher outside the protected area. Of the local entire diversity,

96%, 94% and 97% of the total number of species of corals,

octocorals and sponges, respectively, are recorded inside a

“hot spot” located further east. Based on the results, we have

recommended the modification of the existing limits of the

park to include reef areas with highest diversity and abundance

of threatening species (e.g., Acropora palmata, A. cervicornis),

and/or the creation of a network of marine protected areas

within the archipelago. Lack of political will and potential

social problems have precluded the modification of park

boundaries.

USING ENVIRONMENTAL EMBEDMENT ANCHOR

BUOY SYSTEMS FOR GLOBAL REEF ECOSYSTEM

PROTECTION.

Halas J.C.* and Judith F. Halas. Florida Keys National

Marine Sanctuary, P. O. Box 1083, Key Largo, FL 33037,

USA Email: John.Halas@noaa.gov

Using environmentally sensitive embedment anchor buoy

systems began almost twenty years ago. Now widely accepted

for reducing anthropo-genic pressures to marine ecosystems,

buoys have become a widespread management tool in marine

protected areas for diminishing impacts to sensitive sea

bottoms. More than 60 projects in over 35 countries have

resulted in over 3,000 environmental mooring installations

throughout tropical waters of the world. Many benefits and

challenges result from using these systems which are positive

when managers provide adequate funding for materials,

education, and maintenance. In newly formed MPAs, a

mooring buoy system often becomes one of the first planned

visible reef protecting tools to be implemented. Many existing

MPAs already have ongoing mooring system programs or plan

to establish them. At some highly visited reef destinations

without MPA status, local dive shop or environmental groups

have initiated efforts to establish mooring buoy programs

which may be integrated into future managed areas. With

multiple use zoning practices becoming more commonplace,

embedment anchor technology is now being used to

permanently establish zone and boundary buoy markers with

GPS accuracy for enforcement of regulations.

PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT.

Herlinger, Cathy. U.S. Army Program Manager for

Chemical Demilitarization (PMCD) Public Outreach and

Information Office (POIO). SFAE-CD-P, Building E4585,

Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-4005. Email:

catherine.herlinger@pmcd.apgea.army.mil

The U.S. Army partners with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Service and Sponsors the Ornithological Council and the

Boston University Marine Program to study Johnston Atoll's

seabird and shorebird populations, and to conduct long-term

environmental studies on the atoll's aquatic life, such as fish,

coral reefs, and endangered species.

WHY LIST CORAL REEFS UNDER THE RAMSAR

CONVENTION?

Jenkins, Aaron * Wetlands International –Oceania. GPO

Box 787, Canberra A.C.T. Australia. Email:

aaron.jenkins@ea.gov.au

For the past 30 years, the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

has been the principal instrument for international cooperation

on conservation and wise use of wetlands. Adopted in

Ramsar, Iran in 1971 by 18 countries, it was the first of the

modern global conservation treaties and is still the only one

dedicated to a particular ecosystem type. The current 122

country members have achieved international recognition for

1031 wetland sites totalling more than 78.2 million hectares.

The Ramsar Convention’s definition of “wetlands” is

intentionally broad and includes coral reefs and associated

ecosystems. Despite the tremendous growth of the Convention

coral reefs and associated ecosystems are very poorly

represented. Many of the more important reef systems are in

countries that are not party to the Convention especially in

Oceania and the Caribbean. The Ramsar approach

emphasises, not the strict preservation of wetland resources,

but rather the “wise use” for the benefit of humans without

compromising their potential value for future generations. As

existing country members can attest, there are many

advantages to listing coral reefs and associated ecosystems

under the Convention. A few of the most important are:

· Greater access to site management expertise and

training opportunities

· Greater access to development aid, small-scale

project funding and assistance in the preparation of

larger-scale project proposals

· Synergy with other Conventions

· Regional solidarity and cooperation

· A voice on the international stage

· To safeguard specific wetland resource.

The popularly accepted definition of wetlands should not be an

obstacle to nominating coral reef sites to the Convention. The

inclusion of coral reef sites in the “Ramsar List” of wetlands of

international importance encourages more coordinated and

holistic management of freshwater, estuarine and near-shore

marine ecosystems as an interconnected water resource..9ICRS POSTERS Posters B: Resource Management

336

CONSERVATION STATUS ASSESSMENT OF THE

BACKREEF AT PUNTA NIZUC, CANCUN, MEXICO.

Lara M*, Padilla C, Loreto R.M. And Gutiérrez, D.

*Semarnap, Km 4.8 Z.H. Cancún 77500, Q. Roo, México.

Email: pncontoy@prodigy.net.mx

Punta Nizuc coral reef is part of Cancun Marine National

Park. It represents an important economic and biological

resource because is located in the main tourist destination of

México and it’s one of the best well-developed reef crest in the

Mexican Caribbean. Many tourist activities are made in this

reef. It has been considered that in one portion of this reef,

called first barrier, the use intensity is the highest in the world.

This small reef, with an approximate area of 4 hectares, has

over 1,700 tourist per day. This study has an assessment of

conservation status considered the framework development

and community structure. Some properties of communities and

populations like diversity, biomass, healthy conditions, size

structure, trophic and taxonomic guilds are analysed. In

addition, the effect of reef distance to the tourist activities,

backreef framework and intensity use is correlated to this

evaluation. Judgement elements and criterions for the

management of these reefs are provided. The major cause of

degradation in Nizuc reef is tourist activities intensity. These

take the form of physical damage, over sedimentation, wave

runner or other boats collisions and pollution. The assessment

of the present status showed that algae cover are negative

correlated with scleractinian richness and cover, otherwise is

positive correlated to the number of both unhealthy hard and

soft coral colonies.

CONSERVATION STATUS OF THE PSEUDOATOLL

BANCO CHINCHORRO, MEXICO.

Loreto R. M*, Lara M, Padilla C, Bezaury J, Loreto A.

AMIGOS DE SIAN KA’AN A.C. A.P. 770, Cancún 77506,

Q.Roo, México. Email: sian@cancun.com.mx

...Banco chinchorro is located 40 km offshore of quintana roo

coast, in mexican caribbean. This reef has a 145 km perimeter,

making it the longest reef in the meso-american reef system. In

1996 it was declared a biosphere reserve (bcbr). Since there

was no management plan in place, illegal fishing increased

human settlements and tourism development became threats to

the area. To provide input to the management plan, from 1997

to 1999, a detailed assessment of the present status was made

based on reef framework and community structure analysis,

within 1 to 40 m depth range. Some properties of communities

and populations of scleractinians, macroalgae, gorgonians and

sponge, as well as fish trophic guilds and reef framework traits

were analysed. Four structural zones were described and 17

areas were defined within the lagoon and slopes. This resulted

in identification of 107 algae species, 3 seagrasses, 51

scleractinians, 2 hydrocorals, 45 gorgonians, 74 sponges and

136 fish species. Four areas are well conserved with

exceptional characteristics, however, in some areas of the

lagoon, overfishing is evidenced by the reef condition and

fishes structure assemblages. Two areas are at south and north

of fore reef and showed highest reef framework development.

The third area is at leeward slope, with high scleractinians

cover and reproductive queen conch and black coral

populations. The fourth area, located at the lagoon, shows a

well development coral ridge parallel to reef ring with highest

coral cover and spiny lobster populations. These characteristics

are critical to the management plan, which is being approved

by the authorities and users of the bcbr, as an effort to reduce

anthropogenic and natural impacts to these valuable resources.

MARINE CONSERVATION PRIORITIES AND NEEDS

IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA AND THE SOLOMON

ISLANDS – A WAY FORWARD.

Mangubhai, Sangeeta.* *World Wide Fund For Nature –

South Pacific Program, Private Mail Bag, Gpo, Suva, Fiji

Islands. email smangubhai@wwfpacific.org.fj

The coral reefs of Papua New Guinea and the Solomon

Islands harbour a wide concentration of marine species,

forming part of the richest centres for coastal marine

biodiversity on earth, and provide subsistence, livelihood and

income for coastal communities. In contrast to other

neighbouring countries, both solomon islands and Papua New

Guinea are fortunate to have marine ecosystems in relatively

pristine condition, though the movement to a cash economy

and limited human resource and institutional capacity to

manage resources in a sustainable way, is undermining the

long-term protection and sustainable use of coastal and marine

resources. This paper will provide an overview of the

outcomes of a planning exercise undertaken by world wide

fund for nature to identify conservation priorities and needs for

coastal and marine resources in solomon islands and Papua

New Guinea, and the feasible strategies for addressing those

needs. The gaps in knowledge that were identified, the

anthropogenic factors that influence the conservation of coastal

resources and the conservation work being undertaken by

different organisations will be summarised, as well as the role

world wide fund for nature will play in addressing

conservation priorities and needs in the two countries.

OVERLAP OF TOURISM AND FISHERIES SITES IN A

FRINGING REEF IN KENYA; OPPORTUNITIES FOR

MULTIPLE USE ZONATION.

Obura, D.O*. and Mwaura, J.M. *Coral Reef Degradation

in the Indian Ocean, P.O.Box 10135 Mombasa; Email:

dobura@africaonline.co.ke

Mapping the use and activity patterns of coral reef resource

users can contribute to management of multiple users. This

poster site use by local fishermen and tourism operators, in the

diani-chale reef system 20 km south of mombasa on the kenya

coast. The study area is characterized by an active tourism

industry and small scale indigenous fishing communities, in

growing conflict over use of reef sites. The two primary issues

are a) conflict over extraction versus conservation, and b)

beach and reef access determined by land ownership. While

the area is a gazetted marine reserve, there has been no active

management due to opposition engendered by fishers’ fear of

losing their fishing rights in a protected area system oriented

towards tourism and protection over traditional resource use.

Mapping was conducted using handheld g.p.s., Digitized base

maps, aerial digital video imagery and field surveys. Local site

names and information were gathered through informal

interviews and participant observation, accompanying boat

operators and local fishers during their daily activities on the

reef. Types of tourism and fishing use, approximate value and

access to these sites is indicated in the maps, and offer a

number of options for discussing multiple use and access

among reef users. The analysis also focuses attention on the

small proportion of sites of greatest importance to each user

group. With growing pressure on marine resource from both of

these principal activities, it is hoped that these types of

analyses will assist in conflict resolution. The paper discusses

the need for establishment of multiple use zones/area that will

control the pressure on these important resource base..9ICRS POSTERS Posters B: Resource Management

337

CORAL REEF MANAGEMENT IN MOZAMBIQUE.

Pereira, M. A. M.*, Gonçalves, M., Motta, M., Rodrigues,

M. J. *Ministry for the Coordination of Environmental

Affairs, P.O. Box 678. Maputo, Moçambique. Email:

coastal@tropical.co.mz

Mozambique is situated in the eastern African region and

possesses the third longest coastline, extending for 2,700 Km.

Part of which adjoins extensive areas of coral reefs. This

ecosystem constitutes an important biological resource in

terms of its complex biodiversity and is the basis for the

artisanal fisheries and marine ecotourism in Mozambique. In

1998 Mozambique, in conjunction with a number of

institutions and donors, initiated its Coral Reef Management

Program (MCRMP). The core aim was to ensure the long-term

sustainable utilization of the coral reef resources in

Mozambique. Within the programmed activities the most

important included capacity building, research and the

monitoring of coral reef communities. As a result, several

Mozambique young scientists are being trained in coral reef

ecology and management. Baseline ecological descriptive and

applied studies were and are currently being undertaken

especially regarding natural and human-induced damage to

coral reefs (e.g. bleaching, ornamental fish trade and the

effects of the recent floods on the reef communities). In 1999,

the first monitoring program initiated and already showed that

the few protected reefs are in much better condition than those

unprotected. Mozambique has also joined the Global Reef

Check program. Thus, the MCRMP is giving added impetus to

the national effort on research and management of natural

resources although there is much to be accomplished yet.

CORAL REEF MARINE PROTECTED AREAS IN

INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS (WORLD

HERITAGE - MAB BIOSPHERE RESERVES -RAMSAR)

: A POORLY REPRESENTED ECOSYSTEM.

Salvat, B.*, Haapkyla, J. *EPHE, ESA CNRS 8046,

Université de Perpignan, France, and International Coral

Reef Initiative Secretariat. Email : bsalvat@univ-perp.fr

Globally, there are over 1300 Marine Protected Areas, of

which about 400 have coral reefs as primary or as secondary

components in 65 countries. One third of the sites either have a

management plan applied in practice or are paper parks. Three

international conventions contain coral reef sites. UNESCO's

Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) was launched in

1970 and aims to achieve a balance between nature

conservation, maintenance of cultural values and economic

development. It has 368 reserves in 91 countries, and only 14

of them include coral reefs. UNESCO's World Heritage

Convention, launched in 1972, aims to protect sites of cultural,

natural and mixed heritage worldwide. Cultural sites dominate

the 630 sites situated in 118 countries with 15 containing coral

reefs. The Ramsar Convention (Convention on Wetlands of

International Importance) came into force in 1975. It concerns

primarily wetlands, but became more aware of coral reefs in

1996. There are 119 countries who have signed the convention

and a total of 1018 sites of which 22 include coral reefs. A

total of 51 coral reef sites are protected in these three

conventions, and most of these sites do not have coral reefs as

a primary component. This is a poor score compared to other

ecosystem types. More coral reef reserves should be created in

order to enhance the protection of the coastal environment in

the hundred developing countries having coral reefs.

ARE SMALL MARINE RESERVES EFFECTIVE ? A

CASE STUDY IN THE SOUTHWEST LAGOON OF

NEW CALEDONIA

Sarramegna* S & Chauvet C. LERVEM, University of

New Caledonia, B.P. 4477, 98847 Nouméa New Caledonia,

Email: sarrameg@univ-nc.nc

The effects of marine protected areas on commercial reef

fish community were studied in the southwestern lagoon of

New Caledonia, on two small coralline islets protected from

fishing since 1981, and two unprotected reefs. Length, density

and biomass of fish were estimated using underwater visual

censuses. MPA allows the return of species particularly

sensitive to fishing and the increase of overall biomass (360.3

g.m -2 vs. 155.2 g.m -2 ), particularly for Serranids (18.2 g.m -2 vs.

2.8 g.m -2 ; 0.02 fish. m -2 vs. 0.004 fish.m -2 ), Scarids (90.5 g.m -2

vs. 39.6 g.m -2 ; 0,24 fish.m -2 vs. 0.16 fish.m -2 ) and Acanthurids

(40.9 g.m -2 vs. 12.4 g.m -2 ; 0.08 fish.m -2 vs. 0.04 fish.m -2 ). On

the other hand, there are no significant variation in overall

density with the status of protection, while certain species such

as Lethrinids are more abundant in fished reefs. Biotope

caracteristics (% of living coral, habitat complexity) and

distance to coast were the major factors which explained the

distribution and the abundance of the species. Three fish

communities were identified. The first occurred on the reef

flat, the second on the reef slope and the third on the lagoonal

soft bottoms. Other natural temporal variations such as El Niño

or recruitment intensity appear to play an important role in the

fluctuation of abundance of theses communities. At least, the

comparison between protected and unprotected areas shows

that the small reserves concentrate larger fish.

MARINE CONSERVATION IN PAPUA NEW

GUINEA.

Seeto, Pamela*. Conservation International. P.O Box

106, Waigani, Port Moresby, P.N.G. Email:

cimoresby@dg.com.pg

Papua New Guinea comprises the eastern half of the island

of New Guinea and over 600 offshore islands. The country

and its surrounding waters lie within the “coral triangle”, the

global epicenter of marine biodiversity. In contrast to

neighboring Indonesia and the Philippines, PNG’s marine

ecosystems are in relatively pristine condition and boast some

of the best examples of the world’s most biologically rich coral

reefs. However, increasing environmental pressures resulting

from overfishing, destructive fishing, pollution, logging and

mining threaten to extinguish global conservation benefits.

Milne Bay Province, located on the eastern tip of the mainland,

contains an especially rich endowment of coastal and marine

habitats. Two rapid biological assessments (RAP) sponsored

by Conservation International have shown that coral reef

biodiversity in Milne Bay is exceptional. The surveys

documented greater than 362 species of reef corals (a higher

diversity than that of the Great Barrier Reef), 1,109 species of

reef fishes (surpassing all other areas in the coral triangle), and

860 species of molluscs (which compares favorably to other

marine RAPs). During the surveys, one new species of fish

(Chrysiptera cymatilis), 5 additional endemics and as many as

14 new reef corals were identified. The present status of coral

reefs in Milne Bay was also found to be superior to previously

surveyed areas in Indonesia and the Philippines. Conservation

International will continue to work closely with the local

community and government to promote community-based

conservation efforts in Milne Bay Province..9ICRS POSTERS Posters B: Resource Management

338

REEF CONSERVATION UK: CARRYING THE

PHILOSOPHY OF INTERNATIONAL YEAR OF THE

REEF INTO THE FUTURE.

Teleki, K.A.*, A.R. Harborne, H. Hall and E.M. Wood.

*Department of Geography, University of Cambridge,

Downing Place, Cambridge, CB2 3EN, U.K. Email:

kat1003@cus.cam.ac.uk

In 1996, individuals and organisations involved with, and

having interests in, coral reefs came together to discuss

International Year of the Reef (IYOR). Not only was this a

forum to formulate the UK IYOR strategy, but it also opened

new lines of communication and collaboration between

individuals and groups in the UK who had rarely been in

contact yet had similar interests and were involved in similar

activities. It seemed both beneficial and appropriate to

maintain and expand these established links. The advantages of

increased communication between coral reef people in the UK

are obvious, maximising efforts for conservation and

awareness, while minimising the time and money which is

required. For this reason, Reef Conservation UK (RCUK)

evolved out of the original IYOR-UK committee. RCUK aims

to promote multidisciplinary conservation, public awareness

and education about coral reefs, as well as ensuring that all

reef related activities are conducted in a responsible manner.

RCUK is currently co-ordinated via a central committee and is

comprised of over 100 individuals representing a range of

interests, organisations and institutions. RCUK receives no

core funding but achievements to date include an annual

conference to facilitate networking within the UK reef

community and a biannual newsletter. These activities, along

with limited private donations, provide funds for a small grant

scheme. Future aims include a website, an increasing role as a

focus for UK media agencies and providing advice and

guidance to UK based NGOs and governmental institutions..9ICRS POSTERS Posters C: Socio-Economic Issues

C: SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES

339

MANAGEMENT OF HAWAIIAN PRECIOUS CORALS

USING MOLECULAR GENETIC METHODS.

Baco-Taylor Amy R.*, Craig R. Smith, and George K.

Roderick. *Department of Oceanography, University of

Hawaii, 1000 Pope Road, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA,

Email: abaco@soest.hawaii.edu

Hawaiian deep-sea precious corals support an extremely

profitable fishery, yet little is known about the life history and

dispersal of the exploited species. Recent indicate significant

genetic structure between shallow-water coral populations,

including several species capable of long distance dispersal. If

significant genetic structure exists in populations of precious

corals, this could suggest that the elimination (through

overharvesting) of a bed of precious corals would result in loss

of overall genetic diversity in the species. We are studying

three species of Hawaiian deep-sea precious corals to

determine the appropriate management units (or “stocks”) for

each species. Stocks will be identified using a recently

developed microsatellite technique. Microsatellites are

segments of DNA which consist of repeated units of short (di-or

tri-nucleotides) sequences. Microsatellites are highly

variable, making them ideal for kinship and population-level

studies. By determining the stock structure of the harvested

species and providing information on dispersal and recruitment

in these species as a function of life history, this project will

elucidate the effectiveness of the designated “Refugium” bed

in the Northwest Hawaiian Islands for re-seeding exploited

populations of precious corals. This information will

substantially improve our ability to manage the Hawaiian coral

fishery as a sustainable resource.

COLLECTING IMPACT OF MASSIVE PORITES

CORALS ON THE MAYOTTE REEFS (SW INDIAN

OCEAN) FOR CARVING OF CORAL BLOCK-TABLES

USED BY MAHORESE WOMEN FOR BEAUTY FACE

MAKE-UP: THE "MZINDZANO" TRADITIONAL

HABIT

Chanfi Dhahabia*, THOMASSIN Bernard A.* *CNRS-UMR

n° 6450 "Dimar", C.O.M., Univ. de la Méditerranée,

13007 Marseille, France & G.I.S. "Lag-May". E-mail:

thomassi@com.univ-mrs.fr

The "mzindzano" is a beauty face make up (face painting

with various mo-tifs) that dress most of the mahorese maried

women at Mayotte I. (90-95% among them, as near 23,000

women in 1997). They use it also at home in France, but less

frequently. To draw this daily make up women use a wet coral

block-table to make an unctuous paste, rasping a wood piece

(more often as santal) or other vegetals, mixed with scented

dry flowers, saffron, seeds, or a lichen. The coral block-tables

(side sizes: 11 to 27cm) are handycraft making in massive

Porites (P. lutea, solida, lobata) living in pools on the inner

reef flats. To estimate the impact upon reefs of this Porites

collecting an inquiry was made into mahorese women living at

Mayotte (Sada village) and also in France (Marseilles town).

From this, it was estimated that these women, 20 to 60 years

old, used about 1 table per 7 years for make up. To carve the

near 2,250 coral tables required per year (just 3 or 4 carved in

a 40 cm colony), it is estimated that between 350 up to 1,000

Porites, near 16.5 years old, as 20-59 dry tons of corals, are

collected on the reefs. So about 14 up to 38 hectares of Porites

flats would be destroyed each year on fringing reefs, with all

the severe environmental consequences for the whole coral

reef and lagoonal ecosystems.

BUILDING THE CAPACITY TO MONITOR CORAL

REEFS: INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES.

Cheal A.* and Miller, Ian. *Australian Institute of Marine

Science. PMB 3, Townsville, 4810. Australia. Email:

a.cheal@aims.gov.au

Coral reefs are a resource under threat. In general, a lack of

baseline information is inhibiting effective management of the

world's reefs. Systematic collection of ecological data is

needed to apply integrated management approaches and assess

the effects of anthropogenic influences, natural disturbances

and global climate change. Monitoring studies are not always

possible due to a lack of in-country expertise. The Australian

Institute of Marine Science (AIMS) long term monitoring

program has run a number of international workshops designed

to increase the capacity of local people to monitor their coral

reefs. The main goal of these "train the trainer" programs is to

produce a pool of personnel throughout the Asia-Pacific region

who can train fellow nationals to gather data in a consistent

and standard manner, and be able to analyse and interpret these

data to assist marine resource managers. Field techniques

covered in workshops include manta tow and line intercept for

broad scale and site specific benthic surveys respectively, and

visual census for fish assemblages. Reducing inconsistencies

in the identification of marine life-forms between observers is

a major aspect within workshops. A new interactive CD-ROM,

"C-NAV", developed at AIMS will help to clarify

common misidentifications of benthic life-forms. The

importance of data extraction, checking and interpretation are

emphasised using a patented data base program, ARMDES©.

Experiences and outcomes from a number of training

workshops are discussed.

DIVING FISHERMEN; THE HEALTH IMPACT OF

INDIGENOUS DIVING FISHING PRACTICES.

Cross, Maurice R *, Dawson Richard, Newman Helen.The

Diving Fishermen Project, Tamar Science Park, Derriford,

Plymouth UK MauriceC@Phase1ctu.com

The Diving Fishermen Project is a UK based Charitable

Trust which aims to investigate and document the extent of

diving-related injury in indigenous diving communities and to

provide help and assistance to the divers themselves to avoid

injury. In the five years of our existence, we have worked

alone or with others in the Philippines, in Thailand and most

recently in Indonesia. We estimate that in the Asia Pacific

area there are 50,000 to 80,000 such fishermen mostly in

Indonesia and the Philippines. Our studies to date have shown

that most villages, irrespective of national origin, have similar

problems. The mortality amongst indigenous divers is about

4% per annum. Approximately one in five of the divers will

have clinically detectable signs of spinal cord injury and half

of these (1 in 10) will have obvious difficulty in walking. In

our studies, 18% of men have experienced some degree of

paralysis at some time and shoulder pain is almost ubiquitous

being present in more than 80% of individuals at any one time.

We carried out X-ray studies of the divers in the villages of

Nocnochan and Madridejos in the Philippines and diagnosed

aseptic necrosis of bone in 38% of the men. Hookah diving is

a dangerous and injurious way of earning a living. Most divers

regret their lifestyle and few want their children to follow

them. This provides a useful pointer to the incentives that

need to be given to abolish this destructive practice. In our

presentation we describe the project, it’s findings and

achievements to date..9ICRS POSTERS Posters C: Socio-Economic Issues

340

UNDERSEA EXPLORER TOURISM FUNDED

RESEARCH & EDUCATION ORGANISATION

Dunstan, Andrew*; and Rumney, John *Undersea

Explorer, Port Douglas, Qld, 4871, Australia. Email:

adunstan@ozemail.com

Undersea Explorer pioneers an innovative concept, which

uses adventure diving tourism to conduct and fund reef

research and ecological education. Our constant ready access

to reef study sites and provision of field equipment and berths

for scientists is our commitment to extend opportunities to the

scientific fraternity. Undersea Explorer research projects

investigate a diverse range of coral reef subjects including

dwarf minke whales, reef sharks, cephalopods, state of the reef

monitoring programs, water quality, bioerosion and coral

bleaching. Some projects are run completely by Undersea

Explorer scientists, while others are collaborative or fully

external projects with support from Undersea Explorer. An

example is the collaborative dwarf minke whale project, with a

team of scientists from Museum of Tropical Queensland,

James Cook University, University of California, Santa Cruz

and Undersea Explorer. This has resulted in identifying many

aspects of the dwarf minke whales’ biology, acoustics,

population dynamics and human interactions. Working with

the community, industry, management agencies and scientists

produces practical conservation guidelines as a direct result of

this research.

Undersea Explorer - a call for cooperation

THE ROLE OF COMMUNITY INITIATIVE AND

TRADITIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE

ESTABLISHMENT OF MARINE PROTECTED AREAS

(Ra’ui), ON RAROTONGA, COOK ISLANDS.

Evans, Jacqueline*. *World Wide Fund for Nature –

South Pacific Program, P.O. Box 649, Rarotonga, Cook

Islands. Email: wwfcooks@oyster.net.ck

In 1998, the traditional chiefs of Rarotonga Lagoon in Cook

Islands agreed to re-establish the ra’ui - a customary

prohibition on the harvesting of certain marine species or

access to a particular area, that was once practised widely in

Polynesia. The decision to revive ra’ui was triggered by

community concern about the significant decline of reef fish

stocks and the lack of a fisheries management regime on

Rarotonga Lagoon. Ra’ui had not been practised on the

Rarotonga reef for four decades. Support from chiefs,

government departments, non-government organisations,

schools and churches contributed to a strong community

awareness of the ra’ui and compliance with it. In February

2000, the second anniversary of the ra’ui, communities

showed their support for the practice by establishing a

permanent marine sanctuary in one area of the lagoon and

imposing five-year fishing bans in two other areas. Possible

reasons for the widespread support for ra’ui and compliance

with it, include recognition by the community of the need for

reef management, widespread awareness of the ra’ui and the

fact that the decision to have a ra’ui was reached by the

community, with leadership by the traditional authorities.

FROM THE FIELD TO THE CLASSROOM:

COMMUNICATING YOUR RESEARCH TO

STUDENTS NATIONWIDE.

Foote Liz*. Project S.E.A.-LINK, 3740 Lower Honoapiilani

Hwy. #G206, Lahaina, HI 96761. E-mail address:

lfoote@maui.net.

Most scientists recognize the importance of ef fective

communication. However, this communication usually focuses

on and remains within the scientific community. Scientists

conducting marine research now have a wonderful opportunity

to share their work with K-12 students nationwide. Project

S.E.A.-LINK, a nonprofit organization, has designed an

educational website that profiles professionals in the fields of

marine research, education, and conservation. From these

profiles, students learn about careers related to the marine

environment, and can write in questions to be answered on the

site. Based on these profiles, Project S.E.A.-LINK develops

curricular materials which teachers are able to download for

use in their classrooms. Other unique features of the site are

the “Online Mentoring Program,” where students with

particular interests are matched with an appropriate

professional "pen-pal," and the "Classroom Connection,"

where professionals can interact with teachers and students

from science classrooms nationwide. Through this effort,

students learn of exciting career opportunities in marine

science, while being exposed to the human side of science and

the nature of science itself, and teachers are able to incorporate

hands-on activities based on current marine science

investigations into their curriculum. Project S.E.A.-LINK is

committed to the reform in science education and its emphasis

on inquiry-based learning, and all materials are developed

according to national science education standards.

THE ROATAN INSTITUTE FOR MARINE SCIENCES:

A CARIBBEAN LABORATORY FACILITATING

RESEARCH AND EDUCATION.

Keck, J. R. *. *Roatan Institute for Marine Sciences,

Sandy Bay, Roatan, Bay Islands, Honduras, Email:

rimsed@globalnet.hn.

The Roatan Institute for Marine Sciences (RIMS) is located

on the northwest coast of Roatan where fringing reefs, lagoons,

mangroves and shoreline are home to an astounding diversity

of life. The primary objective of this facility is the

conservation of Roatan’s marine resources through research

and education. RIMS has implemented a long-term ecological

monitoring program designed to monitor coral populations and

their changes over time. Species diversity, relative abundance,

variability in coral cover and growth, incidences of disease and

bleaching and the general health of the reef are being assessed.

Reef fish and benthic invertebrate populations as well as

certain abiotic parameters are also being monitored. We have

obtained a substantial database on the status of our reefs in the

five years that the project has been in motion. This information

is the first step toward understanding more about the natural

processes and human impacts on our reefs, which in turn will

help us to better manage and protect these vital areas. In the

past decade RIMS has also become an established educational

facility hosting college and university groups studying tropical

marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Programs run from one to

three weeks and can include lectures and guided field

experiences by staff biologists. While students are invited to

participate in our monitoring program, RIMS can also

accommodate faculty and students pursuing independent

research projects. This presentation describes the educational

program at RIMS and provides information on our monitoring

project design and sampling techniques..9ICRS POSTERS Posters C: Socio-Economic Issues

341

GLOVER'S REEF MARINE RESEARCH STATION: A

FOOTHOLD FOR CONSERVATION IN THE

CARIBBEAN SEA.

Lauck, Elizabeth W.* *Wildlife Conservation Society,

2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York 10460 USA.

Email: llauck@wcs.org

The Belize Barrier Reef is an outstanding example of a

barrier reef system, including three offshore atolls, hundreds of

sand cays and patch reefs, mangrove forests, coastal lagoons,

and estuaries. It is the largest barrier reef in the northern

hemisphere and provides habitat to 500 species of fish, 134

bird species, three species of sea turtles, and a large population

of West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus). Despite its

conservation and scientific importance, the reef has come

under increasing anthropormorphic pressure, including

fisheries depletions, coral bleaching, outbreaks of fleshy algae,

and increases in reef-dependent tourist activities. This paper

describes a long-term, science-based approach to coral reef

conservation at the Belize Barrier Reef's southernmost atoll,

Glover's Reef Atoll. This atoll was declared a Marine Reserve

by the Government of Belize in 1993. The Wildlife

Conservation Society established the Glover's Reef Marine

Research Station on one of the atoll's cays in 1993. The

Station's primary goal is to promote the long-term conservation

and management of the Belize Barrier Reef through in-situ

research, cooperative management, training and education.

Several ongoing initiatives and lessons learned from them will

be described, including an assessment of the effectiveness of

the three-zone system on commercially and ecologically

important species, a survey of the atoll's elasmobranch fauna,

and long-term monitoring of human and natural disturbances

to the coral reef.

THE LOCAL GEOGRAPHY OF AN ARTISANAL

FISHERY IN KENYA

Obura, David O. * and Innocent N. Wanyonyi. *Coral

Reef Degradation In The Indian Ocean (CORDIO), Box

10135, Mombasa, Kenya; Email:

dobura@africaonline.co.ke

Fishers have accumulated generations of knowledge that has

enabled them to exploit reef resources. Parts of their

knowledge base refers to the geography of the reefs they use

and catch characteristics associated with different sites. This

study examines the geographic patterns of site use by

fishermen, in terms of catch characteristics and their

impressions of the sites, in the Diani-Chale reef system 20 km

south of Mombasa on the Kenya coast. The study uses catch

data collected over a period of two years through participatory

monitoring with the fishers, and indigenous knowledge

recorded through informal conversations. Fishermen do have

strong preferrential use of sites, according to the fishing gear

used, season and individual preferences. Some of the preferred

sites do not result in the highest per capita catches, due perhaps

to short- and/or long-term overuse. Understanding site use

patterns of fishers will be an important contribution to

management, as all user activities are highly location-specific,

be they fishery or tourism related. The area has a history of

resource use conflict between fishing and tourism interests,

exacerbated in 1994 by its gazettement as a Marine Protected

Area. The knowledge possessed by the fishermen is different

from that used by policy makers, resource managers, and

researchers, thus true dialogue is not possible until the

different parties understand one another. It is hoped that this

mapping and monitoring exercise will contribute to greater

understanding between resource users and management.

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC

VALUE IN GULF OF MANNAR CORAL REEF

ECOSYSTEM, SOUTHEAST COAST OF INDIA.

Patterson Edward, J.K.*, *Suganthi Devadason Marine

Research Institute, 44-Beach Road, Tuticorin – 628 001,

Tamil Nadu, India. Email: jkpatty@hotmail.com

Gulf of Mannar (GOM) of southeast coast of India is

predominantly coral reef ecosystem with rich diversity of flora

and fauna. There are 21 islands in GOM. About 40,000 people

live along this ecosystem and most of them are dependent on

its resources for their livelihood. GOM received Biosphere

Reserve status in 1989. This precious ecosystem is under

severe threat due to various factors, mainly coral mining,

industrial pollution, destructive and indiscriminate fishing,

tourism, population growth and poverty, illiteracy, lack of

awareness, inadequate legislation and lack of coordination. In

fact, the socio-economic condition of the villagers does not

allow them to think about their environment as more than 50%

people live below poverty line. India’s diverse culture,

conventional food habits and social structures have also much

impact and therefore careful planning and alternate income

generation are key to the success in any management practices.

There is always scope for sustained income through the

exploitation of natural resources in any ecosystem to fulfil the

dependents. A long term community based coastal resources

management programme in Gulf of Mannar with the objectives

“Development, management and sustainable utilization of

coastal resources with community participation” would solve

the problem substantially. It also gives an opportunity to the

community to manage their environment and to enhance their

socio-economic conditions..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D: Assessment, Monitoring

ASSESSMENT, MONITORING AND REHABILITATION

342

MULTIVARIATE CLASSIFICATION OF THE

BERMUDA PLATFORM USING SATELLITE DATA.

Apprill A.*, Nelson, Norman B.. *Bermuda Biological

Station for Research, St. George's GE 01, Bermuda.

*Present Address: University of San Diego, 5998 Alcala

Park, San Diego, CA 92110 USA. Email:

aapprill@acusd.edu,

Monitoring large habitat areas effectively using remote

sensing presents a trade off between spatial and temporal

resolution and cost. While high spatial resolution data is ideal

for detailed studies, obtaining it at the frequency necessary for

monitoring is expensive. In this study, we developed a low-cost

method to map a shallow coastal area (the Bermuda

platform, centered near 32.4° N, 64.8° W) using freely

available data from moderate and low resolution multispectral

satellite sensors, MOS-B (520 m) and SeaWiFS (1.1 km). We

developed a multiple classification model based on component

reflectance spectra and clear water optical properties which

quantifies the relative coverage of soft and hard bottom and

estimates the mean depth of each pixel. This model differs

from most classification algorithms because it allows multiple

classes to be assigned to an individual pixel. We conducted a

site survey and used aerial photographs to test the accuracy of

the model. The model differentiated between the actual

locations of dense reef, sparse reef, and sand or mud habitats,

but overestimated reef coverage by about 16% for SeaWiFS

and 20% for MOS-B. The model slightly underestimated

depth. A refined algorithm that uses hyperspectral data or an

idealized reference spectra might further increase the

effectiveness of the present model for temporal monitoring

studies.

LANDSCAPE ANALYSIS OF MARINE FLOOR

BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY IN REEF ZONES SUBJECT

TO HUMAN EXPLOITATION.

Axis, Javier*, Torruco, Daniel and Gonzalez, Alicia.

*CINVESTAV-IPN Laboratory of Coral Reef, Center for

Research and Advances Studies, A.P. 73 Cordemex, 97310

Merida, Yucatan, Mexico. Email: axisarroyo@hotmail.com

The effects were determined of development and large draft

vessel use on reefs near the port of Calica, in the state of

Quintana Roo, Mexico. An analysis of the temporal variation

in biological diversity was done from May, 1996 to December,

1998. A total of four samples were taken, one every six

months, with a total of 216 photographs taken of the sea floor

for each sample. The biological diversity was determined to

species level using geostatistical techniques which produced

spatial distribution maps constituting a geographical

information system for demonstrating variation in time.

Biological diversity change rates in the area were: 76.21%

from the first to the second sampling, with a tendency towards

increase in most levels; 61.23% from the second to the third

sampling, with a tendency towards increase in most levels; and

43.92% from the third to the fourth sampling, with a tendency

towards decrease in most levels. The temporal variation in

biological diversity indicates that, even four years after the

expansion and use of Port Calica, the ecosystem feels the

effect, and highly variable, with tendencies towards

recuperation of its biological complexity, despite use.

HABITAT MAPPING OF THE ANDROS BARRIER

REEF SYSTEM USING REMOTE SENSING AND

TAXONOMIC SURVEYS.

Brumbaugh, Daniel R.*, Mikkelsen, Paula M. , Peter J.

*Ctr. Biodiv. & Cons., Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Central Park

West at 79 th St., New York, NY 10024, USA.

brumba@amnh.org

Spectral remote sensing (RS) and rapid ecological

assessments (REAs) have become increasingly important

approaches for both broad scale and quick surveys of shallow

tropical marine ecosystems. Although RS relies on the

spectral reflectance of a given areal unit (followed by some

degree of ground-truthing) and REAs generally involve more

quantitative field surveys, both approaches draw on the more

conspicuous elements of the benthos for their respective

assessments. Since much of marine biodiversity is small,

infaunal, or otherwise cryptic, however, RS and REA

approaches to habitat assessment frequently assume that

inferences from the more conspicuous taxa such as corals,

macroalgae, and fishes are somehow representative of other

more diverse but cryptic assemblages. To test this assumption,

we recently started a new habitat mapping and assessment

project on Andros Island, Bahamas. Using combinations of

multispectral satellite (LANDSAT 7 & IKONOS) and aerial

(CASI) data, we are constructing habitat maps according to a

consensus habitat scheme. Additionally, we have undertaken

habitat-stratified surveys of both conspicuous and various

“cryptic” taxa (echinoderms, molluscs, polychaetes, and

crustaceans) to determine (1) the degree to which remotely

sensed habitats serve as proxies for these components of

biodiversity and (2) the degree to which conspicuous taxa

serve as indicators for cryptic assemblages.

REEFS AT RISK IN SOUTHEAST ASIA – A SPATIAL

ANALYSIS OF THREATS, PROTECTION AND

CONNECTIVITY.

Burke Lauretta *, Ken Kassem. World Resources Institute,

Washington, DC, USA. E-mail Address: lauretta@wri.org

Due to the lack of quantitative information on the condition

of coral reefs within Southeast Asia, a map-based analysis of

threats to coral reefs within the region has been performed.

The analysis maps and models threats from coastal

development, overfishing, destructive fishing, marine

pollution, and sedimentation from upland activities. The

analysis also incorporates management factors and natural

features which influence the coral reef condition in light of

human pressure (threats) on the ecosystem. Using a geographic

information system and over twenty input data layers, the

analysis estimates pressure on coral reefs by individual threat

category and as cumulative threat. During the project,

collaborators have improved data sets reflecting coral reef

locations, marine protected areas, management effectiveness,

tourism pressure, and use of destructive fishing techniques

have been developed. In map form, the poster presents a visual

estimate of threats to coral reefs for a range of threats as well

as a cumulative estimate of pressure on coral reefs throughout

the region..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D: Assessment, Monitoring

343

COMBINING IN-SITU SPECTRAL ANALYSIS,

SATELLITE IMAGERY, AND GIS FOR CORAL REEF

HABITAT MAPPING.

Call K.* and John T. Hardy. *Center for Environmental

Science, Huxley College, Western Washington University,

Bellingham, WA 98225-9181 USA Email:

jhardy@cc.wwu.edu

Coral reefs are important both biologically and economically

but are under increasing pressure from pollution and human-induced

disturbance. Coral reefs are often remote, relatively

large, and shallow. Thus, optical remote sensing techniques

may provide the most efficient and cost-effective approach to

mapping and monitoring the condition of reefs. We tested the

hypothesis that in-situ measured spectral signatures, together

with satellite imagery can be used to accurately map benthic

substrate types. In situ upwelling irradiances were collected

for coarse descriptive habitat types near Lee Stocking Island,

Bahamas. Down-looking spectral scans from 300 to 750 nm

were taken 1 m above the substrate and 1 m below the water

surface, using a LiCor-1800 underwater spectroradiometer.

Principal Components Analysis of upwelling irradiances

indicated that wavelengths between 515 and 580 nm are most

useful in distinguishing between substrates. Landsat TM

multispectral imagery was geo-registered and an unsupervised

classification was used to delineate reef features and associated

communities. Geo-coordinate data collected for each substrate

type (July 11- July 19, 1999) was used to aggregate spectral

classes in image classification and as a means of assessing the

accuracy of the habitat map. Using this method we achieved

an overall accuracy of 74% for coarse descriptive resolution

mapping of seven substrate types (i.e. ocean, deep sand,

shallow sand, deep coral, shallow coral, seagrass, and mixed

sand and seagrass) within a 590 km 2 area of the Exuma Cays.

LARGE-SCALE SURVEYS INDICATE POOR

RECOVERY BY URCHINS IN THE FLORIDA KEYS.

Chiappone M.*, D.W. Swanson and S.L. Miller. The

National Undersea Research Center, University of North

Carolina at Wilmington, 515 Caribbean Drive, Key Largo,

Florida, 33037, USA. E-mail address:

mark@benthos.cox.miami.edu

Understanding the causes of community change continues to

remain problematic in many coral reef environments. Florida

Keys coral reefs are particularly challenging in this sense, not

only because of their high latitude, but also because of the

myriad of human disturbances that have affected the

ecosystem this century. Although there is consensus that reefs

have changed in recent decades, there are continuing debates

concerning the mechanisms. Population densities of Diadema

antillarum, for example, were similar to other Caribbean reefs,

and have failed to recover to pre-1983 densities. The

consequences of this phenomenon may be related to current

algal abundance patterns. As part of a long-term assessment

and monitoring program, a large-scale survey of sea urchins

was conducted during 1999 that encompassed four hard-bottom

habitat types at 80 sites in the fore reef environment of

the Florida Keys. A survey of 640 transects (25-m x 0.4-m in

area) yielded three species: D. antillarum, Echinometra viridis,

and Eucidaris tribuloides. Only 56 urchins were found during

the study, representing a mean density of 0.09 urchins/10 m 2 ,

and E. tribuloides accounted for 68% of all individuals

recorded. While water quality concerns in Florida are a major

topic of debate and are often used to explain increased

coverage of algae on reefs (bottom-up control), the continued

low densities of urchins suggests that top-down controls on

benthic community structure also need to be recognized.

LOW-TECH REEF RESTORATION: POSSIBLE

TECHNIQUES FOR TRANSPLANTATION OF

ACROPORA CERVICORNIS.

Chilcoat G.C.*, W.K. Fitt, and M.E. Warner. *University

of Georgia, rm 711 Biosciences, Athens GA, 30602

EMAIL: gcc7314@arches.uga.edu

Two techniques for transplantation of Acropora cervicornis

were attempted at Lee Stocking Island, Bahamas. Fifty A.

cervicornis nubbins were secured to dead coral branches by

Cable Ties or with a small quantity of epoxy (Z-Spar 788).

The corals were transplanted in March, 2000 and evaluated in

May, 2000 and again in Sept, 2000. Survival rate, attachment,

as well as costs in labor and materials for each technique will

be discussed.

IKBS: A TOOL FOR BUILDING COOPERATIVE

KNOWLEDGE BASES ON THE INTERNET:

APPLICATION TO CORALS AND HYDROIDS OF THE

MASCARENE ARCHIPELAGO

Conruyt N.*, D. Grosser, Y. Geynet, G. Faure, M. Pichon,

N. Gravier-Bonnet, M. Guillaume. *IREMIA, University of

La Réunion, B.P. 7151, 97715 Saint-Denis, France. Email:

conruyt@univ-reunion.fr

Systematics is the scientific discipline that deals with listing,

describing, naming, classifying and identifying living beings.

In creating information systems that are accessible on the

internet, there is a need for enhancing the systematician’s

expertise. Our aim is to deliver to them a collaborative tool to

widely manage, share and transmit their knowledge. We have

designed an Iterative Knowledge Base System (IKBS) for

achieving these goals. It applies the scientific method in

biology (conjecture and test) with a natural process of

knowledge management: 1/ acquisition of a descriptive model

and related descriptions, 2/ processing of this knowledge for

classification and identification, 3/ experimentation and

validation. The product of such a tool is a collaborative

knowledge base of a domain, that can evolve (by updating the

knowledge) and be connected to distributed databases

(bibliographic, photographic, geographic, taxonomic, etc.) that

which yield information on species after the identification

process of a new specimen. Moreover, the objective of IKBS is

to offer more robust descriptive work in systematics in order to

facilitate the identification of species by non specialists: we are

faced with the problem of knowing, defining and reaching a

consensus on: 1/ what to describe (taxonomic level of

descriptions), 2/ how to represent descriptions (the choice of

descriptive logics), 3/ what terms to use for creating an

illustrated thesaurus to be presented as a reference for

specialists of a domain. This study was effectuated on different

families of corals (Pocilloporidae, Fungiidae, Poritidae,

Siderastreidae) and on a family of hydroids (Sertulariidae) of

the Mascarene Archipelago..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D: Assessment, Monitoring

344

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING OF A CORAL

REEF AREA, BAHIA CULEBRA, COSTA RICA.

Cortés J * and Alberto León. *Centro de Investigación en

Ciencias del Mar y Limnología (CIMAR), Ciudad de la

Investigación, Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, San

José 2060, Costa Rica. Email: jcortes@cariari.ucr.ac.cr

Bahía Culebra is located on the northwest coast of Costa

Rica, Central America. It is a seasonal upwelling region with

coral communities and coral reefs. The following have been

set up at Bahía Culebra: a meteorological station, underwater

temperature sensors at different depths, photo stations of coral

communities, permanent plots and marked colonies. The area

is exposed to low temperatures (between 18 and 22°C) during

the upwelling season from December to April, even so, the

growth rates of most corals are the highest in the eastern

Pacific, and coral reefs are thriving.

RESTORATION OF A SOUTHEAST FLORIDA U.S.A.

CORAL REEF INJURED BY THE GROUNDING OF A

NUCLEAR SUBMARINE.

Dodge, R.E.*, R. E. Spieler, D. Gilliam, P. Quinn, A.

Rogerson, E. Glynn, K. Banks, L. Fisher, D. Stout, W.

Jaap. *National Coral Reef Institute, Nova Southeastern

University Oceanographic Center, 8000 North Ocean

Drive, Dania Beach, FL, 33004 USA. Email:

dodge@ocean.nova.edu

The United States submarine Memphis grounded in

approximately 10 m depth on a coral reef off southeast Florida

in February, 1993. The grounding caused extensive physical

damage to the reef substrate and biological injury to the coral

community. As part of a claim by the State of Florida against

the United States Government, the impact of the grounding

was assessed, and the area of damage was determined through

field and photographic studies. The claim was settled in April,

1997 by an award to the State of Florida. A three year plan to

perform hypothesis testing of restoration strategies of the

damaged reef within economic constraints has been developed

and involves comparison of settlement, growth, and survival

rate of corals amongst artificial reefs treated with potential

attractants (iron, algal extract, coral transplants), and control

reefs (no attractants). The reefs are divided into four treatments

of gross structural complexity (greater than 1 cm) to allow the

determination of the interactive effects of four different fish

communities on coral settlement and growth. In addition, the

work allows the investigation of microbial biofilms as

settlement precursors. Transplant treatments include identical

replicates (same numbers of each species) to allow the

determination of species specific differential survival and

growth rates of coral transplants. The four complexity

treatments are formulated to test the hypothesis that multiple

refuge size and the resultant diverse fish assemblages may

affect coral recruitment, survival, and growth.

REMOTE TRACKING OF THE WHITETIP REEF

SHARK, TRIAENODON OBESUS

Dunstan, Andrew*; Medway, Tracey; and Matthews,

Monique. *Undersea Explorer, Port Douglas, Qld, 4871,

Australia. Email: adunstan@ozemail.com

Osprey Reef is an isolated seamount in the Coral Sea. This

study of a resident population of whitetip reef sharks,

Triaenodon obesus, at the North Horn of Osprey Reef has been

conducted since 1995. Twenty-five T. obesus individuals have

been identified through color and scar patterns, of which

twenty have been tagged with identification microchips. For a

shark which spends considerable time within the small

confines of coral reef habitats, internal implantation of

transmitters proved to be the most effective long term method

to track the sharks’ movement patterns.Intermittent pulse

transmitters, were implanted to the animals’ main body cavity.

Mature females were initially chosen to gain data on breeding

times and to locate birthing areas and habitat sites for newborn

pups. Datalogging receivers, were deployed underwater with a

permanent receiver at the North Horn site and other receivers

placed at strategic distances from North Horn to track

movement patterns. Transmitter tagged animals were detected

when within 300-500 metres of the receiver. The data shows

whitetip females to be extremely site attached to the North

Horn site during daylight hours. Routine departures from the

site occur during the night with regular passes to sites over

1km distant. This corresponds to reported nocturnal feeding

behaviour of T. obesus and observations in the wild. Longer

absence times are seen during the November to January period

which is consistent with pregnancy observations and the

previously reported birthing season.

ANNUAL RECORDS OF TROPICAL SYSTEMS (ARTS).

Eakin C.M.*, Robert B. Dunbar, Julia E. Cole.

NOAA/National Geophysical Data Center, 325 Broadway,

E/GC, Boulder, CO 80303. Email: mark.eakin@noaa.gov

Tropical ocean-atmosphere interactions provide the

dominant signal in interannual climate variability, and also

vary over periods of decades to centuries. The tropics interact

with higher latitude climate systems via atmospheric and

oceanic teleconnections that appear to have changed

substantially at time-scales longer than the past few decades.

Paleoclimate reconstructions offer the only source of

information on long-term changes in tropical variability and its

teleconnections and derive an even broader utility when

interfaced with numerical simulations. In 1996, the

International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme core project on

Past Global Changes (IGBP-PAGES) supported a meeting in

1996 to design an initiative to provide records and

reconstructions of past changes in tropical systems. The goals

of the Annual Records of Tropical Systems (ARTS) program

are to: (1) document and understand the behavior of the

tropical ocean-atmosphere and its teleconnections, with

seasonal to annual resolution, over the past several centuries;

and (2) assess the stability of tropical climate systems and their

teleconnections as the background climate and associated

forcing phenomena change over seasons to centuries. The

ARTS initiative promotes the synthesis of paleoclimate data

with instrumental and modeling perspectives to address

uncertainties in our understanding of tropical climate

variability and its impacts. This poster provides information on

the scope of the ARTS initiative, on efforts being made to

advance the ARTS initiative and scientific progress that has

been made under the ARTS initiative..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D: Assessment, Monitoring

345

SOME CONSIDERATIONS ON THE USE OF GIS

APPLIED TO A TROPICAL MARINE ECOSYSTEM :

THE SOUTHWESTERN LAGOON OF NEW

CALEDONIA (SOUTH PACIFIC).

Ferraris, J.*, Garrigue, Virly, Richer de Forges. Centre

IRD BP A5, Nouméa, New Caledonia. Email:

ferraris@noumea.ird.nc

In course of a pluridisciplinary program managed by IRD

and carried on the anthropogenic and terrigeneous influences

on tropical marine coastal environments, a database is

developed with a GIS. Its aims are 1) to integrate the data

collected in the last 20 years by different scientific programs

on the same geographical space : the southwestern lagoon of

New Caledonia and 2) to improve the knowledge and the

understanding of the ecosystem (the structure and its

mechanisms) using spatial analyses of the multi-sources data.

A case study on benthic ecology is presented in order to

illustrate the different methodological steps required for a GIS

application. Data about sediments, macrofauna, micro and

macro phytobenthos are integrated and analysed in the aim to

characterised benthic habitats and to built useful indicators for

environmental approach. The modelling approach in terms of

constraints related to geographical database conception,

statistical analyses of data and restoration of results in maps

are shown. The prospective offered by remote sensing and GIS

in the synthesis of a pluridisciplinary program dealing with

marine environment is highlighted.

NEW APPROACHES TO MAPPING CORAL REEFS:

LIDAR IMAGES FROM HAWAI’I

Field M * , Pat S. Chavez, Miguel Velasco, and Susan

Cochran, US Geological Survey, * Santa Cruz, California

U.S.A and Flagstaff, Arizona U.S.A. Email:

mfield@usgs.gov and

Accurate depth information on depths and detailed

morphology of coral reefs is crucial for a number of reasons,

including baseline maps; interpreting aerial photographs;

avoiding ship groundings; and modeling wave forces on the

reef. A new airborne technique (LIDAR--Light Detecting and

Ranging) for rapidly and accurately measuring the depth of

coral reefs from the shore down to depths of 35 m has recently

been used in Hawaii. As part of a major USGS project to map

coral reefs and evaluate the processes causing their

degradation, airborne digital data were collected in 1999 along

the southern coast of the island of Molokai using SHOALS

(Scanning Hydrographic Operational Airborne Lidar Survey).

Resulting images provide new information about over-all

morphology, spur-and-grove structure, reef holes and channels,

and isolated blocks, pinnacles and slides. Width, slope, and

relative relief of spurs can be accurately measured and

statistically correlated. The shape and depths of each blue hole

on the reef can now be quickly and accurately mapped. Sand

channels, which commonly have an important role in the

physical dynamics of a reef habitat, are common features

crossing reefs. The LIDAR data off Moloka’i show three

dimensional views of the channels that yield insight into their

origin and slow segmentation, ultimately, into a series of

isolated, elongate features.

SCLERACTINIAN CORAL REATTACHMENT

SUCCESS AND RECRUITMENT ON A SHALLOW-WATER

SHIP GROUNDING SITE IN SOUTHEAST

FLORIDA, USA.

Gilliam, D. S.*, R. E. Dodge, S. L. Thornton, W. Jaap, and

J. Wheaton. *National Coral Reef Institute, Nova

Southeastern University Oceanographic Center, 8000

North Ocean Drive, Dania Beach, FL 33004 USA. E-mail

address: gilliam@ocean.nova.edu

The 348’ vessel C/V Hind ran aground off southeast Florida,

USA, during a storm in March 1998. As a result, 781 m 2 of

reef habitat and 4,258 m 2 of live hardbottom were reported

injured from hull scarring and anchor drag. Impacts to

scleractinian corals included fragmentation and dislodgment.

Many of these corals were reattached into twelve zones for

monitoring shortly thereafter. These reattachment zones lie in

3-12 meters of water and were placed near impacted areas.

During summer 2000, two years post-reattachment, mapping

and monitoring of the reattached corals were initiated. The

health and condition of the reattached corals were compared to

that of similar corals in nearby non-impacted areas.

Additionally, coral recruitment on scarified areas was

compared to that on non-damaged reef habitat near the

impacted areas. Long-term monitoring of this site will

document the effectiveness of reattaching fragmented and

dislodged corals. Additionally, this study will provide

comparisons of coral recruitment and success on both

impacted and non-impacted reef habitat off southeast Florida.

ECOTOXICOLOGY TECHNIQUES USING MARINE

INVERTEBRATES: DEVELOPMENT OF THE SEA

URCHIN BIOASSAY IN SINGAPORE.

Goh, Beverly *. Tropical Marine Science Institute,

National University of Singapore, 14 Kent Ridge Road,

Singapore 119223. Email: tmsgohb@nus.edu.sg

The development and use of ecotoxicology techniques in

pollution assessment is new in Singapore, where water quality

and discharge standards for various chemical pollutants have

been largely determined from toxicity tests with glass fish, and

standard LC50 values. In this study, the use of fertilization, and

larval development of the sea urchin, Diadema setosum was

examined as a possible tool for the testing of various

pollutants, including petroleum, and the heavy metals, nickel

and cadmium. Diadema setosum is a common echinoderm

found in the coral reefs of Singapore, and is also used as an

important indicator of stress in the ecosystem. It has a regular

spawning cycle following a lunar periodicity, and is therefore a

suitable organism for use in regular ecotoxicity assays.

Fertilization and the various stages of larval cleavage of the

urchin were examined to determine their relative sensitivity

and suitability for use as end points for the ecotoxicology tests..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D: Assessment, Monitoring

346

THE INTEGRATED GIS DATABASE FOR

INTEGRATED COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT

PLANNING IN THE CENTRAL-NORTHERN PART OF

THE SAUDI ARABIAN RED SEA COAST.

Gomi Y, A. A. Ali, A S. Saleh, A. A. Aiyed. Address:

JICA-NCWCD Study Team, c/o National Commission for

Wildlife Conservation and Development, P.O. Box 61681 –

Riyadh 11575, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Email address:

ys.gomi@diz.ajiko.co.jp

In order to facilitate the integrated information management

of the coastal biodiversity data with precise habitat maps on

the central-northern part of the Saudi Arabian Red Sea Coast,

GIS Database system was developed. Arc View 3.0 was

customized for user friendly operation environment. Habitats

coverage were assessed in 15 minute mesh by GIS database

developed. Hatibat categories, extent of hatibat, extent of

coral, seagrasses, algae, mangrove, cyanophyceae, tidal flats

were used for positive index and industrial plants, fishing boat

were used negative index. Five ranking were applied for the

assessment and three key area were identified. The developed

GIS database should provide the coastal zone management and

Marine Protected Area planning and monitoring survey.

MAPPING OF MARINE HABITATS WITH REMOTE

SENSING IN COLOMBIA.

Gonzalez A*. Gutierrez*.Rendón. Instituto de

investigaciones Marinas y Costeras INVEMAR, A.A 1016

Santa Marta, Colombia. Email: Agonzalez@invemar.org.co

The utilities that the teledetección in investigations provides

on marine and coastal ecosystems are varied; for the case of

this study images of satellite SPOT XS and pancromatics aerial

photographs were used to delimit coral reefs and seagrass on

the Golfo de Morrosquillo, including Isla Fuerte and part of the

Archipelago de San Bernardo. The images were interpreted

multispectral and visually resorting to different procedures like

classifications, index, enhancements, filters and mix in color

and also a technical procedure was determined to delimit

ecosystems of long extension which that can be usefull for

baseline inventories, long-term monitoring programs and

management of coastal zones. As result appears a thematic

map on scale 1:100.000. On the other hand, was provide the

utility of taken true-color aerial photographs from one kite, to

characterize and to delimit on detailed scale seagrass and coral

reefs presents in Isla Maravilla (Archipíelago de San

Bernardo), defining some environmental, metereologics and

technical conditions that favor the quality of the photographies,

like height of the equal cámara: ³50m on the marine surface -depending

on the scale of the work -, Wind speed: ³10 Nudos,

Hour: 2:00 p.m. - 4:00 p.m., etc. Also the photographies were

managed to identify spectral signature of each thematic;

nevertheless was not possible to consider any parameter that

described the structure of these. In addition with the help of a

mosaic to aerial photographies to color and pancromatic was

possible to develop a map on scale 1:5.000 where one is to the

distribution of the ecosystems of the island and the

environments.

ACOUSTIC TECHNIQUES FOR RAPID BROAD-SCALE

SEABED MAPPING.

Gordon S.R. *, T.D. Skewes, I.R. McLeod, C.R. Pitcher,

R.J. Kloser. *CSIRO Marine Research. PO Box 120,

Cleveland, Q 4163, AUSTRALIA.

Email:scott.gordon@marine.csiro.au

Sampling techniques for mapping the seabed using cameras,

dredges, and grabs are limited to relatively few sites, due to the

time and costs of deploying the gear. Using these techniques,

broad-scale maps of seabed type are difficult to produce

because only a fraction of a study area can be sampled. While

above water remote sensing tools allow broad-scale mapping,

they are severely limited for sampling deeper seabeds. In order

to address these limitations, we have developed seabed

mapping techniques that use the acoustic signals from

echosounders, to sample the seabed. Combined with traditional

sampling methods, acoustic techniques permit rapid broad-scale

and continuous mapping of seabed type even over rugged

terrain, such as coral reefs. We outline the use of acoustic

techniques for seabed classification and rapid broad-scale

seabed mapping, for a study of the shoal areas (15 to 50 m

deep) of Scott Reef, North Western Australia. The fieldwork

was conducted during September 1998; it took three days to

sample the 400 km 2 study area. Maps of seabed type obtained

using the acoustic technique, show the delineation of deep

coral reef from other inter-reefal seabed types, such as sand,

coarse sand, rubble and rock.

COMPARISON BETWEEN COMPLEX AND SIMPLE

REEF SURVEY TECHNIQUES: IS THE EFFORT

JUSTIFIED?

Harding, S.P.*, S.G. Oakley, C. Lowery and M. Colmer.

Greenforce, 11-15 Betterton Street, Covent Garden,

London, WC2H 9BP, UK. Email:

simonharding@yahoo.com.

Reef check and GCRMN survey techniques were compared

between the same volunteer divers on the same reefs after

different periods of training. Greenforce volunteers with no

prior reef surveying experience who were participating in an

expedition in Sabah, East Malaysia were firstly taught to dive

and then trained in reef fauna and flora identification and

surveying techniques. After a few weeks of training,

volunteers used both the Reef check and the more detailed

GCRMN survey techniques at a number of sites. Four to six

weeks later, the volunteers resurveyed the same transect lines.

In addition, the same transects were surveyed by the on-site

science staff. Reef check species were identified and counted

correctly at all levels of experience. Useful information could

also be collected by volunteer divers using the more detailed

GCRMN fish transect methods. Fish were easily identified to

family and most common species were identified correctly.

Experienced surveyors recorded a few additional species, but

there was no difference between the numbers of common

species seen by the two groups. The two techniques gave

similar results for bottom cover estimates even though Reef

check generally records far fewer sampling points per transect

than the GCRMN technique. For data on benthic cover only,

reef check techniques were adequate, while the increased effort

required for coral morphology may be justified for more

detailed studies..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D: Assessment, Monitoring

347

OLDEST LIVING STAR CORAL? GROWTH HISTORY

AND RESTORATION OF A GIANT MONTASTREA

FAVEOLATA IN THE FLORIDA KEYS NATIONAL

MARINE SANCTUARY.

Hudson, J. Harold* and Halley, Robert B.. *Florida Keys

National Marine Sanctuary, P. O. Box 1083, Key Largo,

Florida, USA. Email: harold.hudson@noaa.gov

The longest growth record previously reported for living

Montastrea faveolata (annularis) is 242 years. Here we report

on a specimen that has survived for more than four centuries

with its growth history intact. The purpose of this study is to

document and compare growth history of this colony with

other old-growth M. faveolata from Florida, and to describe its

restoration. The latter necessitated by a vessel collision with

the coral in 1997. Total length of core recovered was 3.174

meters. Analysis of core slab X-radiographs revealed a growth

history that extended back to 1595. Maximum vertical growth

was 12.5mm per year and minimum extension 2.9mm per year.

Mean annual vertical extension was determined to be 7.3mm

per year. Restoration of the colony began in 1999. Stainless

steel rods and hydraulic cement were used to construct a

reinforced “skin” to repair the injury. To promote tissue

regrowth, live tissue plugs 5cm in diameter were implanted at

random across the repair.

CHANGE DETECTION OF CORAL REEFS USING

OPTICAL AND REMOTE SENSING TECHNIQUES

Karpouzli Evanthia *, Tim Malthus, Chris Place,

Department of Geography, University of Edinburgh,

Edinburgh, U.K. EH8 9XP Email: E.Karpouzli@hw.ac.uk

Optical remote sensing offers a non-invasive technique with

which to rapidly monitor changes in the cover and health of

submerged habitats. Its full potential is still to be exploited in

littoral environments, where the strong attenuating influence of

the water column has been a limiting factor. The littoral

habitats of the Archipelago of San Andres and Providencia

(western Caribbean) have been markedly affected by coral

bleaching, abnormal tropical storms, and increased tourism,

with negative impacts on both seagrass and coral reef

communities. The overall aim of this study is to evaluate

remote sensing for its ability to detect qualitative and

quantitative changes in these communities using a time series

of Landsat TM scenes spanning over 13 years. Objective

measurement of habitat change requires processing of the

images to enhance the bottom reflectance signal. This process

typically uses correction techniques to remove the influence of

the water column on bottom reflectance, and to enable the

accurate correction of the imagery for varying bathymetry.

LONG-TERM CHANGE IN BENTHIC COMPOSITION

OF CORAL REEFS ON THE NORTHWEST COAST OF

ROATAN.

Keck, J.R.*, R.H. Houston, K.K. Hermans. Roatan

Institute for Marine Sciences, Sandy Bay, Roatan, Bay

Islands, Honduras. rimsed@globalnet.hn

Long-term ecological monitoring of coral reef communities

on the northwest reefs of Roatan, Bay Islands has been

implemented to quantify dramatic changes observed in benthic

community composition over the past four years. Data was

collected using a chain-link transect technique at four

monitoring stations in 1996 and again in 1999. Data collected

includes percent cover of live and dead corals, macro-algae

and other sessile organisms using life-form categories.

Scleractinian corals were identified to species when possible to

examine changes in diversity over time. Live hard coral cover

at the 4 sites combined has declined significantly from 38.4%

(±10.5) in 1996 to 25.7% (±7.3) in 1999 (p=<.001). Total

macro-algae increased from 54.7% (±10.2) in 1996 to 60.7%

(±8.7) by 1999 (p= .007). There was also a significant

increase in recently dead coral from 1.4% (±2.3) in 1996 to

7.2% (±5.0) in 1999 (p= < .0001). The results of this study

include data from transects that were sampled at the same

localities before and after an extensive bleaching event in

1998-99 and Hurricane Mitch which struck in late October of

1999. Roatan has also experienced rapid population growth

and increased coastal development in the past decade. The

results of our study clearly warrant the need for continued

monitoring. This monitoring will be critical in assessing long-term

effects of these natural and human disturbances and will

be of great importance in the future management of Roatan’s

reef ecosystem.

LIMITS OF ACCEPTABLE CHANGE (LAC) PROCESS;

A FRAMEWORK FOR MONITORING

RECREATIONAL IMPACTS TO A CORAL REEF.

Kooistra, David *; Schultz, Eric; McCool, Stephen F.;

*Manager, Saba Marine Park, Fort Bay, Saba,

Netherlands Antilles. Email: smp@megatropic.com

Growing interest in recreational diving on coral reefs

challenged marine parks to develop systematic management

and monitoring frameworks. This is particularly interesting

because many such parks have two overlapping, yet conflicting

goals: (1) protection of the pristine character of the reef; and

(2) providing recreational access to the area. Indicators are

selected that reflect the types of impacts recreational diving

and snorkeling create; monitored over time and space needed

to determine the effectiveness of management actions designed

to reduce impacts, and linked to quantified standards of

acceptable change. The LAC process incorporates various

interests and values in a public exploration of values, issues

and management actions for the marine park. This process

was used in the Saba Marine Park and included 10 specific

steps, in which a public task force was directly involved in

each of the steps. The task force identified several indicators of

impact and for each indicator a standard was also identified.

Besides being useful in identifying indicators that are relevant

to management decision-making, the planning process also

demonstrates that LAC can help parks to develop a

management plan that can be implemented, create

opportunities for better relationships with those who have

interests or are affected by the plan..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D: Assessment, Monitoring

348

MEASURING CHANGES TO MANTLE COLOUR IN

GIANT CLAMS.

Kumar Lynette *, Johann Bell. Marine Studies

Programme, University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji.

Email: s93004854@student.usp.ac.fj

Cultured giant clams are becoming increasingly popular in

the tropical marine aquarium trade. The popularity of cultured

clams is due largely to the fact that several species can exhibit

iridescent blue and green mantle colours, and the trend for

aquarists to purchase products that have “ecolabelling”.

Despite the strong incentives for hatcheries to produce juvenile

giant clams with bright mantles, the factors that control mantle

colour are not yet well understood. Consequently, research is

now underway to identify the genetic and environmental

factors likely to be involved in the expression of mantle colour.

A major requirement of such research is the ability to record

changes in mantle colour accurately. In this paper, we describe

a method for measuring changes in the mantle colours of giant

clams from digital images. The method involves

standardisation of the images using computer routines and

sampling colour, in terms of its Red, Green and Blue (RGB)

components, with commercial image analysis software. We

have used this method in experiments on mantle colour in

Tridacna maxima and it has proved to be inexpensive and

reliable. Above all, however, it removed all human error in the

assessment of colour. The unequivocal data produced by this

method is expected to be of great value in the identifcation of

factors responsible for colour change in giant clams, and a

variety of other species.

STATUS OF BLACK CORAL POPULATIONS AT THE

MEXICAN CARIBBEAN.

Padilla C*, Lara M, Loreto R. M. and Lara I. CRIP Puerto

Morelos, INP. A.P. 580 Cancun 77500, Quintana Roo,

Mexico. Email: cpadilla@ww2.net.mx

Black coral is an important resource in the Mexican

Caribbean, but the main banks have been over-exploited. The

major problem for the regulation of this activity is that basic

biological and ecological aspects of these organisms are

unknown; even the taxonomic identity of the exploited species

are uncertain. Therefore, a study was conducted for to describe

the actual status of these populations in terms of its abundance

and some demographic aspects. A general overview was

obtained by videotransects using a control remote videocamara

(Phantom HD2), and more detailed information was obtained

by subaquatic survey using gas mix diving. Also preliminary

experiments was conducted in order to evaluate the

regeneration ability of this organisms and apical growth. The

black coral colonies used commercially belong to the species

Antipathes pennacea and A. caribbeana, and other five species

were detected in the study area, any of which are considered

into the black coral protected species in the Mexican

legislation. The highest abundance is in the south, while the

populations in the north part and Cozumel Island are scarce.

The preliminary results indicate that fragments artificially

fixed with epoxic had high survival and significant growth.

The demographic analysis shows a very slow population

growth, which make these populations very sensible to

changes due to extraction. A strategy is proposed looking for

the conservation of this resource including: propose to change

the Mexican legislation, close over exploited areas, reduce the

assigned quotas, and to restrict the kind of organism to extract.

RAPID REEF MAPPING – AN ATTEMPT WITH

HYDROACOUSTIC METHOD.

Lee, Wah Sze*. *Elcee Instrumentation Sdn. Bhd.

Malaysia. Email: lyj@pc.jaring.my

A new approach was applied to mapping out the reef

substrate of the Pulau Payar Marine Park which consists of

Payar and Segantang group of island. An acoustic ground

discriminating system was able to translate the echo signals

into hardness and roughness indices which then exhibit unique

characteristic for each bottom type recorded. Six major reef

substrates were identified. Live hard coral represents a total

coverage of 19.30% from the 157.68km total length of transect

recorded from Payar group of island. The four main growth

forms found were the massive (10.11%), branching (7.11%),

encrusting (1.51%) and foliose (0.57%). As for Pulau

Segantang group of island, soft coral was the dominant coral

type contributing to 34.65% of the total 4.12 km of track run.

The real time track data were also interpolated using

Surferâ6.2 for thematic maps showing depth contour, 3D

depth profile and bottom surface area. The results were

satisfactory. In this survey, hydroacoustic method shows

strongly to be a better alternative to the conventional transect

line method and satellite images in terms of time and cost

spent and the results gained in return, especially for large scale

survey.

HYPERSPECTRAL REMOTE SENSING OF

BAHAMAIAN REEFS.

Lesser Michael P. * and Robert Maffione. University of

New Hampshire, Department of Zoology, Durham, NH

03824. Email: mpl@christa.unh.edu

Hyperspectral remote sensing is emerging as a promising

means of mapping shallow reef habitats and characterizing

them based on the dominance of certain functional groups of

coral reef organisms. We extensively measured the light

environment of a coral reef habitat near Lee Stocking Island,

Bahamas to relate the bottom spectral signatures with the

spectral signatures observed at the water’s surface. The

spectral irradiance reflectances of the dominant substrates and

flora and fauna of the study area (e.g., sand, live corals,

macrophytes, turf algae) were measured and categorized with a

fourth derivative analysis. Just below the water’s surface, the

upwelling spectral radiance was measured simultaneously with

the downwelling irradiance just above the surface. A fourth

derivative analysis of the surface remote-sensing reflectance

clearly identified major bottom types and dominant organisms

on the reef when compared with the bottom reflectances.

Water column inherent optical properties were also measured

and used to model the propagation of solar light from the

surface to the bottom and back to the surface. Good agreement

was found between the measured and modeled light field.

Analysis of airborne hyperspectral imagery of the study site

also indicates that bottom classification of reef habitats can be

achieved with this type of sensor and platform..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D: Assessment, Monitoring

349

NOAA’S SATELLITE-BASED CORAL REEF EARLY

WARNING SYSTEM FOR PREDICTING TROPICAL

OCEAN WARMING, BLEACHING, AND MORTALITY.

Meyer, J.E. * Toscano, M.A.; Guch, I.C.; Strong, A.E.;

Hendee, J.C. and Casey, K.S. *NOAA/NESDIS

ORA/ORAD E/RA3, 5200 Auth Road, Rm 711, Camp

Springs, MD 20746 USA. Email: jmeyer@nesdis.noaa.gov

Since 1997, NOAA/NESDIS experimental tropical SST

HotSpot charts have provided a compelling predictive tool for

defining oceanic areas experiencing thermal stress and

consequent occurrences of coral reef bleaching. NESDIS coral

reef monitoring SST products will be transitioned from

experimental to operational status through a new program -Coral

Reef Watch. Toward this end 1) current HotSpot

analytical resolution and climatology (50km globally) will be

upgraded to 9km, improving spatial detail for monitoring;

2) coral reef bleaching e-mail alerts will be automated directly

from the HotSpot indices; 3) coral reef bleaching observations

will continue to be collected via email or web form; and 4)

data management/accessibility will be expanded. Planned

expansion of in situ coral reef monitoring (CREWS buoy)

stations in the Atlantic/Caribbean and Pacific, (through

NOAA/ORA/AOML; partner in Coral Reef Watch), is

designed to provide field verification of oceanographic

conditions in key reef areas. CREWS data will be used to

calibrate NESDIS satellite-based coral reef monitoring indices

and their defining thresholds. Coral Reef Watch directly

addresses the United States Coral Reef Task Force National

Action Plan mandate to monitor, assess, and inventory coral

reef health.

NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION OF CURRENT FIELD

ON A CORAL REEF WITH HIGH-RESOLUTION

BATHYMETRY DATA OBTAINED BY A SATELLITE

IMAGE ANALYSIS.

Nadaoka K., Yasuo Nihei* and Ryoko Kumano.

Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Science and

Engineering, Science University of Tokyo, 2641, Yamazaki,

Noda-shi, Chiba, 278-8501, Japan. Email: nihei@

rs.noda.sut.ac.jp

Hydrodynamic environments of a coral reef may be strongly

governed by topographic characteristics of the reef. Therefore

one needs to obtain high-resolution bathymetry data for

accurate computation of current field on a coral reef. However

the spatial resolution of the bathymetry data of a coral reef is

usually quite limited. In the present study, we have employed

the method of satellite image analysis for bathymetry mapping

developed by Nadaoka and Tamura (1991; 1992), which is

based on an optical theory of light transmission and reflection.

LANDSAT-TM images are used to give the bathymetry data

with the resolution of 30 m. The SDS-2DH model _Nadaoka

and Yagi, 1998_, a shallow-water turbulent flow model, is

used for numerical simulation of currents on a coral reef to

examine the significance of the bottom effects on the current

field and therefore of the spatial resolution of the batymetry

data. The computational experiments, in which the resolutions

are given to be respectively 30, 90 and 210m, show the strong

dependence of the spatial distribution of the tidal residual

currents, vorticity field and others on the difference in the

spatial resolution of the bathymetry data. It is found that this

difference is provided by the bottom friction effect, which may

vary with the bathymetry resolution.

SATELLITE IMAGE ANALYSIS OF CORAL REEFS

BASED ON SPECTRAL BOTTOM REFLECTANCE.

Nadaoka, K.*, Y. Nihei, T. Yokoyama, T. Oomija, K.

Shimoike.

Graduate School of Information Science and Engineering,

Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 O-okayakma,

Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8552, Japan. Email:

nadaoka@mei.titech.ac.jp

In the Okinawa Islands of Japan, the erosion of red-soil from

the land surface and its subsequent discharge and deposition

onto the surrounding coral reefs have caused serious

environmental problems such as the extinction of the coral and

the deterioration of the beach landscape. Recent aggravation of

these problems needs more comprehensive and quantitative

methods to monitor and analyze the degree of the sediment

deposition on the coral reefs and its spatial distribution. For

further extension of the applicability of the method developed

for this purpose by Nadaoka and Tamura (1991,1992), which

analyses the satellite remote-sensing data in visible-light bands

based on the light transmission and reflection theory, the

spectral reflectance of various sea-bottom conditions such as

live and dead coral, sea grass, seaweed, coral sand and red silt

was investigated by performing field observations. Then the

spectral reflectance was examined in terms of the remote

sensing bands to find the possibility of the classification of the

various sea-bottom conditions based on remote sensing data.

Finally the validity of this idea was checked by analyzing a

LANDSAT-TM data with the method proposed.

AUTOMATION OF DATA ANALYSIS FOR CORAL

REEF BENTHIC VIDEO TRANSECTS.

Osborne K , Ellis R, Culverhouse, P and L Coombs.

Australian Institute of Marine Science, PMB 3, Townsville

MC, Qld 4810 Australia. Email: kosborne@aims.gov.au

The Australian Institute of Marine Science Reef Monitoring

Project collects benthic video transects from sites on 48 reefs

of the Great Barrier Reef annually. Benthic video transects are

quick and easy to collect in the field but data analysis is time

consuming and expensive. The data analysis process

significantly affects the ability of the project to deliver real

time data to management. Automation of data analysis via an

expert system would not only speed up analysis but also allow

greater sample sizes and thus improve the power to detect

change.m As a first step toward implementing an expert

system, a software package based on neural networks was

tested. A training set of three hard coral species was presented.

Two species of Pocilloporidae and Stylophora pistillata were

chosen. These species are variable in appearance but can be

distinguished reliably by human observers. The work is in

progress and preliminary results will be presented..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D: Assessment, Monitoring

350

CORAL CHANGE DETECTION USING LANDSAT

SATELLITES: A CASE STUDY FOR CARYSFORT

REEF IN THE FLORIDA KEYS.

Palandro, David *, Andréfouët, Serge; Muller-Karger,

Frank; Dustan, Phillip. *University of South Florida, Dept.

of Marine Science, 140 7 th Ave. South, Saint Petersburg, Fl.

33701, USA. Email: palandro@seas.marine.usf.edu

Satellite remote sensing is increasingly being used to map

and monitor coral reefs. Satellite data allow for the relatively

quick assessment of benthic habitats and can be used for

change detection studies. Landsats 5 and 7, with the Thematic

Mapper (TM) and Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+)

sensors, respectively, on board provide the longest time series

of satellite observations available for coastal researchers.

From 1984 to the present, TM (for the U.S.) and ETM+

(worldwide), images are abundant for change detection

analysis over coral reefs, especially since the inception of the

NASA/USGS Long Term Acquisition Plan (LTAP). The

LTAP is implemented to gather Landsat 7/ETM+ data for

specific remote sensing niche communities, of which coral

reefs are one. To properly use this data, minimum corrections

need to be made; namely atmospheric correction, bathymetric

correction, radiometric correction and noise reduction. We

have merged the data from Landsats 5 and 7 to produce a 16-

year (1984-2000) time-series for Carysfort Reef in the Florida

Keys. A supervised classification of the bottom was

undertaken for four benthic habitats: sand, live coral,

seagrass/algae and a hard-bottom substrate, which included

rubble. A large database of in situ data exists for Carysfort

Reef for the same time period of our study; a comparison of

the satellite data and in situ data indicates a strong correlation

between the changes in benthic cover.

CREATION OF A CORAL GARDEN TO RESTORE A

DAMAGED REEF SITE (BORA-BORA, FRENCH

POLYNESIA)

Porcher, M. B. Salvat, R. Morancy, Y. Chancerelle, M.

Schrimm*. CAREX Environnement, Avenue de l'Armée

d'Afrique, Résidence Les Collines de Cuques, 13100 Aix-en-

Provence, France. Email:

carex.environnement@wanadoo.fr

One of the most wonderful reefscape of French Polynesia:

Matira Point in Bora Bora Island, has been degraded by coastal

erosion and excavations dredged on the reef flat. The French

Polynesian Ministry of Environment planned a study to define

technical solutions to restore and protect this site. An original

experimentation was conducted on a test zone, where 3

modules were placed. Each module includes 2 or 3 concrete

units, simulating coral heads. Shape, general aspect, colour,

location of concrete modules have been studied, taking into

account the natural reefscape (from aerial photography and

underwater observations). These concrete modules held

support for the coral transplants. 311 colonies of corals were

removed from donor sites and were cemented on the concrete

modules or seabed between them. Since the end of all

transplantations (July 1999), the site was biologically

monitored every 3 months: determination of mortality and

growth rates, evaluation of coral health, taking of photographs,

estimation of algal cover and record of echinoderms, molluscs

and fishes assemblages. Recovering rate of coral colonies was

high, with a mortality of only 3%. No stress was noticed

(bleaching, disease). Moreover, this coral garden seems to be

very attractive with an increasing colonisation, especially by

fishes. Finally, natural colonisation of corals on artificial

modules was observed.

DAMAGE ASSESSMENT PROTOCOL AND

RESTORATION OF CORAL REEFS INJURED BY

VESSEL GROUNDINGS

Precht, William F.*, Deis, Donald and Mulcahy, Robert.

*PBS&J, 2001 NW 107 th Ave., Miami, FL 33172, Email:

bprecht@pbsj.com

After a coral reef is impacted by a vessel grounding, an

assessment should be prepared to quantify and qualify the

resultant injury. Because many of the damage actions result in

litigation between the trustee and the responsible party, the

assessment must also substantiate or refute the description of

events that caused the injury. The site should initially be

treated much like that of a crime scene. Accordingly, physical

evidence needs to be documented, collected, and quantified.

Coral reef triage efforts should be implemented in concert with

the injury assessment for salvaging the living resource.

Following these tasks, a detailed damage assessment and

restoration plan (DARP) should be performed. The DARP

should quantify the injury to both the living and non-living

resource. Once the injury assessment portion of the DARP is

completed, a variety of primary restoration alternatives should

be outlined. Calculating monetary damages requires an

assessment of not only the injury and its restoration, but a

determination of the length of time for the injured area to

functionally return to pre-impact levels. These damages are

based on scaling of the restoration over time to compensate for

interim ecosystem losses. This approach to impact assessment

and restoration will provide an ecologically defensible basis

upon which to document the injury, set restoration goals,

implement the appropriate restoration program, and gauge

overall project success.

OBJECT-ORIENTED SYSTEMATICS INFORMATION

SYSTEM: TOWARD SYSTEMATICS DOMAIN

OBJECTS

Rousse, G.*, N. Conruyt, D. Grosser, R. Vignes. IREMIA,

University of La Réunion, B.P. 7151, France. Email:

Guillaume.Rousse@univ-reunion.fr

Current systematics databases rely upon relational model.

Although well-known and widely used, the relational model

presents heavy weaknesses regarding implied semantic,

complex structures support and multimedia data manipulation.

However, biosystematics is precisely a domain with very rich

content, such as complex relationships, hierarchical

classifications, images, etc.. The Fishbase database application

is an illustration of this complexity. Object model is another

way to model the world reality and can adress some of these

points above. We are currently evaluating it for building an

integrated information system about systematics of the

Mascarene coral reef ecosystem. This system will include data

and knowledge bases for full covering of information

acquisition procedure, from specimen identification to the

corresponding taxonomic data. It will also cover a wide range

of information types: nomenclatural, taxonomical,

geographical, ecological, etc.. The inter-operability with

external systems is also an important concern. Current

proposals deal with establishing reference conceptual schemes.

Although necessary, these proposals only adress static

structure of information. Object model allows to extends this

shared ontology to dynamic behaviour of our concepts, that

will lead to the definition of systematics domain objects..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D: Assessment, Monitoring

351

IMPACT OF FISHING ACTIVITY HAVE ON NEARBY

MARINE RESERVE?

Sarramegna S, LERVEM, University of New Caledonia,

B.P. 4477, 98847 Nouméa New Caledonia. Email:

sarrameg@univ-nc.nc

Marine protected areas are suppose to be sources of

emigration of fish to surrounding exploited zones. This

hypothesis was studied on the Abore marine reserve in the

Southwest lagoon of New Caledonian (25 km long, 0.5 to 2.5

km width barrier reef). Two surveys of coral reef fish

populations were performed using underwater point count

visual census. The first one in 1993, when the reef was

protected. The second one, two years later, when two thirds of

the reef were opened to fishing. The overall species richness

(77.85 vs. 69.47), density (3.68 vs. 1.72 fish.m -2 ) and biomass

(277.59 vs. 128.39 g.m -2 ) of fish decrease between these two

surveys. The same trend was observed in each part of the reef

(protected and unprotected area). The decrease of species

richness (3.4% in protected zone and 16.9% in unprotected

one) and biomass (106.6% in protected area and 130.9% in

unprotected one) observed in the unprotected area is more

important than in the reserve zone. On the other hand, the

variation of density is similar in these two areas (derease of

110.3% in protected one and 109.6% in unprotected one).

These results suggest that the reserve could supply the fishing

part of the reef by emigration of adult fish so the fishing

activities could affect all the reef. The analysis of the trophic

structure suggest that the decrease in food resource linked with

climatic accident such as El Niño, could also play an important

role to explain the results observed.

IS SKELETAL STRENGTH A GOOD CRITERION FOR

THE SELECTION OF CORALS TO BE SEEDED ONTO

ARTIFICIAL PROTOREEFS?

Schuhmacher, Helmut* *Institute of Ecology, University of

Essen, D-45117 Essen, Germany, Email:

h.schuhmacher@uni-essen.de

The carbonate budget of a coral reef mainly depends on the

ratio of accummulation versus erosion. These gross parameters

are influenced - among others - by the specific life expectancy

of the coral colony i.e. its persistence to calcify, by the

mechanical strength of the skeleton to resist hydrodynamic

impacts, and by the mode of desintegration after death of the

colony. Field observations on community composition and

laboratory experiments on mechanical properties of the

skeleton such as porosity, bending and compressive strength as

well as on resistance of fragments against abrasion are

presented. The importance of skeletal strength is discussed in

relation to colony morphology and physiological properties

such as regenerative potential in order to derive

recommendations for the seeding of reef nuclei as stepping

stones

SPECTRAL SIGNATURES OF BLEACHING FROM

HARD AND SOFT CORALS IN FIJI.

Siciliano, D. * , Potts, D.C. Martini, B.A. Lind, R. Morrow,

J.H.. *Ocean Sciences Department, University of

California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA. Email Address:

siciliano@biology.ucsc.edu

Many corals have characteristic spectral signatures indicating

differential absorption or reflection of particular wavelengths.

While signatures of healthy corals can be attributed almost

entirely to properties of their symbiotic zooxanthellae,

bleached corals without zooxanthellae may also have

distinctive signatures. During a major bleaching event in

Savusavu Bay, Fiji in March 2000, two multispectral

radiometers were used to measure reflectance spectra in situ

from a variety of hard and soft corals in varies stages of

bleaching (from healthy to completely bleached). The

instruments, both handled by divers and an operator in a small

boat, were: a GER 1500 portable hyperspectroradiometer,

with the sensor on a 10 m underwater fiberglass cable (350-

1150 nm in 3.0 nm FWHM increments); and a Biospherical

Instruments PRR-800 profiling reflectance radiometer (340-

785 nm in 10 nm FWHM wavebands). Spectra were recorded

from several species of Acropora, Pocillopora, Porites,

Symphyllia, Sinularia and Sarcophyton at a standardized

distance of ca. 10 cm, and at depths ranging from 0.5 to 8 m.

There were consistent spectral differences between some taxa,

among both bleached and unbleached corals. In addition, some

bleached corals had strong peaks that appear to indicate auto-fluorescence

in one or more wavelengths associated either with

UV-protective or similar molecules within the host's tissues (in

Pocillopora sp.), or with photosynthesis (in Symphyllia).

THE USE OF AVHRR AND ATSR DATA FOR

MAPPING CORAL BLEACHING ON THE GREAT

BARRIER REEF.

Skirving, William* and Barton, Ian. *Australian Institute

of Marine Science, PMB No. 3, Townsville M.C., Qld.,

Australia. 4810. Email: w.skirving@aims.gov.au

The Great Barrier Reef (GBR) experienced its most intensive

and extensive coral bleaching event on record in early 1998.

There is concern among environmental scientists and GBR-based

industries that widespread death and bleaching of corals

caused by extremely high temperatures during 1997-98 may

occur more frequently in the Great Barrier Reef region if

global climate change unfolds as expected during the 21 st

Century. The need for accurate environmental monitoring

techniques that are of use in studying coral bleaching is of

utmost importance among coral reef researchers. Currently

NOAA-NESDIS are using AVHRR data to produce a near-real-

time ‘coral bleaching hot spot’ product, which is proving

to be of great benefit to researchers studying coral bleaching in

the GBR. AVHRR (NOAAs 12, 14 and 15) and ATSR (ERS-1

& 2) have similar spectral and spatial resolutions but differ in

their radiometric and temporal resolution. This paper

compares and contrasts each of these sensors for monitoring

SST in the GBR with a view to studying temperature related

coral bleaching..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D: Assessment, Monitoring

352

RECENT CHANGES IN CORAL COVERAGE ON

OUTER FRONTS OF THE FRINGING REEFS AROUND

MAYOTTE I. (SW INDIAN OCEAN) ASSOCIATED

WITH THE ISLAND DEVELOPMENT: A TOOL TO

MONITOR AND MANAGE COASTAL

ENVIRONMENTS

Thomassin B. A.*, Durand D., Fertille J.C., Pichon M.,

Marshal C., Arnoux A., Bechemin C., Berland B. CNRS-UMR

n°6450 "Dimar", C.O.M., Univ. de la Méditerranée,

13007 Marseille, France & G.I.S. "Lag-May". Email:

thomassi@com.univ-mrs.fr

Mayotte I. (N Mozambique channel, 12°-13°S) is an eroded

volcanic island with a very jagged coastline, surrounded by a

large coral reef lagoon (near 1,500 km 2 ) isolated from the

ocean by a near continuous ribbon barrier reef system.

Fringing reefs are well developped along most of the coast all

around the "Main Island" (360 km 2 ), as well around the

volcanic lagoonal islets, even along inner parts of some deep

bays today in muddy environ-ments and with mangroves: near

186 km of fringing reefs fronts for 197 km of "Main Island"

shoreline. As the vitality of the coral assemblages on the

fringing reef outer fronts represents a good ecological indice to

estimate the impacts of land disturbances linked to the recent

development (huge increase in population, associated with

deforestation for agriculture, littoral road works, coastal

villages growth, car park extensions, increase of oil impact,

etc.) surveys at long intervals were planned for the island

manage-ment. First, island shoreline was subdivided in 35

districts according geomorphology. Two surveys were

conducted in 1989 and 1997, while the island population blows

up during these 8 years from about 70,000 up to 135,000

inhabitants.

SUCCESS AND GROWTH OF CORALS

TRANSPLANTED TO CEMENT ARMOR MAT TILES

IN SOUTHEAST FLORIDA: IMPLICATIONS FOR

REEF RESTORATION.

Thornton*, S. L., D. Gilliam, R. E. Dodge, R. E. Fergen

and P. Cooke. National Coral Reef Institute, Nova

Southeastern University Oceanographic Center, 8000

North Ocean Drive, Dania Beach, FL, USA 33004. Email:

sthornto@ocean.nova.edu.

In 1997, 265 scleractinian corals growing on a sewer outfall

pipe were used in a transplantation study offshore from North

Dade County, Florida, USA. Corals were removed and

transplanted onto concrete armor mat tiles used to cover the

pipe. Success (number of corals still attached and alive),

mortality (number of dead corals), and growth rates of the

transplants were assessed between December 1997 and

December 1999. Colony surface area coverage and radius

length were measured on scanned photographs to estimate

horizontal growth rate. After two years post-transplantation,

success rate and overall mortality were 89% and 7.3%

respectively. Used as a comparison, three groups of nearby

natural substrate corals had success rates of 84-89% and

mortality rates of 11-25%. The two most numerous coral

species of the transplants, Solenastrea bournoni and

Siderastrea siderea, had comparable success and mortality

rates; however, S. bournoni had a significantly faster growth

rate (increase in horizontal radius and surface area). The

colony size at time of transplant was not related to the rate of

growth; however, mortality and partial mortality rates

increased with smaller size colonies. The methodology used in

this investigation is useful for transplanting corals in impacted

areas because it is non-invasive and allows continual

monitoring. The technique is applicable to monitoring of corals

growing on natural and artificial substrates.

PROSPECTS FOR CORAL RECOVERY THROUGH

TRANSPLANTATION AND NATURAL

RECRUITMENT, KENYA

Visram S*, Tamelander J, Kilonzo J, Obura D. *Coral

Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean (CORDIO), P.O.

Box 10135, Mombasa, Kenya. Email:

dobura@africaonline.co.ke,

Coral reefs are increasingly threatened by degradation from

several sources, both natural and anthropogenic. The 1997-98

El Nino caused coral bleaching and a mortality of 50-95% on

most reefs in the western Indian Ocean. The subsequent reef

degradation will have strong secondary impacts on the

livelihoods of coastal populations. Reef recovery is vital, and

in some areas active restoration may be necessary. This study

was started in July/August 1998, to assess the restoration

potential for a degraded coral reef by transplanting corals and

monitoring natural settlement and recruitment. A secondary

objective is the development of low-tech, economical and

practical means of restoring degraded reefs. Further

developments of the study will include increasing the three-dimensional

complexity and studying secondary effects on,

e.g., biodiversity in the vicinity of the study plots. Two sites

are used in lagoon patch reef habitats, one adjacent to a

channel through the fringing reef, the other further inside the

lagoon, characterised by weaker tidal currents and slower

water exchange. Coral nubbins were transplanted onto natural

substrate and moveable racks using epoxy putty, and growth is

measured monthly.

MARINE DEBRIS, A PROBLEM FOR CORAL REEFS

AND ISLANDS - A LOOK AT ASHMORE REEF

Whiting, Scott D.* and Michael L. Guinea, *Biomarine

International, 376u NT University Darwin, NT, 0815.

Australia. Email: s_whiting@site.ntu.edu.au

Marine debris refers to the persistent anthropogenic debris

found in the marine environment. It is a global problem that

impacts on all aspects of the marine environment including

coral reefs. It causes the death and debilitation of many types

of fauna as well as impacting on human activities such as

tourism and shipping. Coral reefs and islands are natural

collection sites for marine debris and provide discrete

sampling units in the oceanic environment. In 1998, a survey

of marine debris was conducted on West Island on Ashmore

Reef, in the eastern Indian Ocean. Ashmore Reef is a remote,

shelf-edge platform coral reef located 800km from Darwin,

Australia, and 140 km from Roti Island, Indonesia.

Approximately 90% of the items were synthetic in origin, 68%

of which were fragments under 5 cm in diameter. An estimated

690 items/km washed ashore each day. Large amounts of

discarded fishing net were observed both on the beaches and in

the water at Ashmore Reef. Fishing debris had obvious

impacts on the Ashmore Reef fauna and included: corals

covered by discarded fishing nets and turtles and birds

entangled by nets and ropes. Small plastic fragments, when

ingested, also pose a serious threat to animals. Marine debris is

a serious problem in the marine environment. Beach and in-water

surveys of reefs should be conducted in a range of

geographically and ecologically diverse habitats to determine

the types and sources of marine debris and assess its impact on

marine systems. A reduction of marine debris will require an

integrated international approach..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D: Assessment, Monitoring

353

PROSPECTS FOR CORAL REEF REHABILITATION:

A PHILIPPINE CASE STUDY.

Helen T. Yap*, A. Rex F. Montebon, Marlowe G. Sabater,

Edgardo D. Gomez. The Marine Science Institute,

University of the Philippines, Diliman, 1101 Quezon City,

Philippines. Email Address: hty@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

The Hundred Islands comprise a unique coral reef ecosystem

in the northwestern Philippines, and are one of the first

officially declared national parks in the country. Unfortunately,

they have experienced steady degradation since about the

1970's. The island chain stretches roughly from north to south,

with the major land mass of Luzon to the west and south.

There is a gradient in exposure and siltation, resulting in better

water quality going northwards. This seems to be reflected in

better reef development in the north as well. Two species of

hard corals, Porites cylindrica and Pavona sp., were

transplanted into three demonstration areas in the islands of

Quezon, Clave and Children's located roughly along the north-south

gradient of environmental conditions. The sites at

Quezon and Children's were fenced with a 5-cm plastic mesh,

enclosing an area of about 100 m 2 , and also had several

individuals of giant clams introduced along with the corals.

Coral growth and survival were better in the northernmost

study site than in the other two. This confirms the north-south

gradient in environmental conditions which affect reef

development. The presence of corals and giant clams

significantly enhanced fish diversity and abundance, with these

parameters being much higher within the transplant areas as

compared to comparable areas outside. Thus, coral reef

rehabilitation involving coral and giant clam transplantation

has significant potential for enhancing diversity in degraded

coral reef areas.

THE STUDY OF CORAL TRANSPLANTATION USING

THE FRAGMENTATION METHOD AT PARI ISLAND-KEPULAUAN

SERIBU, INDONESIA.

Yarmanti, Kartika Dwi*; Johan, Ofri*. * Bogor

Agricultural University. Email: glubglub13@yahoo.com.

The research was conducted in Pari Island, Kepulauan

Seribu- Indonesia, starting December 1999 until June 2000.

There were two kinds of treatments for each species, which are

three different amount of branches (single branch, two

branches, and three branches) and three different locations

(leeward, windward, and lagoon) in 5 m depth. The aim of this

research is to investigate the succesful of transplanting corals

of Acropora formosa, Acropora donei, and Acropora

acumilata on artificial substrate. Growth, mortality, increase in

the amount of axial corallites, and encrust on artificial

substrate of transplants was recorded every month. From the

three different locations, the fastest growth rate of coral

transplants was found in leeward (2.335E-02 cm day -1 ), and

the lowest was found in goba (0.0727E-02 cm day -1 ). From the

three different species, the most rapidly growth was found in

A. formosa (1.549E-02 cm day -1 ), A. acumilata (1.536E-02 cm

day -1 ), and A. donei (0.569E-02 cm day -1 ). The mortality rate

of coral transplants were : goba-64.44%, leeward-8.89%, and

windward-2.22%. Coral transplants with three branches

treatment was increasing more rapidly compare to the single

and two branches. A. donei in winward was encrusted more

rapidly compare to the other species..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D1: Status

D1 STATUS

354

THE CONDITION OF CORAL REEFS IN PAPUA NEW

GUINEA.

Allen, GR*, A Anas, M Huber, A Jenkins, BL Kojis, U

Kolkolo, G Kula, L Kumoru, P Lokani, T Maniwavie, PL

Munday*, J Opu, NJ Quinn, M Srinivasan. *School of

Marine Biology and Aquaculture, James Cook University,

Townsville, QLD, 4811, Australia. Email:

philip.munday@jcu.edu.au

Papua new guinea (png) provides an important opportunity

for the conservation of significant areas of coral reefs in the

western pacific region of maximum marine biodiversity,

before they become severely impacted by local anthropogenic

activities. Png’s coral reefs are characterised by high species

diversity, with the number of fish and coral species recorded

during rapid ecological surveys often among the highest in the

pacific region. The diversity of most other marine organisms

is poorly documented. Recent surveys and anecdotal accounts

indicate that most reefs are in good condition. Most reefs

surveyed in the past few years had relatively high coral cover

and little evidence of damage from human activity. In

addition, reef fish populations are generally thought to be

harvested below sustainable levels. There is, however, good

evidence of overfishing of sedentary invertebrates and

overfishing of reef fishes near large coastal towns. The

recorded export from reef fisheries is relatively low in

comparison to some other pacific countries but has increased

substantially in recent years. Some of the most serious threats

to coral reefs in png appear to come from terrestrial activities,

such as large-scale forestry and agriculture. The apparent

increase in the frequency of bleaching events in png is also of

concern. Attempts to assess anthropogenic impacts and threats

to coral reefs in png are limited by a lack of data, therefore, the

apparent good condition of png's reefs must be considered in

this context.

THE STATUS OF CORAL REEF IN THE GULF OF

AQABA (JORDAN).

Al-Moghrabi, Salim M.*. *Marine Science Station; PO Box

195; Aqaba 77110 Jordan. Email:

Moghrabi_sam@hotmail.com

The Gulf of Aqaba embraces highly diverse coral reef

communities, which are one of the northernmost extensions of

the world's coral reefs. The Jordanian coastline covers about

27 kilometer along the northeastern part of the Gulf

characterized by reefs of the fringing type. It is the only

maritime exit for Jordan and actively used for industry, Port

activity, transportation and tourism. Furthermore, natural

disturbances like bio-erosion, predation, diseases and extreme

low tides affect the reef communities in the Gulf. A very high

number (212 m -2 ) of the predatory muricid gastropod

Drupella cornus was recorded from the Gulf of Aqaba in

1994. Black Band Disease was found to infect 61 colony,

within a circle of 10 m in diameter, at the industrial area

compared with 6 colonies at the marine reserve. In addition,

the reef flats are subjected approximately twice a year, around

February and September, to extreme low tides. Nonetheless,

the coral reefs in Jordan are still in good conditions. The

bathymetric distribution of scleractinian corals was determined

at 15 sites along the Jordanian coast using the line intercept

technique. Maximum scleractinian coral cover reached up to

90% with a mean cover ranging between 9% and 42%.

Furthermore, the crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci

is rarely seen and no bleaching events were recorded from the

Gulf of Aqaba untill now.

STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF MEXICO: PACIFIC,

GULF OF MEXICO AND CARIBBEAN

Arias GJE*, Bezaury J, Carricart JP, Carriquiri J,

Gutierrez CD, Horta PG, Lara PSM, Leyte MG, Medina, P

Reyes H, Vargas JM *CINVESTAV-U. Mérida 97310,

Mérida, México Email: earias@mda.cinvestav.mx

Mexico has very diverse coral reefs along both Atlantic and

Pacific coasts, which are threatened by poorly regulated

fisheries and coastal development. The Veracruz Reef System

may be the most heavily impacted in the northern Caribbean

from: mining of coral and sand; chemical and sewage

pollution; overfishing; unrestricted tourism; oil spills and ship

groundings; and natural freshwater inflows, winter cold fronts

and high solid suspended matter. Campeche Banks are well

conserved platform reefs, except for Cayo Arcas which is

damaged by oil shipping and extraction, and nearby large-scale

fisheries. The most important Mexican reefs extend 350 km

along Quintana Roo being part of the Mesoamerican Reef

System (through Belize, Guatemala and Honduras) consisting

of fringing or discontinuous coastal type reefs. Tourism is

approximately 70% of the Quintana Roo State economy

concentrated in the north (Cancún, Isla Mujeres, Cozumel and

the Cancún-Tulum Corridor). Most reefs are threatened by

explosive tourism growth, except for Sian Ka’an and

Chinchorro Biosphere Reserves and isolated reefs. Pacific

reefs are small and localized with mostly natural stresses, such

as El Niño coral bleaching and hurricanes. Human impacts are

increasing with some tourism in Huatulco and Puerto Vallarta.

Reef management is poor in Mexico, but community and

governmental efforts are increasing and 8 of 12 coral reef

protected areas were created after 1994. Mexico is active in the

Meso-American Coral Reef and ICRI Initiatives and has

formed a National Coral Reef Scientific and Technical

Advisory Committee (STAC).

A 4-YEAR CORAL STATUS MONITORING IN THE

SITES OF THE COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

PROGRAM IN CENTRAL VISAYAS, PHILIPPINES.

Bagalihog, Solon D.*, Rizaller C. Amolo And Homer

Hermes Y. De Dios. Department Of Environment And

Natural Resources, Mandaue City, Philippines 6000.

Email:ECOSCI@MOZCOM.COM

Coastal environment program of the department of

environment and natural resources was implemented in 1993

to manage sustainably the country’s marine and coastal

resources and protect marine biodiversity through the active

participation of the local community. To asses impact of the

coastal resources management interventions of the program,

annual monitoring of the marine resources was conducted in

eight (8) sites in central visayas, philippines. These sites were

distributed in the 4 provinces of the region. This paper presents

the results of the coral reef status in a 4-year time frame. The

monitoring were done in the established marine protected areas

and other areas with relative good live hard coral cover in

these identified sites. Line intercept transect method (english

and wilkinson, 1994) was used to determine coral cover and

other components of the benthic community. Monitoring was

conducted from 1996 to 1999. Status of corals were

determined based on its percentage live coral cover. Results

showed that status varied in every site in different years of the

monitoring. Coral falls under poor to excellent category with a

percent cover ranging from 7.6% to 91%. However, significant

increased of live cover was noted on corals ranging from 0.3%

- 37.35%. A uniform decreased of cover was noted in most

sites in 1998 attributed to the coral bleaching event brought

about the el niño phenomenon..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D1: Status

355

CORAL COMMUNITIES OF THE NORTHERN GULF

OF ADEN: A STUDY OF VARIATION IN COMMUNITY

STRUCTURE RELATED TO ENVIRONMENTAL

FACTORS.

Benzoni F.*, Bianchi, C.N., Morri, C. *Civico Acquario e

Stazione Idrobiologica di Milano, Piazza San Fedele 35,

22100 Como, Italy. Email: zerozero@tin.it

Until recently coral communities of the Gulf of Aden have

been almost entirely unstudied, but were believed to be sparse

and poorly developed due to the effects of the cold, nutrient-rich

water of the Arabian Sea upwelling. Recent studies have

shown that although biogenic coral reefs are very rare in the

northern Gulf of Aden, previously unexpected extensive and

high cover coral carpets occurred in a number of areas

throughout the region. In early 1998 a total of 29 sites with

high coral cover were surveyed in the north-eastern Gulf of

Aden. The benthic community at each of these sites was

surveyed using replicated line-intercept transects, recording

life-form categories, and with dominant hard and soft corals

identified to genus. Environmental parameters including depth,

degree of exposure, horizontal visibility, substrate topography

and geographic location were recorded for each site. Data were

analysed using classification and ordination techniques.

Geographic location and depth appear to be the major factors

influencing benthic community structure in this region.

Striking patterns along the surveyed region and features as the

presence of extensive monospecific coral areas suggest the

need of further investigation.

DEVELOPMENT AND STRATEGY OF WESTERN

INDIAN OCEAN REGIONAL CORAL REEF

NETWORK (ISLANDS STATES) IN THE GCRMN

Bigot* L., Charpy L., Aumeeruddy, R., Abdou Rabi, F.,

Maharavo, J., Paupiah, C.V. *ARVAM, 14 rue du stade de

l’Est, 97490, Ste Clotilde, Ile de La Réunion Email:

arvam@guetali.fr

The overall objective of the Regional Environment Program

of the Indian Ocean Commission (PRE-COI/EU) is to promote

a regional policy for the sustainable management of the natural

resources in the five member states: Comoros, Madagascar,

Mauritius, Réunion Island, Seychelles. In particular, the

program provides support for national policies on Integrated

Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), and encourages the

development of a coherent global approach to the management

of natural resources in these island states. Coral reefs of IOC

countries are subject to increasing pressures, particularly from

human activity. As a result, the monitoring of these ecosystems

has become a major priority for the COI countries. Therefore,

a reef-monitoring program was launched in 1997 through a

regional reef monitoring network based on a methodological

handbook (in French and English) entitled ‘Coral Reef

monitoring in the Southwest Indian Ocean’ and a specialized

reef database ‘Armdes-COI’. Today, 44 stations are being

surveyed and the IOC reef network is now a node of the

GCRMN for the South Western Indian Ocean islands. Results,

strategy and enforcement, funding and recommendations of

this network are finalized within a regional report for 1999-

2000 developed by the PRE-COI/UE. Methodologies, results

of the survey monitoring and other information about the

Regional program are also available in a CD-ROM (French

and English) launched in April 2000.

STATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS AND CORAL

COMMUNITIES OF THE BAY ISLANDS (HONDURAS,

CARIBBEAN SEA).

Bouchon, C*, de Lavigne, S.; Bouchon-Navaro, Y.; Louis,

M.; Thompson, W.; Portillo, P. *Laboratoire de Biologie

animale, Université Antilles-Guyane, BP 592, 97159,

Pointe-à-Pitre, Guadeloupe. PMAIB, Consortio Safège-Moncada,

Roatán, Honduras. Email: claude.bouchon@univ-ag.

fr

The Bays Islands (Utila, Roatán and Guanaja) located off the

continental coast of Honduras are surrounded by well-developed

coral reefs, which geographically belong to the

Meso-American Reefs. The coral communities of these reefs

were qualitatively studied in 56 stations. Nine stations were

investigated using a line-transect technique in order to

establish the quantitative structure of the benthic communities.

Forty-five species of coral were identified. Analysis of the

qualitative data revealed different coral assemblages

occupying respectively the reef flats, the shallow parts of the

outer reef slopes and their deeper parts. Quantitative results

showed that the coral coverage rate of the reefs varied from 13

to 33%. Between 50 and 80% of the coral colonies presented

signs of necrosis of their living tissues and the total surface

representing the dead parts of the colonies fluctuated between

34 and 73%. Algae occupied between 52 and 85 % of the

reefs. The causes of this worrying situation are a bleaching

event, which occurred in 1998 and induced an important

mortality of corals, associated to an eutrophication of the

coastal waters of the islands, which favors the development of

algae to the detriment of corals.

ASSESSMENT OF CORAL REEFS IN THE WESTERN

PART OF THE GULF OF THAILAND.

Chankong A.*. Chumphon Marine Fisheries Development

Center, Moo 8, Paknam, Muang District, Chumphon,

86120 Thailand. pmbcnet@phuket.ksc.co.th

Survey of reefs along in the western part of the Gulf of

Thailand to map reef location, boundary, area and study reef

condition was carried out in 1995-1997. Reefs along this area

are mainly fringing reefs. Due to geographical variation, they

are arbitrarily groups into 3 groups: fringing reefs on the island

groups are the most common reefs found under this study,

fringing reefs along the shoreline of mainland and patch reefs

in mid waters. Together reefs are found in 130 islands, which

are about 94 % of islands under investigation. Total area of

coral reefs is about 47 square kilometers. Base on information

available until 1997, the condition of coral reefs in the western

part of the Gulf of Thailand were almost fair to excellent,

consist of the percentage covering of life coral on reef slope

40-90 % and dead coral 10-50%. The species compositions of

coral reefs in the middle part of the western part of the Gulf of

Thailand were more variable than the species composition of

coral reefs in the north. In comparing with available

information from the past, the overall condition of coral reefs

in 1995-1997 were worse than in 1987-1991, especially in the

middle part of area under investigation. The main causes of

damage of coral reefs were storms. Other causes were man

made activities such as boat anchoring and destructive fishing

practice..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D1: Status

356

CORAL REEF MAPS OF THAILAND

Chansang H.*, et.al. Phuket Marine Biological Center, PO

Box 60 Phuket 83000 Thailand. Email:

pmbcnet@phuket.ksc.co.th

During 1995-1998 coral reef mapping in Thai waters both in

the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman Sea were conducted

with the objectives of producing coral reef maps which include

distribution of coral reefs in Thai waters, extent of reefs, reef

condition and general morphology of reefs. Field surveys were

conducted by using manta tow technique Reef maps were

made on scale 1: 10,000 and 1: 15,000. Reef conditions are

expressed as excellent, good, fair, poor and very poor base on

ratio of live and dead coral cover. The total 251 islands and

reef sites in the Gulf of Thailand were surveyed and mapped

and the total 169 island and reef sites in the Andaman Sea. All

reefs reported are fringing reefs which vary on extent and

scale. However most are small fringing reefs with area less

than 1 km 2 . The total reef areas in Thai waters are 453.46 km 2

i.e. 74.90 km 2 in the Gulf of Thailand and 78.56 km 2 in the

Andaman Sea. In the Gulf of Thailand during 1996-1998, reef

conditions were as follow : 16.4% excellent, 29.0% good,

30.8% fair, 10.9% poor and 12.9% very poor. Thus condition

of reefs in the Gulf of Thailand became more degraded than

during 1980s. For reefs in the Andaman Sea during 1996-1998,

reef conditions were as follow : 4.6% excellent, 12.0% good,

33.6% fair, 26.5% poor and 23.3% very poor. However

comparing with condition of the same reefs in previous years

most reefs in the Andaman Sea during 1996-1998 were either

in the same condition or better than during 1989-1993.

STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF SINGAPORE.

L.M. Chou * and Jeffrey K.Y. Low. Dept of Biological

Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of

Singapore, Blk. S2, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543.

Email: dbsclm@nus.edu.sg

Singapore reefs show the impact of over four decades of land

reclamation and coastal development. Sedimentation rates as

high as 44.64 g cm -2 day -1 reduced visibility from 10m in the

1960s to 2m today. The problem shows no sign of abatement

causing live coral cover to decrease at almost all sites

monitored since 1986. Live coral cover at Lazarus Island, close

to a high sediment source, dropped from 60.7% to 21.48% in

seven years. The outermost reef at Pulau Satumu with less

sedimentation impact also registered a decrease in live coral

cover from 76.35% to 48% in ten years. The widespread

bleaching event of 1998 affected Singapore reefs on a scale

never observed before. Exceptionally elevated water

temperature up to 35 0 C coinciding with low tides, resulted in

90% of hard corals bleached of which 25% failed to recover.

Overall reduction in the total percent live coral cover through

bleaching was most evident at the reef crest. Recovery rates

varied between genera and growth form. The submassive

coral, Goniopora, showed the most complete recovery, while

massive corals recovered at a slower rate.

CHANGES IN REEF CORAL COVERAGE AT KAHE

POINT, OAHU, HAWAII DURING 19 YEARS OF

MONITORING.

Coles, S.L.* and Brown, E.. *Bishop Museum, 1525

Bernice St., Honolulu, HI 19673, USA. Email

slcoles@bishopmuseum.org

Coral coverage on 10 quadrats at each of four stations near

kahe point, leeward oahu was measured yearly from 1981

through 1999 by re-photographing marked areas on the reef.

This 19-year period included the occurrences of two major

hurricanes, which impacted the area in 1982 and 1992, and

other periods of high wave turbulence. Repeated measures

anova indicates significant differences among stations, time

and station-time interaction that correspond to different periods

of ocean turbulence at three of the stations. By, contrast, no

significant change in coverage with time occurred at the station

closest to the thermal outfall of the kahe power station.

Hurricane-related decreases in coral coverage are indicated

which extended well after the times of the storms. Lag time for

the onset of recovery in coral coverage after a major

disturbance was two to five years.

CHANGES IN THE CORAL REEFS OF COSTA RICA.

Cortés J.* *Centro de Investigación en Ciencias del Mar y

Limnología (CIMAR), Ciudad de la Investigación,

Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, San José 2060,

Costa Rica. Email: jcortes@cariari.ucr.ac.cr

Costa Rica is located on the Central American Isthmus and

has coral reefs on the Caribbean and on the Pacific Ocean.

Some of these reefs have been studied for the last 20 years and

significant changes have been observed. On the Caribbean

coast, live coral coverage at one reef has dropped from 40 to

less than 10% due to sedimentation. Other reefs on that coast

have been affected by anthropogenic (coastal development,

sewage and increased tourism) and natural causes (warming

events, diseases and coastal uplift). On the Pacific side,

coastal reefs have been affected mainly by human activity

(deforestation, coastal development and organisms extraction)

and by natural causes (warming events), while offshore reefs

have been impacted, almost exclusively, by natural phenomena

(warming events and phytoplankton blooms). In all cases

reductions of live coral coverage has resulted but in reefs with

only natural impacts, recovery has been recorded..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D1: Status

357

THE STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN VENEZUELA

Cróquer–Pedrón, Aldo*. *Universidad Simón Bolívar,

Caracas – Venezuela. Email: croquer@telcel.net.ve

Venezuela has 2875 km of coastline; approximately 67% are

in the caribbean sea and 33% in the atlantic ocean. The highest

reef development in venezuela is reached in the oceanic

islands, such as archipiélago de aves, archipiélago los roques,

la orchila and la blanquilla. There is a lack of updated

information about the status of coral reefs in most of these

oceanic islands. The main species reported so far are

montastraea annularis, m. Faveolata, colpophyllia natans,

diploria strigosa and healthy populations of acropora palmata

and a. Cervicornis, although 58 species have been reported to

los roques national park. Coral communities are common at

the islands of the venezuelan continental shelf like margarita,

coche, cubagua, islas caracas, islas chimanas, islas borrachas

and isletas de piritu. In these areas, reefs could arise but their

development might be limited by upwelling conditions.

Regarding the venezuelan mainland, the best development of

reef communities used to be found at morrocoy national park,

prior to the mass mortality event occurred on january 1996,

live coral cover ranged from 35 to 45 %; today coral cover lost

reach 98 % in some reefs. In mochima national park, corals are

quite abundant but reefs are not important, a total of 26 coral

species has been reported so far.

AN INTEGRATED SURVEY OF COLOMBIAN CORAL

REEFS

Díaz J.M.*, Fernando Parra-Velandia, Mateo López-Victoria,

Lina M. Barrios and Fernando Zapata.

*Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras, Santa

Marta, Colombia, A.A. 1016. Email:

jmdiaz@invemar.org.co

The 23 Recent reef areas occurring in Colombia occupy a

total surface of about 2,850 km 2 (including besides living coral

also other associated habitats). More than 98% of this surface

corresponds to 20 reef areas in the Caribbean, whereas Pacific

reefs are small and patchy in distribution. In the Caribbean,

nearly 75% of the surface is represented by 7 oceanic atolls

and reef-complexes, around 700 km. off the Colombian

continental coast. Along the Caribbean mainland coast, reefs

are best represented in three offshore areas in the central

region. Twenty one habitat types, including 14 coral

associations, were recognized on the basis of dominant sessile

biota and substrate features. The diversity of habitats and coral

species between the areas is more related to the variety of

wave exposure regimes within areas as wells as to reef

morphology and water turbidity rather than to the size of the

areas. The 23 areas were classified into eight categories: (1)

Five Caribbean oceanic banks and atolls with high diversity;

(2) two Caribbean oceanic reef-complexes with very high

diversity; (3) five Caribbean offshore reef-complexes with

very high diversity; (4) one Caribbean coastal area with high

diversity; (5) one Caribbean coastal area with medium

diversity; (6) six Caribbean coastal/offshore reefs and coral

carpets with low diversity; (7) one Pacific oceanic reef with

low diversity; (8) two Pacific coastal/offshore reefs with

medium diversity. The representativity of these categories and

of the habitat types within the existing marine protected areas

in Colombia is discussed.

LONG-TERM MONITORING OF THE FLOWER

GARDEN BANKS CORAL REEFS; GULF OF MEXICO,

U.S.A.

Dokken Q.R.* Ian R. MacDonald, John W. Tunnell, Jr.,

Carl Beaver, Susan Childs. Center for Coastal Studies,

Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi, 6300 Ocean Drive,

Corpus Christi, TX 78412,USA. Email:

dokken@falcon.tamucc.edu.

The Flower Garden Banks (FGB) in the northwestern Gulf of

Mexico comprise the most northerly coral reefs on the

continental shelf of North America. Sitting atop geological

peaks that rise from the seabed at a depth of 122 m, the upper

most surface of the corals is at 18 m, and the deepest coral

growth is at 36 m. These reefs are relatively isolated,

approximately 180 km from the nearest land. Combined, these

banks support approximately 204 km 2 of coral habitat. Coral

coverage exceeds 50% at each bank. Coral diversity, with 23

species, is low – dominated by Montastrea spp. and Diploria

spp. Compared to the nearest coral reefs of the Florida Keys,

southern Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea, the FGB are a

healthy habitat only minimally showing signs of bleaching,

disease, and anthropogenic impacts common on the more

southern coral reefs. Bleaching is sporadic, not massive, and

confined to a short period usually near the end of August.

Disease is found on less than 1% of the coral colonies. As a

National Marine Sanctuary, human impacts are strictly

controlled; and, isolated from land, non-point source impacts

are virtually non-existent. Intense monitoring efforts have

been underway since 1989, including photographic measures

of coral coverage, coral growth, substrate cover by non-coral

flora/fauna, water quality, and herbivore populations. The

monitoring strategy is continuously critiqued and upgraded to

provide the most effective database for management.

CORAL REEFS IN THE INTERNATIONAL

BIODIVERSITY OBSERVATION YEAR: 2001-2.

Done TJ*, Ogden, JC, Wilkinson CR, Hodgson, G, Linden,

O. * Australian Institute of Marine Science, PMB #3,

Townsville MC. Qld., Australia. Email Address:

t.done@aims.gov.au

The coral reef community is invited to become involved in

IBOY - the International Biodiversity Observation Year of

2001-2 (www.nrel.colstate.edu/IBOY). IBOY is an initiative

of Diversitas, a international program for biodiversity science

sponsored by a raft of international agencies. The authors have

proposed a project entitled 'The Recovery of Coral Reef

Biodiversity Following Bleaching'. The project aims are to

establish the extent to which coral reefs have recovered from

the globally widespread coral bleaching of 1997-8, associated

with the warmest sea surface temperatures of the 20 th Century.

We plan to work through international coral reef networks

such as CARICOMP, CORDIO, GCRMN and Reef Check.

We will ask participants to apply simple field and database

protocols to produce a useful data set with a global scope.

Observers will record the abundance and size of small corals

easy to see with the naked eye to complement standard

observations on coral cover and damage. This project is

significant because by 2001, the places and extent to which

natural processes are beginning to restore coral growth and

diversity should be starting to become evident. There is great

concern that natural recovery processes will have been

compromised by widespread and direct human degradation of

coral reefs, their local environments, and their resources.

Your observations will contribute to an important report at a

critical time for coral reefs..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D1: Status

358

BASELINE STUDIES OF THE NINGALOO REEF

TRACT

, B.M.* and Miller, Ian R. *Australian Institute of Marine

Science, PMB No. 3, Townsville, QLD 4810, Australia.

Email: b.fitzpatrick@aims.gov.au

The Ningaloo Reef Tract runs for nearly 270km along the

North West Cape of Western Australia. Its the longest fringing

reef in Australia. Scientific studies of its marine ecosystems

are limited to small geographical scales or are species specific.

In June 1998 a long-term study of coral communities

commenced. Participants in the 1999 re-survey included the

Australian Institute of Marine Science and the Western

Australian Departments of Conservation and Land

Management and Environmental Protection. Sampling was

conducted at a fine scale using transect methods including

visual fish census and underwater video; and at a broad scale

using manta tow. The coordinates of study sites were plotted

using GPS. Results show, low to moderate coral cover typifies

the Ningaloo Reef Tract. Coral cover is generally highest

around drainage channels that intersect the reef crest and drain

the lagoon. Coarse calcareous sand and a moderate to high

cover of algae dominate the benthos. The results of this study

are still in analysis however they will contribute towards

revision of the Ningaloo Marine Park Management Plan.

STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF PALAU.

Golbuu, Yimnang.* *Palau Community College-Cooperative

Research and Extension, P.O. Box 9, Koror,

Palau 96940. Email: ygolbuu@yahoo.com

Palau has the most diverse coral fauna of any other areas in

Micronesia. Within the whole Indo-Pacific region, Palau’s

coral diversity is comparable to the highest coral diversity

areas of the Philippines, Indonesia, and Australia. Within

Micronesia, Palau has the most number of reef fish species.

Before 1998 bleaching event in Palau, the remote reefs were

generally healthy and in good condition. The reefs closer to

population centers or areas where developments are occurring

were showing signs of degradation due to anthropogenic

disturbance. After the bleaching event, most reefs in Palau

were severely affected. There was high mortality of corals

from the bleaching. Mortality varied considerably by

taxonomic group and habitat, with offshore reef slopes having

the highest mortality. Corals in the genus Acropora were

especially susceptible to bleaching and in many places

mortality was high. The reef fish populations in the main

islands of Palau are showing signs of overfishing compared to

the Southwest Islands where there are less fishing pressures.

Highly desirable species of fish are either absent or present in

low numbers in the main islands compared to the Southwest

Islands of Palau. The main natural threats to Palau’s coral

reefs are crown-of-thorns and warming of seawater

temperature. Anthropogenic threats include erosion and

sedimentation due to poor land use practices, overfishing,

sewage outfalls and dredging.

STATUS OF THE FISH COMMUNITY OF THE TURKS

AND CAICOS ISLANDS: RESULTS FROM THE

ATLANTIC & GULF RAPID REEF ASSESSMENT

(AGRRA).

Hoshino, K. *, C. Manfrino, B. Riegl, & S.C.C. Steiner.

*Bren School of Environmental Science and Management,

University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara,

CA 93106-5131. Email: khoshino@bren.ucsb.edu

Coral reef fish communities were surveyed at 28 sites in the

vicinity of the Turks and Caicos Islands (TCI) and the

Mouchoir Bank in August 1999, using the AGRRA protocol.

This study provides the results of the fist systematic census of

fish communities in TCI, which are located at the southeastern

extent of the Bahamian Archipelago. Two census methods

were employed for this study. Belt transects was used to

determine abundance and size distribution for selected fish

families and Roving Diver Technique was used to measure

overall fish diversity and density. The surveys revealed that

TCI have a healthy reef fish community with a total of 43

species recorded in transects and 120 species by Roving Diver

Technique surveys. Comparison among the locations (Grand

Turk, South Caicos, West Caicos, Providenciales and the

Mouchoir Bank) revealed that West Caicos had higher fish

density, larger size of fishes and higher species richness than

other locations. In contrast, the Mouchoir Bank had lower

density and smaller size in most fish families with the lowest

species richness. High fishing pressures there appeared to have

impacted the fish community structure. The overall results

suggest that current fishing pressure is generally low in TCI,

and coral size and diversity appear to play an important role in

structuring the fish community.

MARINE MONITORING OF THE COMMONWEALTH

OF THE NORTHERN MARIANAS ISLANDS.

Houk, Peter.* *Division Of Environmental Quality, P.O.

Box 501304, 3 rd Floor Morgan Bldg., Saipan, Mp. 96950.

Email: p_houk@hotmail.com

Marine monitoring in tropical areas has helped scientists and

managers to better understand coral reefs and the

environmental factors that affect them. Over the years

techniques have improved due in part to global cooperation

and sharing of information. Better monitoring techniques lead

to better data collection, which in turn leads to more answers

for questions and solutions for problems. The Commonwealth

of the Northern Marianas Islands (CNMI) consists of a chain

of several islands located along the Marianas Trench, southeast

of Japan. CNMI’s marine monitoring plan consists of

gathering baseline data of the benthic and fish community, and

using a GIS system for displaying the results by location.

Specifically, benthic cover is estimated using video surveys

and in situ quadrats analyzed to the genus level, coral

communities are looked at using point quarter techniques to

species level, and fish abundance and diversity are estimated

using belt transects and random swims. In addition water

quality measurements consisting of temperature, turbidity,

sedimentation, salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen, and ecoli

counts, are continuously recorded from monitoring stations.

These data will help to understand and assess changes,

differences, and problems in the various reef communities that

may occur over time. In addition, when proposals are

submitted for development projects to the Division of

Environment Quality these baseline data will aid in making

recommendations to insure minimal environmental impact.

While the Australian Institute of Marine Science has

standardized methods for surveying reefs, there is a need for

standardizing entire marine monitoring programs..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D1: Status

359

A RESEARCH ON THE CHANGE OF CORAL REEF

ENVIRONMENT IN ISHIGAKI ISLAND OF

SOUTHERN RYUKYU ISLANDS

Ichikawa K.*. Hasegawa, Hitoshi; Mezaki, Shigekazu;.

Nakamori, Toru;. Sagawa, Natsume;. Sato, Takanori;.

Suzuki, Rintaro.; Abe, Teruko;. Kobayashi, Miyako.;

Hirota, Kiyoshi;. Kobayashi, Takashi;. Yasumura,

Shigeki;. Hoshino, Makoto. *Department Of Geography,

Kokushikan Univ., Setagaya, Tokyo, JAPAN. Email:

YHQ01474@nifty.ne.jp

We have carried out the investigation of coral reef

environment in every five years since 1989 in Ishigaki Island

of southern Ryukyu Islands. This area is rich in the variety of

a creature look, and corals grow in the high density. It paid

attention to such a coral reef environment, and that area

character had been analyzed. Investigation did the visual

observation of the constant time about Twenty-seven places

around Ishigaki Island. The range of covered with living coral

, the life style of corals, regenerated conditions, a kind of

Chaetodontidae and Pomacentridae and the number of

individuals were examined along with it. It was recognized

that the aggravation of coral reef environment progressed on

the whole due to the progress of the past ten years. The

influence which the food harm of Acanthaster planci, those

recovery conditions and soil drain gave to it was explained at

1989 and 1994. And, it was proved that even the point where

the growth of coral was good suffered big damage due to the

bleaching in 1998. It became clear that the recovery of corals

weren't sufficient from bleaching.

STATUS AND CONDITION OF CORAL REEFS IN

SOME LOCATION IN INDONESIA FOR THE PAST

TEN YEARS (1990-2000).

Iskandar, Febriany*, *Flamboyan II no 16-Depok Jabar-Indonesia

Email : ade.fee@mailcity.com

As a country wich located in a tropical area, Indonesia has a

very high biological diversity. Among them is, the diversity

coral reefs, wich spreads out in all Indonesias oceanic waters

from Sabang to Merauke. Coral reefs can be catagoried as a

spesific oceanic tropical ecosystem wich has a very important

function such as physic, biological and also chemical function.

As a physical function the coral reefs is a natural protection

along the coast line, as a biological function the coral reefs

helps many organism in providing habitats for their living, and

as chemical function the coral reefs are provider of medical

aparatus and also cosmetic aparatus. Managing coral reefs in

an integrated manner is needed to maintain the existence of the

ecosystem, so that it can be usefull in time. To obtain certain

aim in managing it requires a complete and accurate data. The

existence of coral reefs which spreads out widely in all

Indonesia’s oceanic waters caused the hardness of collecting

complete data. Through scientific research in some areas of

coral reefs has been done by many authorities, either

government or non government authorities. The result of

scientific research are usually kept by certain authority and are

not compillated publicly so that it’s hard to have the real

picture of the coral reef’s condition of Indonesia

comprehensively. The efforts in compilating data into such

information is hopefully usefull as a reference in taking

responsibilities action on managing the coral reefs area.

STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF JAPAN.

Kawagoe Hisashi* *International Coral Reef Research and

Monitoring Center, The Environment Agency of JAPAN,

Yashima-cho, Ishigaki-City, Okinawa, Japan.

The Japanese Islands are located in the western Pacific

Ocean and form a long island arc extending north to south for

over 2,800km. Most of reefs of Japan distribute at Nansei

Islands and Ogasawara Islands, which are classified as fringing

reefs. Approximately 400 species of the hermatypic corals

have been reported in Japan. As the results of “4 th National

Survey on the Natural Environment” conducted by the

Environment Agency in 1990-1992, it revealed that the coral

communities cover approximately 34.2 thousand-hectare in

moats in Nansei Islands. In Ogasawara Islands, coral

communities covering 456 hectare were recorded. Even for the

waters around main land Japan where no coral reefs are found,

the area of coral communities is approximately 1,400 hectare.

In the summer of 1998, there were severe coral bleaching

events ever observed around southern part of Japan. The

damage ratio on bleached coral was 70 to 90% south from

Yoron Island and 30 to 60% north from Yoron Is. The fisheries

statistics for coral reef fishes in Okinawa Prefecture indicate

the tendencies of decrease in both catch and number of fishing

units in several recent years. The anthropogenic threats to coral

reefs in Japan include terrestrial run-off of the red-soil,

development in coastal areas and land reclamation etc. For

conservation of coral reef ecosystems, 23 marine parks in the

coral reef areas were designated under the Natural Parks Law.

The total area of these marine parks cover 1,615.5 hectare,

which is estimated to be approximately 1.7% of the coral reef

area in Japan.

STATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF LAKSHADWEEP,

INDIA.

Koya M.S. Syed Ismail *, M. Wafar and E.V. Muley

Department of Science and Technology, Kavaratti island

P.O. U.T. of Lakshadweep, 682 555, India Email:

dst@hub1.nic.in

The Lakshdweep islands, with 12 atolls, 5 submerged banks

and 36 islands, lie off the central west coast of India. The reefs

are important to the local population mainly in terms of

fisheries and building material. Though the reefs were healthy

two decades back, continued human interference and the

bleaching in 1998 have caused a severe loss of coral

biodiversity. Recovery is still not significant. The major

fishing activity is for tunas and sharks. Fishing in the reefs and

lagoons is only for sustenance. Recreational fishing and

ornamental fish trade do not exist. The main causes of decline

in coral health, at least in shallow waters, are coral mining,

collection of souvenir corals and shells, dredging for

navigational channels, resuspension of silt consequent to

mechanized boat traffic, unsustainable fishing practices,

especially for bait fishes, and non-respect of carrying capacity.

Neither the local government agencies nor the local population

seem to have realized the impacts of the 1998 bleaching. No

atoll in the Lakshadweep has been declared so far as protected

though ban on coral removal and hunting for some marine

animals like turtles and dolphins exist. Despite the ban, coral

removal still occurs regularly. As of now, there is no clear

management strategy and systematic monitoring has only now

begun. The current status of the coral reefs at Lakshadweep is

far from satisfactory. Still it is possible to reverse the situation

provided some serious collective efforts on the part of all

stakeholders are made..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D1: Status

360

PHILIPPINE CORAL REEFS, REEF FISHES, AND

ASSOCIATED FISHERIES: STATUS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS TO IMPROVE THEIR

MANAGEMENT.

Licuanan W.Y.*and E. D. Gomez Biology Department, De

La Salle University 2401 Taft Avenue, Manila, Philippines.

Email: licuanan@edsamail.com.ph

Philippine reefs are among the richest and most diverse in

the world and has a considerable contribution to the nation’s

economy in the form of fisheries, tourism, and coastal

protection. Despite the increased awareness about local reefs

and the ensuing management and conservation efforts, the

present inventory show that only 4.3% of the reefs are in

excellent condition (at least 75% live coral cover), with an

overall average of 32.3% hard coral cover. Acropora covered

only an average of 8.1%. Patterns in changes suggest that the

reefs in the Visayas (central Philippines) are most at risk.

Destructive fishing (blast fishing, cyanide fishing, muro-ami,

etc.) and poor land management leading to sedimentation and

poor water quality remain the primary causes of reef declines,

which appear related to sizes of nearby populations centers.

Blast fishing has moved on to farther, less depleted areas.

Cyanide fishing also appears to have also declined, driven by

testing and education programs. Increased vigilance remains

necessary however. The 1998-99 bleaching event has been

unprecedented, affecting most reefs in northern Luzon (which

appears hardest hit), Palawan, most of the Visayas, northern

and eastern Mindanao. Impacts due to Acanthaster and

druppelids remain unstudied.

STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE FEDERATED

STATES OF MICRONESIA.

Lindsay, SR * & Edward, A,. * Micronesian Aquaculture &

Marine Consultant Services, PO box 2178, Kolonia,

Pohnpei, FSM. Email: slindsay@mail.fm

The condition of reefs within the FSM are in good to

excellent health with natural processes controlling reef

condition and natural reef biodiversity. There is growing

concern, especially in the urban centers of reef degradation and

the loss of reef biodiversity due to various anthropogenic

sources. Localised coral reef dredging, sandmining and

deforestation have contributed to increases in sedimentation

and eutrophication of reefs whilst overfishing, destructive

fishing practices and lack of community reef preservation

awareness are depleting resource stocks. Reef damage from

petrochemicals and ship groundings have only been recorded

in isolated cases. Recent community awareness programs

highlighting specific management plans through education and

enforcement and the development of new marine conservation

legislation and marine conservation plans are positive steps

towards reducing negative anthropogenic impacts. There is a

real need to enhanced capacity building for marine

environmental managers and the community at large. The

establishment of protected areas, conservation parks and well

developed coral reef management plans will help to protect

coral reefs within the FSM. The development of commercial

activities such as mariculture, eco-tourism and fisheries are

encouraged if properly planned, implemented and managed.

A DECADE OF CORAL REEFS MONITORING OF THE

SIAN KA’AN BIOSPHERE RESERVE, MEXICO.

Loreto R. M*, Lara M, Padilla C. and Gutiérrez, D.

AMIGOS DE SIAN KA’AN A.C. A.P. 770, Cancún 77506,

Q.Roo, México. Email: sian@cancun.com.mx

The sian ka’an biosphere reserve (skbr) was declared in 1986

to protect reef and wetland systems. The northern fringing

reefs of skbr comprise exceptional reef zones, in terms of

scleractinian cover and diversity as well as topographic

complexity. Since 1992, have been implementing a coral reef

monitoring program in this region of skbr to define reef

condition as input to the reserve´s a conservation strategy and

management initiatives. The methodology uses belt-quadrant

and linear transects in 3 permanent stations. The reef

assessment utilizes to 3 indicator organisms: macroalgaes,

scleractinians and fishes, as well as water temperature. To

scleractinians were register living tissue, density, maximum

large and wide per colony and general condition (bleaching,

diseases, fouling). To macroalgaes coverage per species and

fishes density and size. Monitoring has provided information

on coral condition due to significant natural events. In 1995,

hurricane roxanne hit approximately 12 km south of the

monitoring sites with little affects since the offshore winds

reduced waves and tide impacts. During the 1998, bleaching

phenomena, impacts were sited within the study area.

Observations showed that some coral colonies were bleached

within the monitoring sites. Other results indicates that

variations in coral coverage are cyclic, however, there is no

statistical significance.

STATUS OF THE REEFS IN THE CAYMAN ISLANDS.

Manfrino, C.*, B. Riegl, C.V. Pattengill-Semmens, J.L.

Hall, B. Semmens, K. Hoshino, R. Graifman, C.

Hermoyian. Kean *University, Department of Geology and

Meteorology, 1000 Morris Avenue, Union, New Jersey,

08540. Email: ckievman@turbo.kean.edu

As with many of the reefs in the Caribbean, the reefs in the

Caymans have been under continuous natural and

anthropogenic stresses (80 % of the corals on the walls were

bleached in 1998). In June, 1999 the reefs around Little

Cayman and Grand Cayman Islands were assessed using the

AGRRA protocol at 33 sites. A total of 4521 corals in 330

transects, 1807 algal quadrats, and 341 fish transects were

measured. Assessment and habitat data are presented in a GIS.

The coral reefs of the two Cayman Islands appear to be in

similar good condition but there are some differences.

Differences include higher frequency and average cover of

macroalgae and higher incidence of coral diseases on Little

Cayman. Algal competition does not appear to be a problem

for corals at most sites. Thirteen (87 %) of the sites on Grand

Cayman had standing dead coral and only 4 sites (22 %) on

Little Cayman. Recent coral mortality was twice as high on

Grand Cayman as on Little Cayman (5.0 % vs. 2.1 %). Coral

recruitment was patchy, but present, mostly at low levels

across the region. Live coral cover averaged 19.8 ± 3.3 % on

Grand Cayman and 23.2 ± 5.4 % on Little Cayman. No old

Acropora palmata stands occur, however, low density patchy

new growth occurs frequently. The average abundance of fish

was greater and the frequency of certain fish, especially

grouper and snapper were up to eight times higher on Little

Cayman. Grouper spawning aggregations are still harvested in

the Cayman Islands..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D1: Status

361

MONITORING CORAL REEFS AND SEABIRD

POPULATIONS AT THE TUBBATAHA NATIONAL

MARINE PARK, PHILIPPINES.

Mejia, Manuel N.* and. Ledesma, Micaela C. *WWF

Philippines. 23-A Maalindog St. UP Village, Diliman,

Quezon City, Philippines. Email: wwf-pal@mozcom.com

Tubbataha Reef lies in the middle of the Sulu Sea and is one

of the last pristine marine areas in the region. Because of its

globally significant biodiversity, UNESCO declared it a

Natural World Heritage Site in 1993. Over the years, however,

Tubbataha has experienced both anthropogenic and natural

destruction. To mitigate threats, the Tubbataha Protected Area

Management Board and WWF Philippines are implementing

conservation measures. Coral, bird and fish surveys were

conducted to monitor the Park’s ecological condition and to

see if these conservation measures were effective and to help

in park management decision-making. From 1997 to 1999,

total live coral cover at the seven transects decreased by an

average of 26%. This decline is attributed largely to the

bleaching caused by the 1998 El Niño phenomenon.

Interestingly, compared to bleaching reports from near-shore

reefs, Tubbataha suffered relatively less damage. In spite of

the decrease in corals, fish biomass increased significantly at

these sites. Various factors explaining the significant changes

in the reef community structure and seabird populations will be

discussed. On the other hand, migratory seabird populations

have decreased greatly both in terms of numbers and diversity

during this time period. This paper offers possible reasons for

these observations and explores more effective management

regimes and conservation measures for this World Natural

Heritage Site.

ASSESSMENT OF CORAL REEFS IN THE EASTERN

PART OF THE GULF OF THAILAND.

Monanunsap Somchai *, R. Boonprakob and P. Sinanunt.

Sea Turtle Conservation Station, Mannai Island, Klaeng

District, Rayong 21190, Thailand. Email:

PMBCNET@PHUKET.KSC.CO.TK

Survey on structure and boundary of coral reefs in the

eastern part of the Gulf of Thailand was carried out during

1995-1997 using “manta-tow technique”. Maps of coral reefs

on 95 islands along the eastern part of the Gulf of Thailand

were made and reef areas were also estimated. The reef

structure could be classified into two patterns, coral reefs on

near shore islands and on offshore islands. Total coral reef area

estimated on 95 islands is 27.7 km 2 . These are mainly are coral

reefs on off shore islands. Results from manta tow survey

show that 12% in excellent condition, 24.6% in good

condition, 31.6% in fair condition, 15.3% in poor condition

and 16.4% in very poor condition. Thus it can be said that the

condition of coral reefs during 1995-1997 was still fair to

good. Information available from the last decade indicated that

most of islands in this area used to have excellent coral reefs.

The deterioration of some reefs in this area is due to tourism.

Besides the impacts related to human activities, coral reefs are

also subjected to natural damage. Storms such as typhoon Gay

hit to the Gulf of Thailand in November 1989. The latest

natural cause of damage in the Gulf of Thailand which caused

degradation in many reefs especially in Acropora dominated

reefs is coral bleaching that was appeared in 1998.

STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF TANZANIA

Muhando, Christopher A. and Mohammed, Mohammed S.

*Institute of Marine Sciences, P.O. Box 668 Zanzibar,

Tanzania Email: muhando@zims.udsm.ac.tz

Coral reef surveys conducted in the 1980s and early 1990s

indicated that coral reefs were being degraded by over

exploitation and destructive resource harvesting methods,

specifically dynamite fishing and dragnets. Recent coral reef

surveys (1999 and 2000) indicated that the live coral cover (or

healthy of reef corals) has been further degraded by the 1998

coral-bleaching event. The extent of coral mortality differed

between areas and species. Although the relative contribution

of some species such as Acroporids and Pocilloporids was

lowered on most reefs surveyed, there is no evidence of

species distinction. Despite extensive coral mortality, there is

little evidence to suggest decline on reef fish abundance or

decline on fish catch by commercial and artisanal fishers.

Coral recovery through growth of the survived coral colonies

and new coral settlement has been observed in all sites, but at

different levels. Montipora, Echinopora and some Fungia

doing better than other species. Full recovery will however

depend on incidences of natural and human disturbances in the

near future. Appropriate reef management strategies, such as

enforcement of existing regulation, backed up by adequate

scientific information would help the recovery process.

Capacity building and appropriate infrastructure and support

for coral reef ecosystem conservation, including declaration of

marine protected areas may help protect coral reefs from total

collapse.

STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF INDIA

Muley*E.V., B.R.Subramanian, K.Venkataraman,

M.Wafar Ministry of Environment and Forests, Lodhi

Road, New Delhi 110 003 Email: muley@vsnl.com

The major reef formations in India are restricted to the Gulf

of Mannar, Gulf of Kutchh, Andaman and Nicobar and

Lakshadweep Islands. The reefs at present are important to the

local community only to the extent of sustenance fishing. The

health of corals has been on steady decline mainly due to stress

from anthropogenic pressures. Sedimentation, dredging and

coral mining are damaging near shore reefs , while the use of

explosives and bottom nets in fishing are damaging off shore

reefs in specific sites. The bleaching event of 1998 has reduced

live coral to about 40-80%. Quantitative data and studies on

monitoring health of coral reef are inadequate. Post-bleaching

surveys in Lakshadweep and Gulf of Mannar have shown

slow recovery of some of the coral species. Impact of

bleaching on other reef organisms and reef fisheries have not

been evaluated. With a view to monitor health of coral reefs

Government of India has recently launched Indian Coral Reef

Monitoring Network (ICRMN). Monitoring Action Plans

prepared in the first phase of Global Coral Reef Monitoring

Network (GCRMN) have been integrated with ICRMN and

their implementation initiated. Database Network and Website

on Coral Reefs have been launched. Some of the major

international initiatives on Indian Coral reefs include

UNDP/GEF PDF B Projects on Gulf of Mannar and Andaman

and Nicobar Islands and the CORDIO Project. Ministry of

Environment and Forests has recently been designated as the

National Focal Point of International Coral Reef Initiative

(ICRI)..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D1: Status

362

CHANGES IN SPECIES DIVERSITY AND COVERAGE

OF CORAL COMMUNITIES DURING ECOLOGICAL

SUCCESSION IN ISHIGAKI-JIMA, SOUTHWESTERN

JAPAN.

Nakamori Toru * and Kaoru Sugihara. Institute of

Geology and Paleontology, Graduate School of Science,

Tohoku University, Aobayama, Aobaku, Sendai, Japan.

Email: nakamori@dges.tohoku.ac.jp

Changes in species diversity of coral communities during

ecological succession are reconstructed on the basis of species

richness (S) / community coverage (A) plots obtained by

quadrat (1 x 1 m 2 ) method on the reef flat of the Ishigaki-jima,

southwestern Japan. The species richness of the Acropora

formosa community starts from 0, and attains to it's maximum

(9 species) halfway of the succession. It finally decreases due

to monopolization by superior species in competition, if the

coverages of the communities might keep on increasing as

time goes by. The S/A curve of Montipora digitata community

also indicates same pattern as A. formosa community.

Dynamic model of the species richness and the coverage

during the succession is proposed here. Changes in species

richness (S) is defined as a sum of rates of increasing richness

by invasion of new species into a quadrat and decreasing

richness by extinction of some species. Richness curve which

shows it's maximum at 5 years and converges to several

species within duration longer than 20 years was obtained. The

similarity of the curve to the actual data strongly suggests that

the model reflects the real processes occurred in the coral reef

ecosystem.

A LONG TERM CORAL REEF MONITORING IN THE

SEKISEI LAGOON, YAEYAMA ISLANDS, SOUTHERN

RYUKYUS, JAPAN.

Nomura Keiichi *, Tadashi KIMURA and Hisashi

KAWAGOE. *Kushimoto Marine Park Center, 1157

Arita, Kushimoto, Wakayama 649-3503, Japan. Email:

alpheus.nomura@nifty.ne.jp

The monitoring of coral reef in the Sekisei Lagoon, Southern

Ryukyus, has been carried out every year since 1983 by the

Yaeyama Marine Park Research Station. Although the

monitoring aimed at effective extermination of crown-of-thorns

starfish in the beginning, its purpose has been changed

since 1998 for the conservation of coral reefs corresponding to

the very low population density of starfish. The method is to

observe coral conditions and factors of disturbance by

snorkeling at 110 points in the Lagoon. The advantage of the

method is that anyone can carry out easily because of no

expensive equipment and specialized technique required. As

the results of the long-term monitoring in the Sekisei Lagoon,

it was found out the followings; coral community is not stable

due to the damage by crown-of-thorns starfish, unusual high

water temperature, and red soil erosion from the land; and the

recovery of coral community takes more than 15 years when

serious damage is suffered by starfish. Under such conditions

to conserve the coral reef in Sekisei Lagoon, a present

conservation system should be reconsidered, and the new

system needs to be established preparing for the various

disturbances to the coral community.

THE STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN SABAH, LABUAN

AND SARAWAK, EAST MALAYSIA

Pilcher, N.J. * ; Cabanban, A.S.; Oakley, S.G.; Abdul

Rahman, R.; & Harding, S. *Institute of Biodiversity and

Environmental Conservation Universiti Malaysia Sarawak,

94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia. Email:

nick@tualang.unimas.my

Between 1996 and 1999 reefs in East Malaysia were

surveyed using methods in keeping with the GCRMN

standards. An indicator of reef condition was obtained by

performing a simple analysis using 7 key indicators to

determine overall reef condition, graded from 1 to 6. The

condition of the coral reefs spanned a wide range, but rarely

were reefs devoid of all life-forms. Dead coral accounted for

10 % to 20 % of the benthos cover at nearly 70 % of sites, and

only 10 % of reefs had less than 10 % dead coral. A

combination of natural (sedimentation & storms) and

anthropogenic (cyanide fishing and blast fishing) effects

threaten the survival of coral reefs. Coral reef destruction and

over-fishing has caused the destruction of vast tracts of coral

reefs, accounting for the loss of more than 80 % of original

coral cover in many areas. Remoteness of the reefs makes

protection and enforcement of regulations rarely possible or

effective. There are inadequate personnel, logistics and

financial resources to effectively patrol the areas and enforce

regulations. Conservation of East Malaysia's reefs can be

improved by: improving enforcement; gazetting additional

Marine Reserves, and; the development and implementation of

education programs that include alternative livelihood projects.

The development of a local reef ownership concept may the

one of the best conduits towards effective enforcement of

management guidelines.

CORAL REEFS OF THE COOK ISLANDS: NATIONAL

STATUS REPORT.

Ponia, Ben.* *Ministry Of Marine Resources Government

of the Cook Islands PO Box 85, Avarua, Rarotonga, Cook

Islands. Email: rar@mmr.gov.ck;

The Cook Islands are a group of 15 Islands located in the

southern Pacific between Samoa and Tahiti. The total

landmass is 237 km 2 and the total Economic Exclusive Zone

(EEZ) of its waters is ca. 2 Million km 2 . It is a self-governing

nation of ca. 20,000 people. Half of the population reside on

the capital Island of Rarotonga. The economy is based on

Tourism, Black Pearls, Offshore Banking and Agriculture.

Gross domestic product per capita is Aus$7,000 (1996). In

terms of marine biodiversity the Cook Islands are at the lower

end of a west-east gradient of marine diversity in the Pacific.

For example, according to the taxonomic database established

by the Natural Heritage Project there are 552 bony fishes in the

Cook Islands, this compares to ca. 1800 species at Great

Barrier Reef, ca. 1400 species at Fiji and ca. 900 species at

Samoa The Cook Islands encompasses several geographical

Island types with varying levels of natural biodiversity.

Generally the diversity (number of species and abundance) at

High Islands > Atoll Islands > Sand Cays > Uplifted Islands.

For example, there is a greater diversity of Echinoderms and

Holothorians at the high Island of Rarotonga compared to the

uplifted Island such as Mauke. The coral reef is used

extensively for subsistence purposes. In 1996 about 70% of all

households in the country engaged in some form of subsistence

fishing (including reef gleaning). A total of 1,291 fishing

boats/canoes were recorded (26% located on Rarotonga)..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D1: Status

363

STATE OF CORAL REEFS IN MAURITIAN WATERS

Poonyth, A. D.*, R. Badal, R. Nursimhulu *Mauritius

Oceanography Institute, 4 th Floor, France Centre, Cr. St

Jean & Victoria Streets, Quatre Bornes, Mauritius. Email:

moi@intnet.mu

The Exclusive Economic Zone of the Republic of Mauritius

extends from Tropic of Capricorn to equatorial latitudes, and

includes about 25% of the Mascarene Plateau. These provide

opportunities for the study of corals over a wide range of

latitudes. The island of Mauritius alone is surrounded by 150

km of coral reefs. These reefs have suffered degradation from

activities, such as coral quarrying and harmful fishing

practices, over the years following human settlement in the 17 th

century. Extensive destruction of mangroves on the littoral

zone has enhanced the siltation of the coastal coral habitats.

The increased pressure on the coral reefs from diving, pleasure

boating and fishing resulting from the rapid growth of the

tourist industry has also negatively affected the reefs. In 1998

a rise in sea surface temperature bleached about 10-12% of the

corals around Mauritius. The corals around St. Brandon, a

group of atolls found at about 250 M north of Mauritius are

still largely unaffected by human activity. With increasing

awareness on the importance of coral reefs, there has been

improved legislation to ban harmful fishing practices and

establish marine parks. Research on various aspects of the

coral ecosystem is one of the priorities of the Mauritius

Oceanography Institute, which has been recently set up to

coordinate ocean-related scientific research in Mauritius.

STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF THE BRITISH VIRGIN

ISLANDS.

Petrovic, C.*, T. Baily. *HLSCC, P.O. Box 3097, Road

Town, Tortola, BVI. Email clivep@surfbvi.com

There are >7,500 ha of coral around the eight major islands

in the BVI, and total coral habitat is much greater.

Anthropogenic impacts are moderate as the islands and

populations are small. However, explosive economic

development in the last two decades has caused significant

impacts, particularly around populated islands. Hurricane

activity has increased since 1995. Bleaching and disease

reports are primarily anecdotal, however substantial bleaching

was reported during 1998. Despite initiatives such as Reef

Check, coral reef monitoring is minimal. Few reef areas are

actively managed. A ‘no fishing’ marine protected area at the

Rhone National Park, has limited enforcement. Increasing

demand has impacted valuable species such as Spiny Lobster

(Panulirus argus), Queen Conch (Strombus gigas), Grouper

and Snapper. The total catch for all species in 1998 was

estimated at 819,329 kg. BVI has installed moorings to

minimizing anchor damage, but more are needed for the

growing yachting industry. The greatest threat to BVI reefs

comes from sediment erosion. Government and private

developments proceed unchecked. Coastal protection laws are

still in the planning stage. In 2000 a multi-million dollar

runway extension began with little or no erosion control, and

severely affected nearby bays. The territory’s reputation as an

unspoiled eco-tourism destination is increasingly in the

balance, and may depend on government responses to these

increasing pressures.

STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN SRI LANKA;

COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT AND USE OF DATA IN

MANAGEMENT.

Rajasuriya A.*, M.M.Chaminda Karunarathna, Shamen P.

Vidanage and A.B.A.K. Gunarathna.

National Aquatic Resources Research and Development

Agency, Crow Island, Colombo 15, Sri Lanka. Email:

arjan@nara.ac.lk

Reef monitoring in Sri Lanka has revealed that much of

formerly dominant reef building corals such as Acropora spp,

Pocillopora spp and Echinopora lamellosa among shallow

reefs have been destroyed due to the coral bleaching event in

1998. Overall, recovery of bleached corals among shallow

reefs is poor, however, most corals below 10 m have recovered

successfully. The crown-of-thorns starfish is a major problem

for recovering reefs in the northwest and east coasts of Sri

Lanka. Damage to marine habitats due to human activities is

also widespread. Recent developments in resource

management has recognised the need to involve local resource

user communities but actual involvement has been lacking,

except in isolated processes. Furthermore there is a lack of

appreciation of the influence of external market forces on

resource exploitation. There is a dearth of information for

effective management, particularly the socioeconomic status of

user communities and that of external market forces. Problems

also exist in collecting, accessing and using data in

management. This report presents the current status of coral

reefs in Sri Lanka, resource management issues, data

requirements and discusses issues involving user communities

in resource management.

MONITORING AND STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF

COLOMBIA.

Rodríguez-Ramírez, A.* & J. Garzón-Ferreira. *Instituto

de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras, INVEMAR, A.A.

1016, Santa Marta, Colombia; Email:

betorod@invemar.org.co

A national report on the status of coral reefs in Colombia is

presented as a contribution to the “Status of Coral Reefs of the

World: 2000” GCRMN report. The territorial sea of Colombia

has about 892,617 Km 2 . (59% Caribbean Sea and 41% Eastern

Pacific), but only 0.3% contains coral reefs areas distributed

mainly in the Caribbean. Through the CARICOMP program

since 1993 and the development of SIMAC (The National

Monitoring System for the Coral Reefs of Colombia) since

1998, up to date information about the status of four areas has

been obtained, based on the abundance of live coral cover,

coral diseases and fish populations. In the Caribbean, mean

coral cover in 1999 was 24.2% (Islas del Rosario

Archipielago) to 35% (Tayrona Natural Park). Disease

incidence ranged between 1.2% (Islas del Rosario

Archipielago) and 8.6% (San Andrés Island) and fish

populations were characterized by the abundance of

herbivorous and the paucity of commercial species at all sites.

In contrast, live coral cover in the Pacific (Gorgona Island)

reached 60%, the incidence of diseases was comparatively low

(2,5%) and fish community showed abundant commercial

species. At Chengue Bay (only site monitored since 1993),

coral cover has not changed during the last seven years. Coral

reef degradation in Colombia include natural and

anthropogenic disturbances, but none of these have been

appropriately studied. Although most coral reefs areas in the

Pacific and some areas in the Caribbean are protected within of

the System of Natural National Parks, more resources and

infrastructure are necessary for an effective control in these

areas..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D1: Status

364

REEF OUTER SLOPE MONITORING NETWORK AND

RESULTS IN FRENCH POLYNESIA.

Salvat, B.*, Y. Chancerelle. *EPHE, ESA CNRS 8046,

Université de Perpignan, France, and CRIOBE, B.P. 1013

Moorea, Polynésie française. Email : bsalvat@univ-perp.fr

Early in the 1990 s a long term monitoring program was

launched in French Polynesia concerning outer slopes of 14

high volcanic or atoll coral reef ecosystems all over French

Polynesia (Aratika, Bora Bora, Marutea sud, Mataiva, Moorea,

Nengo Nengo, Raiatea, Rangiroa, Tahiti, Takapoto, Tetiaroa,

Tikehau, Tubuai, Ua Uka). The sampling method consists of

photographing one square meter quadrats along a 20 meter

permanent transect. Genus and total coral cover percentages

are compared after each survey at 2-3 year intervals or each

year if natural events occurred. The outer slope has until now

been unaffected by human impacts. Some outer slope coral

cover percentages are very low, normal (Tubuai, 10%). Some

others have moderate and stable cover percentages even after

cyclones and bleaching events where mortality has been

compensated by rapid recruitment (Moorea, 30-39%). Cover

percentages on some reefs are regularly increasing over time,

recovering progressively from cyclone destruction (Marutea

sud, 37 to 54%). Some reefs show a progressively moderate

decreasing percentage cover after cyclone and bleaching

events with recruitment (Tetiaroa, 47 to 31%). Some others

have shown drastic decrease following recent cyclones

(Mataiva, Tikehau, 39 to 4%). The monitoring network gives

us a precise estimation of coral cover over time and allows

modifications to be related to the major natural events

affecting the communities (cyclone and bleaching mortality).

STATUS OF FRENCH POLYNESIAN CORAL REEFS.

Salvat, B.*, P. Hutchings, A. Aubanel, M. Tatarata, C.

Dauphin. *EPHE, ESA CNRS 8046, Université de

Perpignan, France, and CRIOBE, B.P. 1013 Moorea,

Polynésie Française. Email : bsalvat@univ-perp.fr

The French Polynesian government has responsibility for

environmental policy all over 34 high and 84 low islands, with

220,000 inhabitants. Very diverse coral reef ecosytems occur

with some studied for many decades and well known.

Infrequent cyclones and crown-of-thorns infestations have

been documented (1970s and 1980s), as well as bleaching

events (1990s). Coral mining is prohibited. There are no real

signs of overfishing. Black pearl production occurs in 37 atolls

and represents 97% of total french polynesia exports (in

value), with some ecological crises in lagoons. Introduced

species of nacreous gastropods are of economic importance.

Tourism (3500 beds, 210,000 people) has impact on islands

where it occurs and ecotourism is just developing. On

developed islands (mainly Tahiti, Moorea, Raiatea, Bora

Bora), anthropisation of the shoreline is important as well as

land run off and sedimentation with occasionally

eutrophication events. Reef protected areas are only 1%.

Management Plans for Marine Areas are underway on Moorea,

Bora Bora and Fakarava. Monitoring programs exist, both

scientific and technical, for tracking short and very long term

modifications. International conventions, government policies

and legislation are important with EIA and an increasing

private association power. More protected areas and coastal

zone management plans, greater commitment to coral reef

sustainability and reinforcement of regulations are desirable.

THE STATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF TUVALU

Sauni, Samsoni.* *Marine Studies Programme The

University of the South Pacific Suva, Fiji Islands

Tuvalu’s shallow marine environment is predominantly of

fringing and patch reefs. Five of the islands are true coral

atolls, with a continuous eroded reef platform surrounding a

central lagoon. Three islands comprised of single islet

encompass of sand and coral materials. All the atolls and

islands are low-lying, with an average elevation above sea

level of about 3 m. Five islands have small stands of

mangroves consisting of two species with Rhizophora

mucronata being the dominant. The most significant marine

plant components of patch reefs and coral heads are crustose

coralline algae (Corallinaceae). Halimeda species are the main

primary producers and the dominant components in most

lagoon areas. The infauna of the lagoon consists largely of

worms, molluscs and foraminifera. The epifauna includes

hermit crabs, holothurians (7 spp.), pearl oysters (2 spp.), giant

clams (2 spp.) and sponges (4 spp.), that are relatively sparse

but in abundance. At least 400 species of reef fishes have been

documented with emperors, cods and groupers being the main

targeted groups. The benthic cover in lagoons includes

Acropora species and high algal cover of Dictyota sp., while

other macroalgae are found in the front reef slope. Coral

bleaching and crown-of-thorns outbreaks are occasionally

recorded from the lagoon and ocean terraces. Crown-of-thorns

starfish density ranges from 0-119 cots/ha, however, anecdotal

evidence suggests that over 100 cots/ha have been reported

from some areas. Ciguatera poisoning is a serious problem in

Tuvalu and is suggested to relate to ship-wrecks, channel

blasting, dredging and storms, however, no concrete evidence

exists to support this.

THE STATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS AND MARINE

RESOURCES OF SAMOA

Skelton Posa A.*, Lui J. Bell, Atonio Mulipola & Anne

Trevor *Marine Studies Programme, The University of

the South Pacific, PO Box 1168, Suva, Fiji. Email:

*skelton_p@student.usp.ac.fj

The coral reefs of Samoa (13-17 o S, 171-173 o W) are limited

and fringing in nature due to past volcanic activities and

subsequent sea level rise. The near-shore reef fisheries are

degraded, however, they continue to provide for the well being

of the people. The coral reef systems have recovered from

cyclones in the early 1990s. The current knowledge of the

marine biodiversity is inadequate with past studies largely

undertaken by foreign scientists. The marine flora is better

known than the fauna, however the fishes of Samoa have been

thoroughly documented. Of the known species, the fishes

consist of 991 species, benthic algae 287 species, coastal

littoral plants 76, 3 mangrove communities, two seagrass

species and 3 marine turtles. A number of target species for

fisheries have declined over the years which include marine

turtles, giant clams, giant triton, grey mullets, milkfish, and

mangrove crabs. There are no known endemic or rare

organisms, which may be partly attributed to the lack of

knowledge on the marine biodiversity. There is only one

extinct species known, the giant clam Hippopus hippopus, with

shells and shell fragments found in some parts of Samoa. The

Fisheries Division has undertaken conservation and

management efforts with further initiatives undertaken by the

Division of Environment and Conservation. The main

legislation dealing with coral reefs is the Fisheries Act 1988.

The customary marine tenure, which exists in most villages of

Samoa, provides further mechanisms to enhance and

strengthen coral reef conservation and management efforts..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D1: Status

365

PEOPLE, CORAL AND TURTLES

Sofyan Andi SP*, Abigail Moore MSc, Yayasan Adi Citra

Lestari, Jl Setia Budi No 14D, Palu Timur 94111, Sulteng,

Indonesia, Email: rosontapura@palu.wasantara.net.id

The poster will present the background to, carrying out of,

and results from a Reef Check and Manta Tow survey event at

Pulau Pasoso, a Marine Protected Area and Turtle Nesting

Ground, in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Background details

will include brief references to geographical, bio-diversity,

historical and socio-economic aspects, including existing local

conservation initiatives. Details of the event itself will be

shown, including preparations, team selection and training, and

the actual survey. Data collected, conclusions drawn from data

analysis, lessons learnt and resulting on-going activities/plans

at the site and in Central Sulawesi more generally will be

highlighted. This event will result in the training of a local

survey team, and it is hoped that this team will become part of

the basis for on-going survey and monitoring programmes.

Anticipated benefits from this event include local capacity

building through training and actual survey work, and

increased intersectoral co-operation through practical

experience of learning and working together, as trainees are to

be selected from a variety of local community, government

and NGO sources. It is hoped there will be awareness building

at a variety of levels, and increased support for further survey

and monitoring activities at both this site and throughout the

Province.

STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF THE PHOENIX

ISLANDS, REPUBLIC OF KIRIBATI

Stone G., Obura D.*, Bailey S., Yashimoto A., Holloway C.,

Barrel R. CORDIO East Africa, P.O.Box 10135, Mombasa

Kenya, dobura@africaonline.co.ke

The Phoenix Islands group, at 2-4 o S and 171-174 o W, is one

of the three island groups making up the Republic of Kiribati.

The Phoenix Islands Expedition (June 24 – July 15, 2000) was

conducted by NAI’A Cruises and the New England Aquarium

on the islands of Nikumaroro (Gardner), McKean, Manra

(Sydney), Canton (Aba-Riringa), Enderbury (Rawaki), Orona

(Hull) and Phoenix. Only Canton Island bears a small

administrative human population of about 50. Corals, fish,

algae, sea turtle nests, sea birds and marine mammals were

surveyed at each site. Deep-sea life was sampled using an

autonomous video system to 1,000 m at 3 islands. Coral reef

and fish communities were surveyed using rapid assessment

methods, marine algae was collected by hand, and small

benthic fish were collected using rotenone. The reefs are

controlled by ocean swell on 75% or more of the island

perimeters, dominated by rubble and coralline algae on

windward sides. On average, coral cover was 34%, rubble 18%

and coralline algae 17% at all sites combined. Dominant coral

genera included Pocillopora, Favia, Pavona and Millepora. A

coral species count of 90 was obtained, with collection of 3 so

far unidentified, potentially new species. The fish fauna attests

to the complete absence of reef fishing with high abundance of

reef sharks, large predators and schooling herbivores.

Preliminary observations of the small benthic fish collection

revealed a number of range expansions and unknown species

for the islands. The complete absence of man-induced (fishing,

pollution, coral mining) and complex (crown-of-thorns, coral

bleaching) threats to reefs was notable. The unimpacted status

and extreme remoteness of the Phoenix Islands reefs give them

high conservation value.

THE STATUS OF SOLOMON ISLANDS’ CORAL

REEFS

Sulu, Reuben* Cameron Hay, Peter Ramohia, and

Michelle Lam * Institute of Marine Resources, University of

the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. Email:

rjsulu@welkam.solomon.com.sb

The coral reefs along the shores of the double archipelagic

chain of steep, mountainous and commonly volcanic islands

comprising solomon islands (5-12°s, 152-170°e; 28,370 km 2 )

are mainly narrow, fringing and intermittently distributed.

Their collective biomass is, however, large because of the

coastline length of the 1000 islands. Long barrier reefs and

expansive intertidal reef flats are uncommon; and ontong java,

a northern outlier, is the only large atoll (70 by 11-36 km). The

largest coral reefs usually occur where large lagoons are

protected by raised or semi-submerged barrier reefs or by

raised limestone islands, e.g. Marovo and roviana lagoons and

marau sound. Threats to coral reefs are: coral bleaching

coincident with recent higher than usual sea temperatures,

volcanic activities and cyclones. Immediate human threats are

over fishing both for subsistence and income generation due to

rapid population growth, urban developments, industrial

activities in particular logging, gold mining, oil palm

extraction plants and fish canneries. What little protection for

the coral reefs are embodied in the fisheries act 1998, the

environment act 1998 and the wildlife protection and

management act 1998. There exists only one marine protected

area (mpa). Very little scientific work has been carried out on

the coral reefs of the solomon islands. There is an urgent need

to describe, quantify and catalogue the biota of the reefs.

EXPLORATORY CORAL REEFASSESSMENT OF THE

OFF SHORE ISLANDS OF THE EGYPTIAN RED SEA.

Tilot de Grissac, V. *, E. Saadalla, B. Saleh, A. Afifi, Y.

Audalla, G. Jobbins. *Ras Mohammed National Park, P.O.

Box 19, Sharm el Sheikh, Egypt, vtilot@sinainet.com.eg

An exploratory survey of five offshore islands in the

Egyptian Red Sea (El Akhawin or Brothers, 26º 18’ N, 34º 52’

E, Abu El Kizan, 24º 56’ N, 35º 52’ E, El Zabarghad or Saint

John, 23º 36’ N, 36º 12’ E, and Rocky Island, 23º 33 N, 36º

15’ E) has been undertaken in December 1997 by the Egyptian

Environmental Affairs Agency, Nature Conservation Sector

and financed by the European Commission and the USAID

agency to evaluate the importance of natural resources in terms

of biodiversity and serve as baseline study to monitoring

studies prior to opening on 30 May 1998 to recreational diving.

These offshore islands declared protected since 1985 have not

been investigated coralwise since the expedition of

commandant J.Y. Cousteau in 1951-52 focusing mainly on

geomorphology. Results attest that these islands are of great

interest to science and to underwater tourism. The total cover

of living epi-benthos ranged from 44.5% for El Zabarghad to

75.4% for Abu El Kizan. Pooled data for all the sites gave an

average cover varying from 63% at 15m to 52.4% at 2.5m.

Scleractinian corals, mainly Montipora sp., prevailed in all

sites except at the 15m zone mostly colonized by soft corals.

Hard and soft coral diversity at the genus level was greatest at

Small Brother (20 genera). Reef fish diversity at the family

level was greatest at Big Brother. Factor and cluster analysis

were used to identify and describe epi-benthic community

assemblages..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D1: Status

366

PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE STATUS OF

CORAL REEFS OF VIETNAM: 2000

Tuan Vo Si* Institute of Oceanography Nha Trang,

Vietnam. E-mail: thuysinh@dng.vnn.vn

The report reviews information concerning with surveys,

monitoring and activities to understand and to manage coral

reefs of Vietnam. The results obtained during 1996 - 1999

have been emphasized. Up to present, there are 28 coral reef

areas known in the coastal waters of Vietnam. The collected

data allow to assess human impacts to almost coral reefs

composing of overcatching commercial and aquarium reef

organisms, blasting and poisoning fishing, sedimentation,

uncontrolled tourism with different levels. More detail data on

percentage cover of corals and reef fish population at 15 areas

are presented. Natural catastrophes such as typhoon and

bleaching were recorded at some places in 1997 & 1998. Data

collected at Con Dao and Cat Ba islands show rather serious

decline of coral cover and density of butterfly fish in 1999.

Since 1996, activities to promote coral reef conservation have

been paid more attention. Institute of Oceanography and staffs

of some protected areas have developed three sites of coral

reef monitoring since 1998. In the framework of the Project

ADB-5712, the proposed system of coastal and marine

protected areas was planned and waited to be approved by the

Government. Ministry of Fishery is also compiling strategy for

developing marine protected areas.

MAIN CHANGES IN THE LAST 30-40 YEARS ON

CORAL REEFS AND COASTAL AREAS INDUCED

MOSTLY BY HUMAN PRESSURE: THE TULEAR

REGION EXAMPLE (S.W. MADAGASCAR, INDIAN

OCEAN)

Vasseur Pierre * ,Thomassin Bernard A.,

Randriamanantsoa. Bemahafaly, Pichon, Michel.

*Université de. Provence, 13331 Marseille Cedex 03

France. Email: bioplank@newsup.univ-mrs.fr

During the years 1961-73, coral reefs and marine coastal

areas (mangroves, muddy flats and beaches) of the tulear

region (23°s, semi-arid climate) were intensively studied for

geomorphology, sedimentology, environmental parameters and

community assemblages (about 400 papers published

presently; up to 6,000 species identified). During that period,

on a very narrow inshore shelf, benthic communities were

highly diversified (up to 19 communities with 23

subcommunities). Natural marine resources were traditionally

exploited in respect of these environments. At present, a

drastic overfishing of all types of marine resources occurs,

resulting from the increase of the littoral population (for the

tulear town, from 40,000 inhabitants up to >140,00 inhabitants

in 30 years), economic crisis and episodic famines,

deforestation inducing sediment run off around river mouths,

etc… too many fishermen, spear fishing, overturning and

smashing of coral colonies on the reef flat, collecting of

juvenile fish and invertebrates, as well mangrove destruction

(for timber and cattle provender) all contribute to the

degradation of the coastal communities. The major changes

induced are : (a) on reefs, a decrease of the coral dominated

areas, replaced by shingle and sandy flats, outbreaks of

zoanthids, algae and sea-urchins and a general decrease of the

biodiversity; (b) on the inshore flats, development of large bare

sand banks, sometimes stretching over fringing reef flats,

destruction of mangroves and beach-rocks (for housing and

road construction).

STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF GULF OF MANNAR,

INDIA.

Venkataraman, K. *Marine Biological Station Zoological

Survey of India, 100 Santhome High Road Chennai-600028,

India. Email: dugong@ md2.vsnl.net.in

The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve (GoMBR)

encompasses 21 coastal islands located between 8 o 49' to 9 o 15'

N lat. and 78 o 11' to 79 o 15' E long on the south east coast of

India. These uninhabited islands, ranging in size from 25-130

hectares are strung along the coast for 140 km, with the closest

being 500 m from shore and the furthest over 4 km. The Gulf's

3600 species of plants and animals make it biologically one of

the richest coastal regions in India. A total of 96 species of

coral belonging to 37 genera have been reported from this area

and the coral reefs are mostly of fringing type. Although the

richness of this area is documented qualitatively by many, the

quantitative data on fauna and flora of this region which is

very much needed for effective management of this unique

ecosystem is lacking. Therefore, from 1998-2000, surveys had

been conducted to estimate the present status of the coral reefs

of this region.The results of the Line Intercept Transect study

on the status of coral reefs of Gulf of Mannar Biosphere

Reserve show 24.67% live coral cover and the rest dead coral,

rubble and sand. The percentage of lifeform categories of coral

reefs of GOMBR (all the three groups of Islands) was as

follows: ACB 5.30 + 4.64%, CB 0.38 + 0.54%, CF 2.90 +

2.13%, CE 1.31 + 1.64%, CS 5.78 + 8.15% and CM7.67

2.23%.

REEFBASE 4.0: IMPROVING POLICIES FOR

SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF CORAL REEFS.

Vergara, S. G. ,* McManus, J.W., and J. Bell .

*International Center for Living Aquatic Resources

Management-Philippines, 2 nd Floor, Collaborator's Center,

IRRI, Los Baños, Laguna, Email: s.vergara@cgiar.org

ReefBase 4.0 will be launched at the 9 th International Coral

Reef Symposium in Bali, Indonesia. The latest version of this

electronic encyclopedia contains information on 9 300 coral

reefs. The main features of ReefBase 4.0 are: ecological

information on corals and fish communities, coral reef

fisheries and mariculture activities, reports of stresses affecting

coral communities, dive tourism information, descriptions of

management practices and legislation and marine protected

areas. The standard digital maps in ReefBase 4.0 include most

of the charted coral reefs of the world in global, regional and

subregional maps, and show many individual reefs in detail.

Low-level space shuttle satellite images are linked to 207 reefs

and aerial, underwater, and terrestrial photographs of uses and

misuses of coral habitats are provided for 904 reefs. The

reference section has > 8 000 references on coral reefs,

including papers in scientific journals, conference proceedings,

technical reports and informal articles. At this symposium, the

developers of the database will solicit feedback on the

ReefBase goals of promoting global improvements to the

health of coral reefs, addressing the needs for policy

development, strengthening database capacity, and striving for

relevance and application to informed strategies for managing

coral reefs worldwide..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D1: Status

367

SOFTWARE ARMDES-COI FOR THE CORAL REEFS

MONITORING IN WIO ISLANDS STATES

Villedieu*C, Bigot L., Tessier E. *ARVAM, 14 rue du stade

de l’Est , 97490, Ste Clotilde, Ile de La Réunion. Email:

arvam@guetali.fr

The management system of data base « armdes-coi » has

been developed within the regional environment program of

indian ocean commission (pre-coi/eu). This software allows

for storage and treatment of data coming from the observations

of the coral reef monitoring. This database serves as an

interpretation tool for the sustainable management of natural

ressources on the integrated coastal zone managment (iczm).

The data stored in the armdes data base are collected according

to the methodologies developed in the guidelines « coral reefs

monitoring in wio island states » by c. Conand, l. Bigot p.

Chabanet, j-p quod. The analysis of the database allows

appreciation of coral reefs. This monitoring should allow us to

survey the spatio-temporal evolution of reference stations and

to compare neighbouring geographical regions or areas. The

differents results (lists, boards, graphics, ..) Can be used by

technicians for reports and publications. The collected datas

are « scubadiving observations », for rapid evaluation of reefs

health. « transect benthos observations » for evaluation of

coral reef covered, categories and forms. « fish counting

observations » for evaluation of species, bio-indicators,

distribution of major food diets. « quadrats observations » for

monitoring of benthic populations in time, growth,

recruitment. The software armdes –coi permits different

formats : screen consulting, editing of lists, printing of

graphics as well as transfers of data according to other

software formats (excel, word,…). This software can easily be

adapted to other regions, and it is easy friendly use for various

level stakeholders (e.g divers or experts).

STATUS OF FIJI’S CORAL REEFS

Vuki,V.C.* and Naqasima,M.R. *Marine Studies

Programme, University of the South Pacific, P.O. Box

1168, Suva, Fiji. Email:

Vuki_V@usp.ac.fj

Fiji has some of the largest and best developed coral reef

systems in the South West Pacific region. Pollution, elevated

nutrients and crown of thorns starfish outbreaks have

significantly degraded coral reefs off Suva. The Laucala Bay

and Suva lagoons have very high level of nutrients from

sewerage and runoff. They are moderately to heavily polluted

and have extremely high level of tributyl tin. The chronic

crown of thorns situation on Suva Reef may have been

contributed by anthropogenic factors. The high fishing

pressure on some of the most isolated reefs in the Lau Group

have caused outbreaks of crown of thorns starfish because of

the removal through fishing of predators of the juvenile and

adult stages. Most reefs are moderately to heavily fished. Reefs

closest to villages and urban areas are subject to heavy fishing

pressure because of commercial fishing. Stocks of reef fish and

invertebrates such as giant clams, trochus and beche-de-mer

have been reduced. The highly targeted reef fish species have

been overfished. There is generally no systematic reef

monitoring to detect early signs of overfishing despite

moderate research effort at the University of the South Pacific.

Mass coral bleaching has recently occurred on most reefs in

Fiji. Aquarium fish, live coral and curio coral export are

permitted under licence. These activities are common on the

inshore reefs of Viti Levu.

STATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF THE GULF OF

KACHCHH, INDIA.

Wafar, M*, E.V. Muley and P. Yennawar *National

Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa 403 004, India

Email: wafar@csnio.ren.nic.in

The fringing reef surrounding 42 islands on the southern

flank of the Gulf of Kachchh are the northernmost of the

Indian reefs and thrive in extreme environmental conditions

(high temperature and salinity ranges, high suspended load).

The diversity of corals is much less, with only 37 species and a

total absence of ramose forms. Direct dependence by the local

population on the reef resources is minimal, except for

sustenance fishing. Tourism has not been developed so far.

Human interference has been mainly in the form of collection

of coral sands for cement industries until the 80s and later in

the form of impacts from a number of onshore developmental

activities (deforestation, mega-industries, ports and SPMs).

The cumulative impact over the years has led to an alarming

reduction of coral cover, down to <50% in many reefs. Though

the entire Gulf of Kachchh reefs have been declared as a

Marine National Park, enforcement is lacking. Some matters of

concern are the probability that some stretches of the Marine

Park may be denotified to accommodate industrial needs and

the lack of a buffer zone. Bleaching has not significantly

affected the Gulf of Kachchh coral reefs, though it is little

consolation given the present extent of degradation. There is

no systematic monitoring in place even now, except for

occasional EIA studies. The Gulf of Kachchh reefs have been

the most neglected until now and with the increasing pace of

industrial development and lack of concern on the part of all

stakeholders, it would not be long before these reefs totally

whither away.

REEF BIOTOPES AND CORAL COMMUNITIES OF

THE PROPOSED SEMPORNA ISLANDS PARK,

SABAH, MALAYSIA

Wood, Elizabeth* *Marine Conservation Society, 9

Gloucester Road, Ross-on-Wye, Herefordshire HR9 5BU.

UK. Email: ewood@globalnet.co.uk

Surveys and assessments of the reefs of Pu Bodgaya and

surrounding islands were carried out as a preliminary to

establishing the Semporna Islands Marine Park, off the east

coast of Sabah, Malaysia. The site includes fringing, patch and

bank reefs associated with ancient volcanic features now

partially inundated by the sea. The proposed park is ranked as

one of the most biologically diverse and important reef sites in

Malaysia. Of particular interest and conservation value are a

number of wave-sheltered habitats which support unusual coral

communities. These include a deep (30-45m) shelf with up to

100% coral cover comprising large laminar colonies and open

bowls (e.g. Montipora spp; Pavona explanulata); steep faces

with Acropora elegans and other deep water species; mid-depth

(25m+) gentle outer slopes with calcareous algae and

delicate unattached corals such as Acropora russelli and

Anacropora spp., and upper reef slopes dominated by

extensive banks of the branching oculinid Acrhelia horrescens..9ICRS POSTERS Posters D1: Status

368

STATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS IN THE MALDIVES.

Zahir, Hussein* & Mariyam Saleem. *Marine Research

Centre, Ministry of Fisheries Agriculture and Marine

Resources, Male, Republic of Maldives. Email:

marine@fishagri.gov.mv

In the Maldives, coral reefs are an essential backbone for the

existence of its 22 low-lying atolls, providing coastal defense

from adverse environmental conditions. Maldives perhaps has

the greatest coral reef diversity in the Central Indian Ocean.

This paper provides an overview of the current status of the

coral reefs in the Maldives. The status of the coral and coral

reef benthos are given from the perspective of the 1998 coral

bleaching event that significantly reduced live coral cover up

to depths of 10 meters throughout the Maldives. Natural

impacts such as elevated temperature, sea level and increased

storminess that is expected to accompany global climatic

change may well have severe impacts on these low lying

islands. In the last 15 years there has been an increase in

marine resource exploitation, characterized by a growing reef

fishery, well developed commercial, subsistence and aquarium

fisheries and growing research in mariculture both in the

private and public sector. In addition, a number of

anthropogenic activities, such as coral mining, land

reclamation and dredging and coastal pollution continue to

threaten the reefs and these impacts are highlighted.

Government policies and regulations in environmental

conservation and management and their effectiveness are also

discussed, giving special emphasis on gaps in institutional and

national capacity for coral reef conservation and management.

Recommendations for enhancement of the current coral reef

conservation efforts are highlighted..9ICRS POSTERS Posters E: The Future of Coral Reefs

E: THE FUTURE OF CORAL REEFS

369

THE NUMBER OF ACHANTASTER PLANCI

INDIVIDUALS JUST BEFORE/AFTER BLEACHING

EVENT AND THEREAFTER

Arakaki, Yuji*, *Department of Tourism, Faculty of

International Studies, Meio University, Okinawa, Japan.

Email: arakaki@tor.meio-u.ac.jp

The rise of sea temperature around the world was observed

in 1998. And the result of this rise, coral reef bleaching

supposed to be the effect of this rise reported around the world.

Coral reef bleaching was reported in the South-East Asia and

the East Asia, Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Thai, Vietnam,

Philippines, Taiwan, and Japan; in the West Pacific, the Grate

Barrier Reef; and in the East Pacific, Panama, Galapagos, and

as well as the other part of the world, the Caribbean and the

Atlantic Ocean. The bleaching event in Japan was from the

Ryukyu Islands in the south to south of Kyusyu in the north.

Corals around Okinawa Island, one island of the Ryukyu

Islands, were devastated due to the coral breaching. It is not

difficult to consider that living organisms inhabited coral reef

area should get very serious effect owing to bleaching of corals

which constitute fundamental component of coral reefs. It is

reported that behaviors of crustaceans inhabited coral and

fishes which feed in coral reef area were changed along with

bleaching event. Acnathaster planci is one of coral reef

dwellers and it feed on corals themselves. It is obvious that this

sea-star seriously effect by coral beaching. In this report, the

number of A. planci individuals just before and after bleaching

and thereafter, 1999 and 2000, when environmental condition

become stable, is present and consider A. planci population

around Okinawa Island. The number of the sea-star diminished

in 1998, however, it is increasing again in 1999 and 2000.

AN INCREASE IN CORAL DISEASE FOLLOWING

HIGH TEMPERATURES ON THE GREAT BARRIER

REEF.

Baird A*. *School of Marine Biology & Aquaculture,

James Cook University, Townsville Q. 4811, Australia.

Email: andrewbaird@ozemail.com.au

The Great Barrier Reef (GBR) has yet to experience coral

outbreaks which have devastated reefs in many other parts of

the world. While recent work has confirmed the presence of a

number of coral diseases on the GBR few corals are affected

under normal conditions. However, the sudden appearance of a

number of diseased corals in the Palm Islands (18

0

46S,

146

0

15E), including Black Band Disease and White Band

Disease Type I and Type II, following historically high sea

water temperatures early in 1998, demonstrates that under

certain conditions, disease could emerge as a genuine threat to

corals on the GBR. Many aspects of coral disease, such as the

novelty of many disease syndromes and the low incidence of

disease in affected populations, make it difficult to include

disease in existing monitoring programs. Consequently, a

specific monitoring program is required to asses the threat of

disease to corals on the Great Barrier Reef.

BIOACCUMULATION OF TERRIGENEOUS METALS

IN SOME BIVALVES OF THE SOUTH-WEST LAGOON

OF NEW –CALEDONIA.

Breau L.*, Fernandez, J.M., Fichez, R., Magand, O.,

Miramand, P., Fichet, D. *Centre IRD, BP A5, Nouméa,

New Caledonia. Email: breau@noumea.ird.nc

The lateritic soils of new caledonia represent an important

natural source of metal inputs to the lagoon. These natural

inputs are enhanced by anthropogenic additional erosion due to

open cast mining. Within the framework of the ecotrope

programme, the fate of these terrigeneous metals in the south-west

lagoon of new caledonia has been investigated. The study

of their bioaccumulation in the most common benthic species

has been initiated with the aim to identify some possible

bioindicators allowing the monitoring of long term trends of

these inputs. This poster presents first results obtained on

bivalves.

THE BIOGEOGRAPHY OF CORAL REEF DISEASES.

Churcher T.*. *Department of Geography, U.C. Berkeley,

Berkeley, CA 94720, USA,.

Email:tpaige@uclink4.berkeley.edu

Coral reefs contain some 25% of all identified marine life,

and almost 60% of the world’s reefs are threatened because of

human-induced factors as well as extreme physical conditions

such hurricanes and increases in sea surface temperature. One

of the most serious threats to these ecosystems is the

appearance and rapid spread of coral reef diseases. Since

1973, fifteen new coral reef syndromes have been documented,

three of which have been identified as diseases. The

emergence and spread of these new diseases have a specific

geography and spatial ecology, which may lead to some

insight on cause and transmission. This research will

investigate for the first time the geography of coral diseases at

both global and local scales, combining key scientific factors

such as sea surface temperature anomalies, water nutrient data,

reef geography, disease prevalence and macro-level political

ecology, such a conservation practices and marine resource

utilization. Global data sets such as the World Conservation

Monitoring Centre’s coral disease database, and ocean color

data from SEAWIFS will be combined with original research

in Fiji and the Philippines to examine the emergence and

spread of coral reef disease in the recent past with human and

natural impacts by way of mapping the distribution and pattern

of coral disease outbreaks and creating a GIS database..9ICRS POSTERS Posters E: The Future of Coral Reefs

370

USING SELECTIVE EXTRACTION OF METALS IN

THE SEDIMENTS OF THE SUVA LAGOON (FIJI) TO

ASSESS THE MAIN SOURCES OF TERRIGENEOUS

AND ANTHROPOGENIC INFLUENCES.

Fernandez J.M.*, Cadiou, Magand, Moreton, Fichez,

Chandra, Togamana. Centre IRD, BP A5, Nouméa, New

Caledonia. Email: jmfa@noumea.ird.nc

The lagoon surrounding the city of suva, fiji, is subject to

significant terrigeneous inputs and the significance of

additional anthropogenic inputs in such a system was

questioned. A joint study on metals in sediment was conducted

by ird and the university of the south pacific to trace the

sources and distribution of these inputs. More than 50 surface

sediment samples were studied to assess the distribution of

recent inputs and two sediment cores were sampled to

reconstruct past evolution in sediment and metals deposition.

Sequential extraction under microwave oven exposure were

conducted to determine metal concentrations in the main

geochemical compartments. Analysis conducted on ca, fe, mn,

ni, zn, cu, co, cr attested that terrigeneous inputs essentially

discharged by the rewa river were of major significance.

Anthropogenic signatures were also identified in some specific

area close to a sewage out fall, a dump site and the harbour

area of suva city. The analysis of sediment cores used as

archives of past environmental conditions showed that in

laucala bay, close to the mouth of the rewa river, a constant

high sedimentation rate was sustained during the last century

and the geochemical distribution of metals identified constant

terrigeneous inputs. Above this natural background, sediment

deposition together with anthropogenic signature significantly

increased during the past 30 years in suva harbour.

A GEOCHEMICAL APPROACH OF METALS AS

TRACERS OF NATURAL AND HUMAN INDUCED

TERRIGENEOUS INPUTS IN THE SOUTH-WEST

LAGOON OF NEW CALEDONIA.

Fernandez J.M.*, Magand, Moreton, Fichez, Douillet,

Chevillon. Centre IRD, BP A5, Nouméa, New Caledonia.

Email: jmfa@noumea.ird.nc

The high island of new caledonia is a natural source of

terrigeneous inputs to the lagoon but open cast mining has

been suspected to enhance the background level of sediment

discharge. A study based on the geochemical tracers in recent

sediments and in suspension collected by filtration of large

volumes or by sequentially collecting sediment traps was

conducted to assess the importance and variability of

terrigeneous inputs. The confrontation between sediment trap

data and water current measurement and modelling

demonstrated that in normal non-flooding conditions wind-driven

currents are strongly influencing sediment deposition.

An analysis of the mineralogy of particles further

demonstrated the importance of resuspension in the long term

transport of terrigeneous inputs which are mainly delivered to

the coastal embayments during exceptional flooding events.

Sequential extraction and analysis of metals in the various

geochemical forms allowed to precisely discriminate between

terrigeneous and marine sources and trace the transport and

distribution of these respective inputs. The rations ni/cu and

co/sr in the oxyde and residual geochemical compartments

proved to be especially informative to assess the respective

contribution of oceanic versus terrigeneous influences.

VARIABILITY IN THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL

CHARACTERISTICS AND PARTICULATE MATTER

DEPOSITION IN A CORAL REEF LAGOON SUBJECT

TO IMPORTANT TERRIGENEOUS INPUTS (SUVA,

FIJI).

Fichez R*, Fernandez, JM; Chifflet, Gérard, Rao,

Gangaiya. Centre IRD, BP A5, Nouméa, New Caledonia.

Email: fichez@noumea.ird.nc

The lagoon surrounding the city of suva in fiji is subject to

significant terrigeneous inputs discharged by the rewa river. A

joint study was conducted by ird and the university of the

south pacific to determine the nature of environmental

conditions generated in such an environment where extensive

river plumes and coral reefs co-occurred. Three oceanographic

cruises provided data on the physical and chemical structure of

the lagoon system under various meteorological conditions.

Additonally, 3 sequentially collecting sediment traps were

deployed in the back reef area for two periods of 24 days

which included significant flooding events. The data obtained

provided more detailed information on the significant short

term variability of sediment deposition rates. From these

results it was possible to establish that environmental

conditions in this lagoon were strongly impacted by

terrigeneous inputs either of natural origin or enhanced by

human land use. In the vicinity of the city and a sewage

discharge, environmental conditions were further altered and

displayed unambiguous signature of anthropogenic inputs.

Comparison with data from other coral reef lagoon

environment demonstrated that the suva lagoon represents a

rather extreme environment as far as coral reef lagoons are

concerned.

IMPACTS OF DOMESTIC SEWAGE ON THE

BENTHIC ECOSYSTEM IN A TROPICAL BAY (NEW

CALEDONIA, SOUTH PACIFIC).

Garrigue*, Richer de Forges, Laboute, Berthault, Lapetite.

Centre IRD BPA5, Nouméa, New Caledonia. Email:

garrigue@noumea.ird.nc

The benthic ecosystem of a tropical bay situated in the city

of Noumea (New Caledonia, South Pacific) was studied in

order to evaluate the impacts of domestic sewage. Six stations

were sampled from the outfall to the outside of the bay. One

station was situated near the outfall in the intertidal area. The

others were located on muddy or sandy bottoms, in the subtidal

area from 9 to 21 m depth. Sampling were carried on in

summer 1997. Diversity in term of specific richness, density

and biomass were measured on a zoological and trophical

basis. A total of 266 morphospecies of macrofauna was

recognised from which the polychaetes were the most

abundant group both with regard to the species number and

density. The area near the primary sewer was subject to

eutrophication that induced green tide with an important

development of the seaweed Ulva sp. and occurrence of small

size polychaetes. The family of Eunicidae dominated in terms

of density and biomass. The macrofaunal diversity expressed

as Shannon’s index increased as a function of the distance

from the sewer. The trophic structure was characterised by

filters-feeders in the intertidal area and deposit feeders in the

subtidal area..9ICRS POSTERS Posters E: The Future of Coral Reefs

371

EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF SEAFAN (GORGONIA

VENTALINA) RESISTANCE TO DISEASE

(ASPERGILLUS SYDOWII).

Harvell, D.*, K. Kim, A. Alker, D. Dube. *Department of

Ecology and Evolutionary Biology. Cornell University,

Ithaca, NY USA. American University, Washington, DC,

USA. Email: CDH5@Cornell.edu

Reports of new coral disease in the Caribbean are high and

yet little is known about coral resistance to disease and few

data are available to estimate potential for evolution of

resistance to disease. For two species of gorgonians,

Gorgonian ventalina and Briareum asbestinum, we

documented levels of mortality from disease significant

enough to cause microevolutionary shifts in populations. In

exploring the potential for evolution of resistance in seafans,

we have documented inducible structural and chemical

mechanisms of resistance. Norm of reaction fungal

inoculation experiments reveal significant between clone

differences in anti-fungal activity against A. sydowii,

suggesting the potential for microevolutionary change in

resistance. Similarly, populations across the Florida Keys and

Bahamas differ significantly in anti-fungal resistance.

METAL EFFLUENT INHIBITS CORAL

RECRUITMENT?

Hawkridge J.M.* and B.E. Brown. Mote Marine

Laboratory, Center for Tropical Research, 24244 Overseas

Highway, Summerland Key, FL 33042, USA. Email:

jhawkridge@mote.org

Between 1965 and 1989 a tin ore dressing plant on Ko

Phuket, Thailand, regularly discharged metal-enriched effluent

on to an adjacent inter-tidal reef flat at low tide. In 1989 the

dressing plant was closed down. Regular reef surveillance

over the period 1979-2000 suggests that both coral community

structure and juvenile coral recruitment patterns were affected

by the discharge from the plant. Between 1990 and 1995

many new coral species appeared on the reef flat adjacent to

the plant which previously had not been recorded. In addition,

large numbers of juvenile Goniastrea aspera colonies

appeared subsequent to the plant closure. By 1996 marked

differences in colony numbers and size-age distribution

patterns were evident between this site and a reference site

nearby. In particular there was a striking absence of larger (>

20 cm diameter) G. aspera colonies and significant juvenile

recruitment of colonies of age class between 4-6 years at the

ore-dressing site. These findings are discussed in relation to

the possible effects of heavy metals upon reproductive

development, fertilization success, and juvenile recruitment of

corals.

THE NCAR COMMUNITY CLIMATE SYSTEM

MODEL - CHARACTERISTICS, RESULTS, AND

APPLICABILITY IN PREDICTING MARINE

ECOSYSTEM RESPONSE TO GLOBAL CLIMATE

CHANGE

Kleypas, Joan * And Scott Doney, National Center For

Atmospheric Research, Po Box 3000, Boulder, Co 80307-

3000, Usa. Email: kleypas@ucar.edu

In terms of assessing future climate change impacts on

ecosystems, scientists and ecosystem managers are often faced

with integrating output from large climate system models into

their decisions. Usually there is a large mismatch between

both the temporal and spatial resolutions of the model, and the

scales at which ecosystems operate. This is particularly true of

coral reefs: most reefs are less than 1 km diameter, while most

global models operate on scales of greater than 1 deg (>100

km). Also, ocean models generally do not resolve coastal

dynamical processes well. However, many modeled

predictions can and should be used by reef scientists, as they

provide a best estimate of how climate will change both

globally and regionally. We present some of the significant

results of ncar's community climate system model (ccsm), a

non-flux corrected model that couples ocean, atmosphere, land

and ice. Results from three climate simulations are presented,

using greenhouse gas forcing scenarios for the preindustrial

period, 20th century and 21st century. Among other things,

these simulations predict an increase in tropical sea surface

temperatures of up 2 degrees c, an increase in stratification,

and a decrease in solar input (increased cloudiness). The

applicability of each of these results is evaluated in terms of

model scales, assumptions, and performance (e.g. Means

versus variability). These specific examples are provided as

guidelines for how large-scale models can be used with (or

without) confidence for the most common future climate

questions posed by reef scientists (e.g., Temperature,

upwelling, enso, storm frequency/intensity).

ENVIRONMENTAL AND WATER QUALITY FACTORS

ASSOCIATED WITH THE DISTRIBUTION OF BLACK

BAND DISEASE ON CORAL REEFS OF THE

NORTHERN FLORIDA KEYS.

Kuta Kevin G. and Laurie L. Richardson*. *Department

of Biological Sciences, Florida International University,

Miami, Florida 33199, U.S.A. Email: richardl@fiu.edu

The increase in coral diseases in recent years has been

postulated to be at least in part a result of increased

environmental degradation, with declining water quality

particularly implicated. Despite the importance of such a

correlation, however, very little quantitative data have been

gathered to investigate the relationship between these factors

and the incidence of coral disease. Over a period of five

months of an active black band disease season in the Florida

Keys, 190 sites on 12 reefs were surveyed to determine which,

if any, of eleven environmental parameters measured were

correlated with the presence or absence of black band disease.

Each of the 190 sites was centered around either a black band

diseased coral colony (n = 22) or a healthy colony of a species

known to be susceptible to black band disease (n = 168). Of

the eleven environmental parameters measured, five exhibited

a statistically significant correlation with the presence (vs.

absence) of black band disease. These were low salinity,

elevated nitrite, and low coral diversity (p<0.05), as well as

shallow water depth and high temperature (p<0.0005). No

statistically significant differences were found for the other six

parameters measured (nitrate, ammonium, soluble reactive

phosphate, total phosphate, turbidity, and percent coral cover)..9ICRS POSTERS Posters E: The Future of Coral Reefs

372

DEGRADATION OF FRINGING CORAL REEFS IN

THE GULF OF THAILAND

Nordemar, I.* Department of Systems Ecology, Stockholm

University, Sweden. Email: ingridn@system.ecology.su.se

Deteriorating water quality and excessive resource

exploitation have raised concern for the coastal environment in

the gulf of thailand. The aim of this study was to present an

overwiev of anthropogenic disturbances and degradation on

some coral reefs along the east coast of the gulf of thailand. In

1995, 11 fringing reefs around islands in 3 areas (si chang,

samet and man) were surveyed. The cover of living corals was

highest in the samet area (>40%), while the two other areas

had much lower coverage (<20%). The cover of dead corals

was highest in the man area (>40%), while the si chang area

had the highest cover of rock (~40%). The abundance of

infesting macroinfauna (bivalves and polychaetes) in the corals

was highest in the si chang area and lowest around the samet

islands. Low salinity was likely responsible for much of the

low coral cover and the high rates of bioerosion in the inner

gulf. The high cover of dead corals in the man area were likely

due to degrading effects of construction building and dynamite

fishing, while the high cover of living corals in the samet area

were either an effect of park management or naturally more

favorable conditions. Although reefs in the si chang area had

the lowest coral cover, and recruitment seemed impaired, the

more well-developed reefs in the man area are in greatest need

of management, as degradation has escalated recently and

water quality seem worse than in the inner gulf.

EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE OF EL NIÑO AND LA

NIÑA EXTREME TEMPERATURES ON THE

SURVIVAL OF A WRASSE REEF FISH AT GORGONA

ISLAND (EASTERN PACIFIC).

Ospina, F. Mora, C*. Departamento de Biologia,

Universidad del Valle, A.A. 25360 Cali-Colombia. Email:

moracamilo@hotmail.com

The eastern Pacific reefs are affected at irregular time

intervals by extreme temperatures that occur principally during

El Niño and La Niña events. To assess the effect of these

extreme temperatures on the survival of a reef fish, we

determined the high and low temperature tolerance of

Thalassoma lucasanum (Pisces: Labridae) in all its benthic

stages (from juvenile to adults). The experimental individuals

were collected at the Gorgona island reefs in the Colombian

pacific coast. The high temperature tolerance of T. lucasanum

was between 35.6 and 36.2 ºC (X=36ºC) which was superior to

the highest sea temperature recorded during past El Niño

events (32 ºC). The low temperature tolerance was between

18.9 and 14.3 ºC (X=16.3ºC), in this case, a 18 ºC temperature

record during the last La Niña event could have affected the

survival of some T. lucasanum individuals at the reefs. These

results indicate the tolerance of T. lucasanum benthic

population to the El Niño thermal conditions and the influence

of La Niña events on the survival of T. lucasanum at the reefs.

DEFINING “OUTBREAKS” OF CROWN-OF-THORNS

STARFISH.

Pratchett, Morgan*. *School of Marine Biology and

Aquaculture, James Cook University, Townsville Q4811,

Australia. morgan.pratchett@jcu.edu.au

The crown-of-thorns starfish, Acanthaster planci (L.), has

attained considerable notoriety because it periodically

undergoes population explosions, termed ‘outbreaks’.

Outbreaks of coral feeding crown-of-thorns can potentially

cause immense destruction to live corals on tropical coral

reefs. Outbreaks of A. planci are however, a highly variable

phenomenon and there has been little effort to ascertain what

actually constitutes an ‘outbreak population’. This study

examined the density and size-structure of A. planci across a

hierarchy of spatial scales, at regular intervals over a period of

three years. The impact of starfish populations on coral cover

and composition was assessed during this time, in an attempt

to define outbreak densities based on their ecological impacts.

Starfish densities as low as 120 starfish per hectare were

sufficient to cause a noticeable change in coral composition,

and caused a detectable decline in coral cover at some sites.

However, at sites which started with very low coral cover

(<10%) or high coral cover (>60%), there was no detectable

decline in coral cover until starfish densities exceeded 400

starfish per hectare. Evidently, there is no single density above

which starfish populations can be considered to be undergoing

an outbreak. Rather, the impact of starfish populations varies

greatly between sites with different coral cover and

composition. In addition, the ability to detect impacts of

crown-of-thorns starfish, and other such disturbances, are very

much dependant upon the precision and power of sampling

methodologies.

MOTILITY PATTERNS OF BEGGIATOA IN BLACK

BAND DISEASE.

Viehman, T.S.* and L.L. Richardson. *Department of

Biological Sciences, Florida International University,

Miami Florida 33199, U.S.A. Email: tviehm01@fiu.edu

Black band disease of scleractinian corals is composed of a

microbial consortium that generates and maintains an active

sulfur cycle. The consortium includes the cyanobacterium

Phormidium corallyticum, the sulfide-oxidizing bacterium

Beggiatoa spp., sulfate-reducing bacteria and other microbes.

Together the respective metabolisms of these bacteria are

responsible for producing vertical gradients of oxygen and

sulfide within the 1 mm thick band. Members of the genus

Beggiatoa are typically located at oxygen/sulfide interface

environments, which is thought to be due to a combination of

negative photo- and aerotaxes. However, black band disease

Beggiatoa are commonly found on the surface of the black

band community in an environment that is both aerobic and

highly illuminated, thus displaying a unique vertical migration

that does not correspond to well-documented motility patterns

found in other Beggiatoa. The vertical migration of black

band Beggiatoa was investigated both in vitro in laboratory

oxygen/sulfide gradient cultures and in situ, within active

black band on the coral reef, by manipulating both light

intensity and oxygen concentration. The unique motility

pattern of this sulfide-oxidizer may be important in

maintaining the stability of the oxygen/sulfide

microenvironment present within the band, and thus contribute

to the overall functioning of the black band microbial

consortium..9ICRS POSTERS Posters E2: Bleaching

E2: BLEACHING

373

CHANGES IN CORALLIVOROUS AND

HERBIVOROUS FISH ASSEMBLAGES ASSOCIATED

WITH CORAL BLEACHING AT A MARINE

RESERVE IN SRI LANKA.

Abeysirigunawardana M.D. and S.U.K. Ekaratne.*

*Dept. of Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri

Lanka.

Corallivorous and herbivorous fish assemblages inhabiting

the reef lagoon at Hikkaduwa Marine Reserve (HMR) were

studied before and after a coral bleaching and mortality event

of April 1998. Transect studies were used to study fish

composition over similar 3-month periods (January to March)

of the pre-bleaching year, 1998, and in the 2 post-bleaching

years, 1999 and 2000. Butterflyfish (7 spp. with 3

corallivorous species in the pre-bleaching period) were the

corallivores studied and angelfish, damsels, parrotfish and

rabbitfish made up the herbivore assemblage. Over the 3 years,

fish densities decreased from 310±6 (mean±s.e.m. 250sq.m. -1 )

to 238±4 to 197±4. Prior to bleaching, 7.2% of these fish were

corallivores and 24.5% herbivores. 41.8% were omnivores.

During the first post-bleaching period of study, species

composition of corallivores and herbivores remained

unchanged, although corallivore abundance became reduced

by 78.0% and that of herbivores increased by 31.4%. In the

second post-bleaching-year study period, 1 corallivore species

was altogether absent and corallivore numbers declined further

to comprise only 1.2% of all fish. Herbivores, however,

increased to make up 48.0% of the fish assemblage, with 1

herbivorous angelfish appearing for the first time. Omnivores

decreased to 26.5% and to 18.3% in the first and second post-bleach

years. Support from MacArthur Foundation,

Biodiversity Support Program and GEF is acknowledged.

NATURAL DISTURBANCES AND THE

INTERANNUAL VARIABILITY OF CORAL REEF

COMMUNITIES OF TIAHURA (MOOREA, FRENCH

POLYNESIA): 1991-1997.

Adjeroud, Mehdi * , Augustin, David; Galzin, Ren_; Salvat.

Bernard. *Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, ESA CNRS

8046, Universit_ de Perpignan, 66860 Perpignan, France

Email: adjeroud@univ-perp.fr

We analysed the interannual variability of the major reef

communities on the outer slope of the Tiahura sector of

Moorea, and we examined the impacts of natural disturbances.

A sharp decrease in the percent cover of corals was observed

from 1991 to 1993, as a direct result of the cyclone and the

coral-bleaching event that occurred in 1991. Since 1993, a

slight increase of coral cover was recorded, which can be

interpreted as a sign of recovery. Despite the same proportion

of bleached colonies at the beginning of the event in 1991 and

in 1994, the bleaching in 1994 had no significant impacts on

the coral cover. This demonstrates the importance of

understanding the ecological history of the reefs for the

interpretation of the specific impacts of a particular

disturbance. The decline in the coral cover was accompanied

by the increase in the percent cover of turf algae, but

surprisingly, the percent cover of macroalgae did not show any

significant change. Thus, the decrease in the coral cover,

which opens up new substrate, is not always a sufficient

condition for the increase of macroalgal coverage. The fish

community was characterized by: 1) the high variability in the

recruitment of juveniles; 2) the slight increase in the density of

adult species; and 3) the decrease in the density of corallivores

Chaetodontids from 1991 and 1994. Despite these variations,

the species richness and density of the overall fish community

did not show any significant upward or downward trend during

the 7 year period.

INDICATORS OF UV EXPOSURE IN CORAL:

RELEVANCE TO GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AND

CORAL BLEACHING.

Anderson, S. *, R. Zepp, J. Machula, D. Santavy, L.

Hansen , G. Cherr and E. Mueller. University of California

Davis, Bodega Marine Laboratory, Bodega Bay, CA 94923

USA Email: (susanderson@ucdavis.edu)

Increased exposure to solar UV radiation and elevated water

temperatures are believed to play a role in the bleaching of

corals. To provide additional tools for evaluating the role of

UV radiation, we have examined UV-specific effects in coral

and have characterized factors that alter the penetration of UV

radiation over coral reefs at sites located in the Florida Keys.

Using an immunoblotting assay to examine UV-specific

lesions (thymine dimers) in coral and zooxanthellae DNA, we

observed dose-dependent increases of thymine dimers in

purified coral (Porites porites) DNA exposed to UV-C in the

laboratory and with live P. porites exposed in a solar

simulator. Field studies conducted at the Florida Keys

(Maryland Shoals and Eastern Sambo) during July 1999

further demonstrated the utility of this technique in evaluating

UV exposure of corals. For example, amounts of thymine

dimers in P. porites collected at Maryland Shoals at the time of

peak UV exposure (1300 hrs) were significantly higher than at

0830 hrs (p=0.04). UV measurements indicated that the coral

reefs at Eastern Sambo (at 3-4 meters) were exposed to UV-B

radiation that corresponded to 25-30% of surface UV

irradiance. However, the water just inside the reef in Hawk

Channel and closer to land was considerably more opaque to

UV. This water photobleached with loss of UV absorbance

and fluorescence when it was exposed to simulated solar

radiation.

ADAPTIVE SIGNIFICANCE OF POST-BLEACHING

RECOVERY OF REEFS IN THE LAKSHADWEEP

ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN.

Arthur, R*, Turak, E., and Done, T. *TESAG, James

Cook University, QLD 4811, Australia. Email:

rohan.arthur@jcu.edu.au

The global mass bleaching of coral in 1998 resulted in a

dramatic reduction in the cover of living coral in atolls along

the Lakshadweep-Chagos chain. The reefs of the

Lakshadweep, India, at the northern end of the archipelago,

suffered large mortality of corals in the wake of the bleaching.

Rapid assessments conducted a few months after the

temperature maximum, reported between 5-8% cover of living

coral. The genus Acropora, among the most abundant genera

prior to the bleaching, was the worst affected, with only 0.8%

cover recorded in October 1998. Surveys carried out two years

after this mortality, indicate that live coral cover is still

comparatively low, and accounts for 7.9% of the substratum on

average. Dead standing coral and rubble, covered with turfing

and coralline algae, dominate the benthic habitats. Despite the

reduced cover of living corals, small colonies occurred in high

densities in the reefs surveyed (3.6 individuals.m -2 ), and were

dominated by small Acropora (2.8 individuals.m -2 ). A large

proportion of the individuals is between 3cm and 7cm in

diameter, and may represent juvenile coral that recruited

before the 1998 bleaching. This suggests that the bleaching

response of coral may be size-dependent, with recruits and

smaller colonies being less susceptible to bleaching mortality

than older coral. Young corals may have escaped bleaching

mortality because of a lower initial zooxanthallae density, or

by settling in more shaded locations...9ICRS

NEW ORAL PRESENTATIONS

374

OCCURRENCE OF CORAL BLEACHING IN THE

GULF OF THAILAND IN 1998.

Boonprakob R.* and Chankong, A.. *Eastern Marine

Fisheries Development Center. Banphe, Muang district,

Rayong 21160, Thailand. Email:

pmbcnet@phuket.ksc.co.th

In 1998, the phenomenon of coral bleaching took place in the

Gulf of Thailand, and lasted for 3 months from May to July.

The cause of coral bleaching was an increase in seawater

temperature. Most of corals in shallow water (1-2 m. depth)

and deep water (>10 m. depth) were effected. In addition,

others marine life such as giant clam, sea anemone and soft

coral were sensitive to the increase of seawater temperature.

The survey to evaluate the condition of coral reefs in Gulf of

Thailand was done using Manta tow and Lifeform line

intercept transect. Comparison of results from manta tow

survey of selected islands in the Gulf of Thailand with total

distance of 72 km prior to bleach, 1996-1997 to after bleaching

in 1998, it is found that bleaching affected reef condition

significantly. Prior to bleaching reef conditions were 29.1%

excellent, 32.6% good, 23.4% fair, 6.9% poor and 7.9% very

poor. After bleaching in 1998 reef condition were 0.5%

excellent, 7.2% good, 17.2% fair, 28.8% poor and 46.3% very

poor. In comparison of the survey result before and after the

bleaching, 30-50% decrease in living coral was found in most

of the area, and in some area up to 80-90% decrease was

found. Branching coral and Acropora spp. coral were most

affect. The least effected was mushroom coral. In general, a

percentage cover of dead coral increased by 50-60% and this

area was occupied by other marine life such as sea anemone,

sea urchin and seaweed etc. This result showed that the

condition of coral reef in the Gulf of Thailand has becoming

deteriorating in general.

THE 2000 CORAL BLEACHING EVENT IN FIJI:

FATES OF BLEACHED COLONIES.

Cumming R.L.*. *Department of Biology, School of Pure

and Applied Sciences, The University of the South Pacific,

PO Box 1168, Suva, Fiji. Email: cumming_r@usp.ac.fj

At the end of April 2000, Fiji was in the midst of a major

coral bleaching event. The bleaching was widespread and

severe, and coincided with a region of hot water over southern

Fiji. Corals on the barrier reefs near Suva were bleached on

the reef flats, crests and slopes. In the intertidal areas, almost

all Pocillopora damicornis and Acropora spp. colonies were

bleached on both the reef flat and the reef crest, whereas the

dominant Porites microatolls were mostly unbleached.

Monitoring studies were established to determine the fates of

bleached colonies at both intertidal and subtidal sites, and I

present results from those studies.

GEOGRAPHIC EXTENT OF THE 2000 CORAL

BLEACHING EVENT IN FIJI IN RELATION TO

WATER TEMPERATURE.

Cumming, R.L.*, E.R. Lovell, C. Hay. *Department of

Biology, School of Pure and Applied Sciences, The

University of the South Pacific, PO Box 1168, Suva, Fiji.

Email: cumming_r@usp.ac.fj

Coral bleaching was first noticed in Fiji in February 2000,

and by the end of April was widespread and severe. Seawater

temperatures were over 30 o C for much of this time. Satellite

data showed a region of hot water sitting over the southern half

of Fiji, extending to the south-east over Tonga and the Cook

Islands. The hot water did not extend to the northern side of

Vanua Levu, in northern Fiji, and in this area there was little or

no bleaching. We present aerial photographs of the northern

and southern reefs, taken in late April 2000.

EXTENT AND DEGREE OF CORAL BLEACHING IN

SELECTED REEFS IN CENTRAL PHILIPPINES.

Divinagracia M.B.*, H.P. Calumpong, A. White, and R. de

. *Biology Department, Silliman University, Dumaguete

City 6200, Philippines. Email: mlsucrm@mozcom.com

Extent and degree of coral bleaching among genera, among

growth forms and with water depth were determined in four

selected reefs in Central Philippines during May-June 1999.

The reef area (km 2 ) affected by bleaching was estimated using

systematic snorkeling method; the rest using transect-quadrat

method. Apo was significantly affected at 35% (0.37 km 2 ),

Sumilon at 32% (0.16 km 2 ), Balicasag at 13% (0.04 km 2 ),

Pamilacan at 6.4% (0.16 km 2 ). Mean bleached cover was

significantly highest in Apo at 39% + 6. No significant

differences were found between Sumilon (20% + 4), Balicasag

(16% + 4) and Pamilacan (6% + 2). Galaxea in Apo had

significantly highest mean bleached cover (41% + 5),

Seriatopora in Sumilon (35% + 8), Montipora and Pocillopora

in Balicasag (16% + 6, 10% + 1, respectively), and

Pocillopora in Pamilacan (13% + 6). In terms of growth forms,

massive forms were significantly affected in Apo (42% + 7),

branching forms in Sumilon, Pamilacan, and Balicasag (32% +

6, 13% + 3, 16% + 4, respectively) with the foliose forms

(15% + 6) statistically similar to branching forms in the latter.

Bleaching occurred at all depths (10 - 50 ft). There was

significant variation in the degree of bleaching among depths

in Sumilon and Balicasag whereas, in Apo and Pamilacan,

degree of bleaching did not vary significantly. Most of the

affected colonies were already colonized by small filamentous

and encrusting algae and were observed to be dead. Some coral

colonies had white spots all over the surface (probably white

band disease).

THIRTEEN MONTHS MONITORING CORAL

BLEACHING ON BAHIA’S NORTH COAST, BRAZIL.

Dutra, Leo X. C. *, Kikuchi, Ruy K. P. and Leão, Zelinda

M. A. N. *Laboratório de Estudos Costeiros, Universidade

Federal da Bahia, Bahia, Brazil. Email:

leo@bahianet.com.br

On January 1998 an abnormal increase of sea surface

temperature, caused by the El Niño Southern Oscillation, was

detected on the north coast of the state of Bahia. Field

monitoring observations, along belt transects, evaluated

consequences of this high temperature on reef coral

communities from reefs around 10m depth. Total, partial or

absence of bleaching was identified in at least 100 colonies,

along at least 4 (10m x 1m) belt transects at each expedition.

After thirteen months a total of 1109 colonies were observed

and seven species of reef corals were found: Siderastrea

stellata (43,19% of occurrence frequency), Mussismilia

hispida (30,84%), Agaricia agaricites (17,58%), Montastrea

cavernosa (4,69%), Favia gravida (2,61%), Porites branneri

(0,99%) and Mussismilia braziliensis (0,09%). A maximum of

1ºC increase in sea surface temperature was sufficient to cause

total bleaching in 100% of A. agaricites colonies and 95% of

Mussismilia hispida colonies in April 1998. Total bleaching

affected less than 45% of Siderastrea stellata colonies in the

beginning of the mass bleaching episode in April 1998.

Though most severely affected, Agaricia agaricites and

Mussismilia hispida showed a high regeneration rate, with

100% “healthy” colonies in May 1999, when there still were

more than 50% of partially bleached colonies of Siderastrea

stellata. No dead colony was detected during the monitoring

period..9ICRS

NEW ORAL PRESENTATIONS

375

STATUS OF SCLERACTINIAN CORAL

COMMUNITIES ON THE REEFS OF THE INNER

GRANITIC ISLANDS OF THE SEYCHELLES ONE

YEAR AFTER THE 1998 MASS CORAL BLEACHING.

Engelhardt U.*, *Reefcare International Pty Ltd, PO Box

1111, Townsville, Queensland 4810, AUSTRALIA. Email:

reefwatch@ozemail.com.au

Recently, coral reefs around the inner granitic islands of the

Seychelles have suffered widespread hard coral mortality as a

result of a variety of major ecological disturbances. In 1998,

the most widespread and severe mass coral bleaching event on

record as well as previously active outbreaks of crown-of-thorns

starfish (Acanthaster planci ) combined to cause severe

system-wide degradation of local coral communities. Intensive

transect-based benthic surveys conducted across 15 individual

reef sites in November and December 1999 found that remnant

communities of scleractinian corals were characterised by both

low percent live cover and low diversity. The mean percent

cover of live hard coral ranged from 0-5% recorded at 12 of

the 15 sites surveyed (80%) to a maximum average value of 0-

10% recorded at the remaining 3 sites (20%). Hard coral

diversity was low across the entire survey area with a

maximum of 15 scleractinian genera and 10 families being

recorded at any one site. This compares to up to 47 genera

recorded during scientific surveys conducted in the 1980's and

1990's, suggesting that, at a generic level, local scleractinian

diversity has been reduced by as much as 50% as a result of

the identified disturbances. Preliminary analyses have

identified excessively high abundances of black-spined sea

urchins ( Diadema and Echinometra spp.), high sedimentation

levels and low coralline algal cover as key local factors with a

potential to prevent future hard coral recovery from achieving

optimal rates.

CHANGE OF CORAL METABOLISM BY BLEACHING

EVENT.

Fujimura, H. * T. Maehira, K. Miyahira and T. Oomori.

*Graduate School of Engineering and Science, University

of the Ryukyus, Senbaru 1, Nishihara, Okinawa 901-0213,

Japan Email: k988558@sci.u-ryukyu.ac.jp

Coral bleaching events have been frequently observed since

1980’s in global coral reefs and caused serious problems for

ecosystems and environment. Anomalous high water

temperature and coral bleaching were observed in an extensive

area of the western Pacific Ocean in 1998. It is interesting to

study a change of coral metabolism caused by the lost of

symbiotic relationship between coral and zooxanthellae. To

investigate how has been affected the carbon cycle in coral

metabolism, inorganic and organic carbon productions, air-sea

CO2 flux and carbon budget were measured before and after

coral bleaching at an experimental aquarium. A great

depression was observed in inorganic carbon production (i.e.,

calcification) in the daytime after coral bleaching, as well as

organic carbon production (i.e., photosynthesis). Increase of

alkalinity in the nighttime was observed both before coral

bleaching and after coral bleaching, showing the dissolution of

CaCO3. After coral bleaching, the amount of CaCO3 dissolved

was greater than that of CaCO3 calcified, resulting a negative

value of daily carbon budget in the aquarium that suggest the

dissolution of carbonate skeleton. Direct measurements of air-sea

CO2 flux showed CO2 absorption that was enhanced by

dissolution of carbonate skeleton.

BLEACHING AND HURRICANE EFFECTS

ASSESSMENT IN MAHAHUAL REEF, MEXICO.

Garza-Pérez, J. R.* & J.E. Arias-González. *Laboratorio

de Ecología de Ecosistemas de Arrecifes Coralinos

CINVESTAV-I.P.N. Unidad Mérida. Ant. Carr. Progreso

km 6. A.P. 73 Cordemex C.P. 97210 Mérida Yucatán,

México. Email: rodgarza@pibil.finred.com.mx

Mahahual reef is located in the south of the Mexican

Caribbean (18º 42” N, 87º42”W.) is part of the Mesoamerican

Reef System along with the reefs from Belize, Guatemala and

Honduras. By its biodiversity, this system recently acquired

the status of World Heritage. Mahahual is a small fishermen

village with a population of ca. 300 inhabitants and the

ecological importance of Mahahual reef relays on being one of

the most developed coral reefs in the area. It is subjected to

human exploitation as artisanal fisheries of economically

important species, tourism and natural impacts. Besides, it is

considered as a new pole of attraction by the new big-scale

tourist development in this region known as “Costa Maya”.

This study is part of a far ranging comparative study between

reefs of the south-central portion of the Mexican Caribbean.

This article is mainly focused on the following of the state of

the scleractinean coral community, prior and after two major

natural events: hurricane “Mitch” during October 1998 and a

massive bleaching event since September 1998. The results

show a significant change in the cover and health of the

scleractinean corals from the pre-bleaching state in May ‘98 to

the last follow up in February ’00. Throughout the study

different health condition can be observed, from a well

preserved coral community to an impacted one and then to an

almost recovered status that presents a shift in the proportions

of some of the most important reef building groups.

CORAL BLEACHING- SO WHAT?

RECOLONIZATION OF A REEF AFTER EL NIÑO

IMPACT.

Heeger, T.*; Langevoord, M.; Gatus J. and F. Sotto.

University of San Carlos -Marine Biology Section- P.del

Rosario St., Cebu City, Cebu, Philippines. Email:

theeger@mangga.usc.edu.ph

Coral reefs in the world are threatened by natural and

anthropogenic impacts. Outbreaks of Acanthaster planci

reaching plaque levels, diseases, extreme physical forces

following storms and unusually high sea surface temperature

(SST) may have dramatic consequences for reefs locally. The

recruitment of corals following a massive death due to

bleaching during the strong El Niño phenomenon in 1998 was

studied. 93% of the scleractinian corals in Cordova reef,

Mactan, Philippines, were affected by bleaching. 16 months

later the reef was resurveyed counting coral recruits of three

size categories (<3cm; 3.1-5cm; >5cm) on dead Acropora

tables (Acropora valenciennesi) and rocky substrate. Results

have shown that both number and diversity of recruits on dead

corals with colony size less than 3cm are significantly higher

compared to those on rocky substrate per unit area. The data

suggest that the elevated position of the dead Acropora tables

(average of 45cm height) combined with their intact skeleton

serves as protection against predators. Bleaching considered as

a natural threat to coral reefs may not be a threat at all because

it provides new chances for coral recruits in terms of increased

abundance and diversity, triggering successive micro-evolution..9ICRS

NEW ORAL PRESENTATIONS

376

EXPERT SYSTEM GENERATED CORAL BLEACHING

ALERTS FOR MYRMIDON AND AGINCOURT REEFS

ON THE GREAT BARRIER REEF, AUSTRALIA.

Hendee, James C.* and Ray Berkelmans. Atlantic

Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory; National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; 4301

Rickenbacker Causeway; Miami, FL 33149-1026; USA.

Email: Jim.Hendee@noaa.gov

An expert system shell, termed the Coral Reef Early

Warning System (CREWS), was employed at NOAA’s

Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory

(AOML) in Miami, Florida, USA, to provide interpretations of

combinations of near real-time meteorological and

oceanographic data, thought to possibly be conducive to coral

bleaching, collected via a HF radio at the Australian Institute

of Marine Science from Myrmidon and Agincourt Reefs. At

Myrmidon Reef, CREWS was useful in “predicting” coral

bleaching using previously collected February, 1998 data;

alerts produced from real-time data during the end of January,

1999 could not be validated. During the end of January and

early February, 2000, alerts were produced and sent for

Agincourt Reef and Myrmidon Reef. Although bleaching did

not occur at Agincourt Reef, bleaching occurred on a small

scale for a few species of Acropora at Myrmidon Reef; these

incidences were not predicted using NOAA’s HotSpot Sea

Surface Temperature anomaly technique.

CHANGES IN CORAL POPULATIONS ON ROATAN

REEFS SUBSEQUENT TO 1998 BLEACHING AND

HURRICANE MITCH.

Hermans K.K., and J.R. Keck*. Roatan Institute for

Marine Sciences, Sandy Bay, Roatan, Bay Islands,

Honduras. Email: rimsed@globalnet.hn

Long term monitoring of Roatan’s coral reefs, aimed at

assessing environmental and human impact factors on

biodiversity, includes photographic surveys of permanently

marked locations. In 1996, twenty photographic quadrats

(each 0.33 m 2 ) were installed approximately 12 m deep at each

of three dive sites located on the northwest coast of Roatan

(sixty quadrats total). Photographs have been taken at six or

twelve month intervals beginning in Sep. 1996. The

observation period includes a massive bleaching event starting

in Sep. 1998, concomitant with Hurricane Mitch in Oct. 1998.

Colony number and projected surface area (PSA) of all

scleractinian coral colonies were determined. PSA was used to

estimate total percent coral coverage. A small reduction in the

number of live colonies was observed from Sep. 1996 to Oct.

1998 with 36 of 554 colonies observed (6%) suffering

complete mortality. Four new colonies were also observed.

Total hard coral coverage decreased slightly from 32% + 16%

in 1996 to 29% + 16% in 1998 (N.S.). A significant decline

was observed subsequent to Oct. 1998: by Sep. 1999, an

additional 92 colonies (16%) suffered complete mortality and

hard coral coverage had declined to 20% + 14 % (p < 0.0001).

An additional 15 new colonies were observed during this

period. Predominate species Montastrea annularis, M.

faveolata, and M. franksi suffered the greatest decline

accounting for approximately 56% of the total hard coral

coverage in 1996 and only 34% in 1999 (p < 0.05). While the

most marked decline in coral vitality was observed following

natural catastrophic events, human factors may also be playing

a role in the more gradual decline observed over time.

CORAL COMMUNITY STRUCTURE CHANGES IN

RESPONSE TO DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES AND

NATURAL BLEACHING: IWAYAMA BAY, REPUBLIC

OF PALAU.

Houk Peter. P.O. Box 501304, 3 rd Floor Morgan Bldg.,

Saipan, MP. 96950. Email: p_houk@hotmail.com

Coral communities were examined before and after

development activity and a natural bleaching event following

the 1998 El Nino. Data from test sites were compared with

reference sites to discover added effects that turbidity or

sediment deposition rates may have had on coral communities

exposed to a natural bleaching event. Significant regressions

were found between turbidity levels during development

activities and loss of coral cover. The dredging of an artificial

channel to allow boat traffic via the Ngerkeseuaol Channel was

the source of turbidity associated with the affected sites. These

data suggest that increased turbidity over the time period noted

had an added effect on coral communities exposed to a natural

bleaching event. Control measures consisted of sediment

retention dams for terrestrial sediments and siltation curtains

for dredging. Rates of sedimentation were similar at test sites

to those at reference sites. Sedimentation rates varied from

0.33 – 11.7 mg/(cm 2 x day). The major natural bleaching

event that coincided with the time frame of the study resulted

in 35 – 65 % decreases in coral cover at reference sites. The

following were especially affected: Anacropora spinosa,

Seriatopora hystrix, Porites cylindrica, Pocillopora

damicornis, Acropora formosa, Montipora digitata, Montipora

aequituberculata, Echinopora lamellosa, and Oxypora lacera.

A WATER TEMPERATURE MONITORING

NETWORK AROUND THE RYUKYU ISLANDS,

JAPAN.

Kakuma S.*, Moromizato, K., Nadaoka, Y., Nihei, Y.,

Ikema, T., Oomija, K., Iwao and Y. Nakano. Okinawa

Fisheries Experimental Station, 1-3-1 Nishizaki Itoman

Okinawa Japan. Email: skakuma@fish.pref.okinawa.jp

In summer 1998, water temperature around the Ryukyu

Islands was extremely high and many coral reefs suffered

bleaching. We have monitored the water temperature, one of

the main causes of the bleaching, in coastal waters at every 10

minutes, 20 minutes or one hour; and expanded the monitoring

points throughout Okinawa to 71 in May 1999 using 88 small

temperature loggers. Local fishermen placed and retrieved

most of the loggers. The water temperature showed different

fluctuation patterns among locations, depths and geographical

features. At one coral lagoon, the water temperature in August

1998 averaged 31.0 C. (28.4 C. in 1997 and 28.0 C. in 1999).

The coastal water temperature seemed to be affected by

atmospheric temperature, precipitation and the number of

typhoons attacked Okinawa, but also affected by off-shore

water temperature and current. Accordingly, we started

monitoring the off-shore environment at 10 huge Fish

Aggregating Devices (FADs) around the Ryukyu Islands in

April 2000. These coastal and off-shore monitoring points

have formed a effective monitoring network for coral reef

environment..9ICRS

NEW ORAL PRESENTATIONS

377

IMPACT OF CORAL BLEACHING ON BUTTERFLY

FISHES IN SRI LANKA

Karunarathna, MMC*, National Aquatic resources

Research and Development Agency, Crow Island,

Mattakkuliya, Colombo 15, Sri Lanka. Email:

chaminda@nara.ac.lk

Loss of live corals due to the coral bleaching event in 1998 and

the impact on the butterfly fishes in Sri Lanka.

QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF CORAL

BLEACHING IN GUARAJUBA’S REEF, NORTHERN

BAHIA, BRAZIL.

Kelmo, Francisco * ; Attrill, Martin & Leao, Zelinda. *Coral

Reef Ecology, Benthic Ecology Research Group,

Department of Biological Sciences, University of Plymouth,

Drake Circus, PL48AA, United Kingdom. . Email:

fkelmo@plymouth.ac.uk

The consequences of bleaching are of particular concern for

the large number of reef-building corals. The aims of this study

were: (i) to provide an inventory of living scleractinian corals

from nearshore reef at Guarajuba beach, Northern Bahia,

Brazil; (ii) to record the temperature, salinity, pH and water

transparency during the sampling period; (iii) to quantify and

characterize the occurrence of bleaching at the studied site,

and (iv) to determine the abiotic parameters responsible for

coral bleaching in these Bahian reefs. Throughout twelve

months (May 96/April 97), seventy quadrats of 1m2 were

sampled (35 on the reef top and 35 at the reef walls) to

quantify the relative frequency of bleached, normal and dead

coral colonies. Seven species of scleractinian corals were

recorded from the studied reef: Agaricia agaricites,

Siderastrea stellata, Porites astreoides, Favia gravida,

Montastrea cavernosa, Mussismilia harttii and Mussismilia

hispida. The analysis of the relative abundance data highlights

S.stellata as the most abundant species on the reef top, with

M.hispida the dominant species on reef walls. All species

recorded were bleached during the sampling period. The

quantification of the coral densities, in combination with the

relative frequency of bleached colonies, suggest this to be a

chronic phenomenon. BIOENV analysis suggests mean

temperature, turbidity and cloud cover variation as the main

factors best explaining the oscillation in the density of

bleached and dead colonies. S.stellata and F.gravida appear to

be the species most resistant to bleaching in Guarajuba.

SIMULATION STUDY OF RISING WATER-TEMPERATURE

AT RYUKYU’S CORAL REEF IN

1998.

Kudo Kimiaki *. Japan Marine Science and Technology

Center, 237-0061 Natsushimacho 2-15, Yokosuka, Japan.

Email : kudok@jamstec.go.jp

Coral reefs around the Ryukyu islands were heavily damaged

due to the worst bleaching in 1998. Elevated sea surface

temperature was supposed to have played the key role in the

bleaching processes. The mass bleaching episodes were linked

to global warming in journalism, which is not yet confirmed.

Simulation study was made to understand and estimate the

SST elevation due to not only the external warm current but

the local daily variation. Increased solar irradiance, calm

weather and stagnant tide are superimposed to enhance the

local SST elevation. In the summer of 1998, the amount of

clouds was observed 20% lower and the mean velocity of wind

was 50% weaker than those of normal year. The simulation

showed that the offshore SST is about 2_ higher than that at

the normal conditions and the nearshore daily variation of

water temperature at neap tide is maximum 0.9_ higher and

minimum 0.5_ lower than the offshore base. In normal year,

wind-driven currents dominate the horizontal heat advection,

but in 1998, the vertical mixing of waters mainly affects the

SST variation.

THE DISTRIBUTION PATTERN OF

CORALLIMORPHARIANS (CNIDARIA: ANTHOZOA)

ON TANZANIA REEFS AFTER THE 1998 CORAL

BLEACHING EVENT.

Kuguru, Baraka L., * and Muhando, Christopher A..

*Institute of Marine Sciences, P.O. Box 668, Zanzibar,

Tanzania. Email: kuguru@zims.udsm.ac.tz

The distribution patterns of Corallimorpharians after the

1998 coral bleaching event in Tanzania was assessed in five

reefs in Zanzibar and Dar es Salaam. Four corallimorpharian

species were encountered: Rhodactis rhodostoma,

Actinodiscus unguja, Actinodiscus nummiforme, and Ricordea

yuma. Higher cover of corallimorpharians was observed on the

reef flat (28.35 %) and reef crest (30.30%) than on the reef

slope 2m (10.70%) and 4m (12.06%) below the reef crest.

Rhodactis rhodostoma was the dominant corallimorpharian in

both cover (30% on reef flat to 6% in reef slope) and

frequency of occurrence. Corallimorpharians were found

associated more with dead coral, rock and rubble. Their

abundance was found to be negatively correlated with water

visibility (r = - 0.9, P < 0.05) and they were more abundant in

disturbed reefs Mbudya (15.2%), Bongoyo (18%) and

Changuu (22%) than in less disturbed reefs, Chumbe (9.9%)

and Bawe (8.8%). The information obtained indicates that

corallimorpharians especially Rhodactis rhodostoma may be a

threat to disturbed reefs in Tanzania..9ICRS

NEW ORAL PRESENTATIONS

378

20 TH CENTURY CLIMATE CHANGE AND THERMAL

STRESS ON CORAL REEFS.

Lough J.M. * Australian Institute of Marine Science,

Townsville, Qld 4810, Australia. Email:

j.lough@aims.gov.au

1997-1998 witnessed the most intense el niño-southern

oscillation (enso) event on record, which resulted in major

climatic anomalies throughout the tropics and extending into

extra-tropical regions. 1998 has also been reported to be the

warmest year in the past century and possibly the past

millennium. During 1997-1998 there was an unprecedented

number of reports of mass coral bleaching affecting most of

the world’s coral reefs. Although a variety of environmental

stresses can cause corals to bleach, the evidence for 1997-1998

clearly implicates unusually warm ssts during the respective

warm seasons as the primary cause at affected reefs. Two

indices of warm season ssts are presented for 47 reef sites

where bleaching occurred during 1997-98. The level of

thermal stress at these coral reef sites during 1997-98 was

unmatched in the period 1903-99. Warm season ssts at these

coral reef sites have significantly warmed over this period and

the frequency of warm season sst extremes has increased since

the late 1970s.

EFFECT OF THE CORAL BLEACHING

PHENOMENON IN 1998 ON GAMETOGENESIS OF A

SOFT CORAL, CLADIELLA SP., IN THE GULF OF

THAILAND.

Nopchinwong, Parnhathai* and Yeemin, Thamasak.

*Marine Biodiversity Research Group, Department of

Biology, Faculty of Science, Ramkhamhaeng University,

Huamark, Bangkok 10240, Thailand. Email:

parnhathai@yahoo.com

The alcyonacean is a very important member of coral

communities in the Gulf of Thailand. Sexual reproduction of

the soft coral, Cladiella sp., has been studied in coral

communities of Khang Khao Island, Chonburi Province, in the

Inner Gulf of Thailand and Samet Island, Rayong Province in

the Eastern Gulf of Thailand since September, 1998. Monthly

sampling of tagged colonies and microtechnique analysis of

histological samples in the laboratory were carried out.

Cladiella sp. was a gonochoric species, separated male and

female colonies. Several developmental stages of oocytes were

found in each sampling period. According to the severe coral

bleaching phenomenon in the Gulf of Thailand in April-May

1998, gemetogenesis of Cladiella sp. was interrupted in

several months. Moreover, partial mortality of several colonies

was obviously recorded. Recover of gonodal development of

the soft corals between the two study sites were absolutely

different because of the different environmental factors, such

as turbidity, sedimentation rate and population structure.

BLEACHING AND RECOVERY AT LAYANG

LAYANG, SOUTH CHINA SEA.

Pilcher, N.J.* & K. Atack. *Institute of Biodiversity and

Environmental Conservation Universiti Malaysia Sarawak,

94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia. Email:

nick@tualang.unimas.my

Layang Layang is a remote atoll among the Spratly islands in

the South China Sea. It is occupied by Malaysia with

overlapping claims from China, Vietnam and the Philippines,

and supports a small Navy base and a diving resort. The atoll is

7 km long on its SE-NW axis and 2.5 km wide. Permanent

photographic sampling of 55 one sq. m quadrats has been

carried out biannually since 1996. The quadrats were divided

into 11 sites, nine on the outer edge of the atoll and two within

the lagoon, with five replicates per site, between 5 and 15 m

water depth. The site was chosen due to its remoteness and

lack of anthropogenic impacts. To determine the impact of the

global sea surface temperature rise in 1998 in the South China

Sea which resulted in bleaching and death of many

scleractinian corals, quantitative spectral image analysis was

performed on the quadrat photographic records, which include

pre-bleaching, bleaching and post-bleaching periods. The

results are a source of quantitative data on bleaching extent

and qualitative data on the recovery process. In general

recovery was fast, with the majority of bleached spots either

recovered or overgrown by early 1999. Major recolonising

individuals were Didemnum mole ascidians and Xenia sp. soft

corals. Hard corals in deeper water recovered more extensively

than those in the shallows.

ANALYSIS OF OZONE SATELLITE DATA : NO

RELATION BETWEEN UV AND REEF MASS

BLEACHING.

Pêcheux, Martin*. Nice University, 15bis rue des Roses,

06100 Nice, FRANCE. Email : martinpecheux@minitel.net

Mass bleaching of reef symbioses is a recent and worldwide

phenomenon. With the advent of the ozone hole at the same

time, many researchers have supposed that UV trigger

bleaching events, and have realized experiments. This

hypothesis is still often mentionned. Here I analyze the

satellite Nimbus 7 TOMS ozone data above reef areas from

1979 to 1991. As already known, there is no trend in ozone

amount in tropics at month, season nor year time scale. I found

nor more frequent or more pronounced low ozone values.

Twenty bleaching events for which the date were sufficiently

known were examined. It did not reveal any correlation with

lower ozone level, nor with particular drawdown. Bleaching

events occurs generally when the sky is clear, but this

condition is not new. Water transparency can not be a relevant

factor, as bleaching happens often in very shallow water,

where long term change can be only negligeable. Thus, the UV

hypothesis must be discarded, and this lets Global Warming

and/or CO2 rise as the last explanations of reef mass

bleaching..9ICRS

NEW ORAL PRESENTATIONS

379

THE 1998 MASS CORAL BLEACHING EVENT IN THE

PHILIPPINES: ECOLOGICAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT.

Quibilan, Miledel Christine C.*; Arceo, Hazel O.; Aliño,

Porfirio M. and. Licuanan, Wilfredo Y. * Marine Science

Institute, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon

City 1101, PHILIPPINES. Email:

mags@msi01.cs.upd.edu.ph

The 1998 mass bleaching event caused an unprecedented

mortality of corals and coral-associated organisms in the

Philippines. Previous studies by the authors have shown that

the mass bleaching event was coincident with elevated sea

surface temperatures affecting reef areas in the Philippines to

varying degrees. To assess the ecological impact of bleaching

in the country, both qualitative and quantitative approaches

were used. Qualitative information on the severity and extent

of bleaching in the Philippines was collected using forms sent

to respondents from various sectors (government agencies,

non-governmental organizations, recreational divers, etc.)

nationwide. Coral and reef fish surveys were also conducted in

key reef areas categorized as low, medium, or high bleaching

impact areas (CBIAs) to collect quantitative information on

reef condition. Shifts in reef community structure was

determined and compared across CBIAs based on the relative

changes in benthic cover and their associated reef fishes (i.e.

species diversity, abundance, and biomass).

THE IMPACTS OF THE 1998 CORAL BLEACHING

EVENT IN THE INDIAN OCEAN ISLANDS.

Quod, Jean Pascal*, Westmacott, Susie, *ARVAM, 14 rue

du stade de l’Est, 97490 Ste Clotilde, Réunion, France.

Email: arvam@guetali.fr

The Indian Ocean Islands of Comores, Madagascar,

Mauritius, Mayotte, Reunion, Rodrigues, and Seychelles were

affected differently by the 1998 coral bleaching. Biophysical

and socio-economic assessments, carried out as part of the

CORDIO programme, have been used to make a first

assessment of the impact of the coral bleaching event.

Mauritius and Reunion apparently escaped any adverse effects

from the coral mortality potentially due to good hydrodynamic

and climatic conditions at the time. Mayotte and Seychelles

were severely affected by the bleaching with coral mortality

reaching over 90% in places. Some areas appeared to have

partially recovered, for example, in the lagoons where corals

have adapted to wide fluctuations in temperature. The state of

the reef carries huge economic significance when considering

the tourism and fishing industries. Tourism in Mauritius and

Seychelles is heavily reliant on the coastal and marine

environment, whereas other islands, such as Madagascar and

Reunion, have alternative attractions for tourism. Fisheries are

an important source of food as well as foreign earnings in the

region. These regions do, however, face increasing human

pressure on the reefs creating over-extraction of the reef

resources in turn causing reef degradation.

EL NIÑO 1997/98: DEATH AND BIRTH OF CORALS IN

THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS, ECUADOR.

Rivera, Fernando E.*. *Zoology Departmet, University of

Melbourne Parkville Victoria 3052, Australia. E.mail

Address: f.rivera@pgrad.unimelb.edu.au

During the El Niño event of 1997/98, seawater temperatures

in the Galapagos Islands remained at or above 29 o C for more

than 4 months, causing extensive coral bleaching and the

recruitment of one species. Colonies of the dominant reef-building

coral species Porites lobata, Pavona clavus, P.

gigantea, P. varians, Psammocora spp,

Pocillopora damicornis, P. inflatans, and P. elegans were

surveyed during and after the event in several islands of the

archipelago. Surveys results showed different levels of

bleaching among species and islands; the most affected species

was P. lobata with 90% of colonies bleached, whereas less

than 10% of P. elegans were bleached. These contrasted with

the previous El Niño in 1982/83, where P. elegans suffered the

highest mortality (more than 90%). Besides suffering a lesser

degree of bleaching, P. elegans also recruited successfully

during the last El Niño. This is the first time that I have

detected recruitment of P. elegans on the west side of

Galapagos since their disappearance after the 1982/83 El Niño.

New recruits were found around the central, south and the west

side of the archipelago towards the end of the 1997/98 El

Niño. The presence of coral recruits in the western islands of

Isabela and Fernandina, upwelling zones where seawater

temperatures are normally between 14- 20 degrees Celsius

during the year, is unusual. This suggests that the coral reef

patches that occur in this area could be the result of past severe

El Niño events.

THE EFFECTS OF BLEACHING EVENTS ON

GEOCHEMICAL PROXIES IN CORALS.

Roark, Brendan*, Lynn Ingram, and Malcolm McCulloch.

Geography Dept., U.C. Berkeley, Berkeley CA, 94720,

Email: ebroark@socrates.berkeley.edu

Coral reef ecosystems worldwide have been subjected to

increasing anthropogenic and natural perturbations over the

last few decades leading to an apparent increase in the

magnitude and extent of coral bleaching events. In order to

understand the immediate and long term consequences of these

bleaching events it is important to compare them to long term

records of natural variations. We have begun a study to see if it

possible to identify past bleaching events in coral cores

geochemically and to correlate these events with proxy records

of environmental data such as SST and salinity (d 18 O, Sr/Ca).

Several studies have suggested that changes in the d

13 C values

of coral may be a proxy for bleaching events, but the sampling

resolution was not high enough to conclusively prove this idea.

Here, we present a high resolution (near weekly) d

13 C, d

18 O,

and Sr/Ca record from two Porites corals from Moorea, French

Polynesia during the period 1985-1997. We compare the

geochemical data in these coral cores to locally measured SST

and salinity, and to two documented bleaching events in 1991

and 1994. Sr/Ca measurements are used to quantify seasonal

variations in SST, and to correct for any variation in the d

18 O

signal due to changes in salinity from precipitation or runoff.

Preliminary observations of the records to date show a

decrease in d

18 O and d

13 C values and a change in the seasonal

amplitude of Sr/Ca values caused by an increase in SST, and a

decrease in photosynthesis due to the loss of the zooxanthellae

during the two bleaching events..9ICRS

NEW ORAL PRESENTATIONS

380

CHANGES IN THE STRUCTURE OF FISH

COMMUNITIES FOLLOWING CORAL BLEACHING

IN THE SUMMER OF 1998 AT URASOKO BAY,

ISHIGAKI ISLAND, JAPAN .

Shibuno, Takuro *, Abe, O. Hashimoto, K. and Takada,

Y.. *Ishigaki Tropical Station, Seikai National Fisheries

Research Institute. 148-446 Fukai-Ohta, Ishigaki, 907-

0451, Japan. Email: shibunot@snf-its.affrc.go.jp

The fish fauna at permanent transects on an outer reef and a

moat at Urasoko Bay, Ishigaki Island were monitored in

October 1998, January, March, July and November 1999, after

severe coral bleaching in the summer of 1998. Coral bleaching

and its effects on the fish community differed between the two

habitats. At the outer reef, most of living corals consisted

mainly of Acropora spp. had died by late September 1998 and

their dead coral skeletons were coated with filamentous algae.

The number of herbivores, particularly two acanthurids

(Ctenochaetus striatus, Acanthurus nigrofuscus), increased

after the coral bleaching. The number of individuals increased,

but the number of species and species diversity (Shannon-Wiener

index, H’) decreased after the coral bleaching. At the

moat, where the benthic substrata consisted mostly of dead

coral rubble and sand with several microatolls of massive

Porites, most of living corals were not affected by severe

bleaching. The number of acanthurids did not differ before and

after the coral bleaching. Both the number of individuals and

species, and species diversity (H’) increased after the coral

bleaching. The size distributions of acanthurids completely

differed between the outer reef and the moat. At the outer reef,

small sized acanthurids were not found. These results suggest

that the two acanthurids responded to the increase in algal

biomass by migrating from adjacent habitats to the outer reef

after the coral bleaching.

CHANGES IN OPTICAL REFLECTANCE AND

PIGMENTATION OF THE CORAL MONTASTRAEA

FAVEOLATA IN RESPONE TO ELEVATED

TEMPERATURE AND ULTRAVIOLET-B RADIATION.

Steely, Teresa*; Schmidt, Carl; Hardy, John; Strom,

Suzanne; Bynagle, Maria; Miller, Adrienne and Peterson,

Emily. *Shannon Point Marine Center, Western

Washington University, Bellingham, WA 98225-9181.

Email: jhardy@cc.wwu.edu

Elevated temperature and ultraviolet-B (UVB) radiation can

induce coral bleaching, i.e. the loss of symbiotic zooxanthellae

and their pigments. It may be possible to detect bleaching by

remote sensing through measured changes in the reflectance

spectra. We examined the relationship between coral pigments

and in vivo optical spectra. We collected 2.1 cm diameter cores

of Montastraea faveolata at 15 ± m depth (29.5 °C) from Lee

Stocking Island, Bahamas. Replicate samples from three

colonies were exposed in an outdoor incubator for 96 hours at

31 °C to: 1) in situ reef doses of photosynthetically active

radiation (PAR) and UVB, 2) in situ PAR and enhanced UVB,

and 3) enhanced PAR and UVB. Coral pigments were

measured by HPLC analysis and in vivo reflectance of coral

was measured using a portable fiber optic spectrofluorometer.

After 96 hours exposure, coral showed a linear increase in

reflectance with decreasing surface density of chlorophyll-a.

Results suggest that small changes in pigmentation can be

detected in vivo as changes in optical reflectance. A UVB

dose rate of 43 kJ m -2 day -1 for 4 days, i.e. a cumulative dose of

172 kJ m -2 was sufficient to induce bleaching. When the water

column attenuation coefficient is applied to this dose, our

results indicate that at 31 °C the time for severe bleaching to

occur increases exponentially with depth.

PRESENT CONDITION OF REEF-BUILDING CORALS

IN AKAJIMA ISLAND AFTER THE HEAVY CORAL

BLEACHING IN 1998.

Taniguchi, H.*, Iwao, K. and Omori, M. *Akajima Marine

Science Laboratory, 179, Aka, Zamami-son, Okinawa 901-

3311 Japan. Email: taniguchi@amsl.or.jp

An unprecedented event of coral bleaching hit the Okinawan

waters including Akajima Island in summer 1998. Percentage

bleaching of reef building corals relative to the total coverage

ranged from 56 to 97% at 15 sites in late September 1998.

Three out of 4 sites that showed over 90% bleaching were

located in either a moat or inside of a bay where the water

exchange rates were low. Another site was characterized by

dominant occurrence of branched type of the genus Acropora

that was damaged by bleaching heavier than other types.

Geographical features, rate of water exchange, and

composition of coral species seem to be responsible for the

differences in extent of bleaching. We continued observation

at 4 sites around the Island. At the Maenohama site where 91%

of total colonies were bleached in September 1998, however,

25% had dead, 15% were still partially bleached, and other

44% of total colonies recovered completely by March 1999

after 6 months. This situation is much better than the corals in

other areas of Okinawa. The survived corals are now

recovering and increasing the coverage significantly.

MEASURING CHANGES IN PIGMENTATION OF THE

CORAL MONTASTRAEA FAVEOLATA VIA

PHOTOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS.

Thorpe, Mike *, Hardy, John and Frostad, Jonathan

*Shannon Point Marine Center, Western Washington

University Bellingham, WA, 98225-9181, Email:

Thorpem@cc.wwu.edu

Algal symbionts (zooxanthellae) are critical to the growth

and survival of reef-building corals. Elevated temperature and

ultraviolet radiation can cause coral to lose their algal

symbionts and pigmentation in a process known as coral

bleaching. Photoanalysis may provide a convenient and rapid

method for quantifying coral bleaching without extensive

chemical or biological analysis. Experiments were performed

at the Caribbean Marine Research Center, Lee Stocking Island,

Bahamas in July, 1999. Two cm diameter plugs of coral

Montastraea faveolata were collected from a reef at 16 meters

depth, placed in an incubator and exposed to combinations of

enhanced PAR (photosynthetically active radiation), UVB

(ultraviolet-B), and elevated temperature for 96 hours. After

treatment the coral plugs were individually photographed

against a white scale and then analyzed for pigments, nitrogen,

carbon, and photosynthetic rates of zooxanthellae. We

quantified the mean and variance of the luminosity for each

coral sample using Adobe PhotoShop, and examined the

changes in these values as the level of bleaching increased.

Initial data shows that coral bleaching is easily detected and

differentiated by comparing the mean and variance of

luminosity. Further analysis will examine the relationships

between luminosity and changes in pigmentation, and

photosynthetic rates..9ICRS

NEW ORAL PRESENTATIONS

381

CORAL BLEACHING ON OKINAWA IN 1988: THE

EFFECTS OF TYPHOONS AND SEA TEMPERATURE

CHANGES FROM 1997-1999.

Tsukayama, Seiko*; Nakaza, Eizo; Kawamitsu, Yasutomo;

Kitamura, Koji; and Makino, Toshiaki. *University of the

Ryukyus, Shembaru 1, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan. Email:

enakaza@tec.u-ryukyu.ac.jp

The seas around the Okinawan islands of southern Japan are

well known as one of the most beautiful coral seas in the

world. In 1998, the coral around the Okinawan islands suffered

from an historic case of bleaching. The main reason is thought

to have been the extremely high sea temperature due to El

nino. In addition to this global sea temperature rise, the

southern part of Japan, in particular, had far fewer typhoons in

that year than it normally did. This factor is also believed to

have contributed to coral bleaching.__Typhoons usually

contribute to a decrease in the temperature of the surrounding

sea. Even if the sea surrounding the islands is warm, the event

of a typhoon passing means that the seawater remains less than

30 degrees centigrade. Unfortunately, the Okinawan Islands

were hit by typhoons just three times in the summer of 1998,

which was much less than the seasonal average, and the sea

temperature was able to exceed 30 degrees. The sea

temperature in 1987 was considerably lower than in previous

years, so coral was able to grow at a faster rate. The sea

temperature rise in 1998 then simply killed this new coral

growth. In this study, the sea temperature changes around the

Okinawan islands from 1997 to 1999 will be shown in detail.

The influence of passing super Typhoons on sea temperature

will then be discussed, based on field measurement data. The

causes of the 1998 coral bleaching will be revealed.

RE-SURVEY OF CORAL REEFS IN SAUDI ARABIA

(ARABIAN GULF) AFTER THE 1997/98 CORAL

BLEACHING EVENTS

Vogt, Helge Peter*, Khalid Al-Shaik *Zentrum für Marine

Tropenökologie (ZMT), Fahrenheitstr. 1, D-28359 Bremen,

Germany, Email: HP_Vogt@compuserve.com

In August 1999, a re-survey of the island reefs of Karan and

the inshore reefs near the peninsula of Abu Ali was conducted

to compare live coral cover before and after the bleaching

episodes. A comparison of underwater video recordings of reef

benthos along three unmarked transects in the shallow lagoon

of Karan showed a reduction in live coral cover from 23 % in

1994 to less than 1 % in August 1999. Another comparison of

live coral cover was conducted using two permanent transects

placed perpendicular to the shoreline of Karan in depths from

2-6 m. During three periods of investigations from 1992-94,

the average value for live coral cover at both transects was 33

%. The August 1999 survey indicated only a minor reduction

to 31 %, which supports the general impression that coral

communities on the reef slope showed no signs of

deterioration. The re-survey of the shallow inshore reefs at

Abu Ali revealed that more than 99 % of colonies were dead

with only small pockets of surviving coral tissue of the

previously dominant reef builder Porites compressa. The death

of corals in the shallow waters of both the offshore and inshore

reefs is most likely to have been caused by extremely high sea

surface temperatures exceeding 34 dC in the summer of 1998,

as well as increased solar radiation.

CORAL COMMUNITIES RECOVERY AT MAYOTTE I.

(SW INDIAN OC.) FOLLOWING THE 1998

BLEACHING EVENT AND/OR RECENT

ACANTHASTER PLAGUES

Wendling, Bertrand * , Dahalany, Youssouf ; Descamp,

Pierre ; Priess, Kathrin ; Thomassin, Bernard A. * Fisheries

& Marine Environment Service (SPEM), D.A.F., B.P. 103,

97600 Mamoudzou, Mayotte, France O.M. Email:

daf.spem@wanadoo.fr

Mayotte (12°-13°'S, 376 km 2 of lands, alt. max. 660m) is the

pattern for eroded high volcanic island surrounded by near

continuous ribbon barrier reefs that rim a very large lagoon

(here near 1,500 km 2 ). All coral reef types occured, even a

double barrier reef system. Fast population blowing-up is the

main source of island development problems, with effects

upon coral reef communities (silting of the innest reefs and

lagoonal bottoms, fishery decrease). In addition, during last 20

years, everywhere coral communities suffer by Acanthaster

outbreaks, and in April-June 1998 by the huge bleaching event,

destroying near 80% or more of the corals (from surface down

to 30m deep). Following this event, a Coral Reef Observatory

was set up which task is to survey the reefs and to monitor

outer slopes assemblages on 9 selected fronts. At the 1999-

year end, one year after the "point 0" survey, it is observed that

the recovery rate of corals is highest on some fringing reefs,

even in muddy environment (20%), and on lagoonal reefs (all

reefs average rate = 5%). Highest living corals coverage ratios

reach 49% on fringing reefs, and 33% on lagoonal ones. New

corals are mainly non-Acroporid forms (23% for fringing reefs

down to 10% for barrier ones). Acroporids are mostly growing

on outer flats (11%).

BLEACHING PHENOMENA IN AMED'S REEF, BALI:

MONITORING ACTIVITIES SINCE 1997- 2000.

Zamani, Neviaty P.*, M. Nurlidiasari, A. Wijonarno, and

K.Sarjana Putra., *Center for Coastal and Marine

Resources Studies, Bogor Agriculture University. Gedung

Marine Science Lt. 4, Fakultas Perikanan dan Ilmu

Kelautan, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Kampus IPB-Darmaga,

Bogor, Indonesia. P.O.Box 286. Email:

learningtm@bogor.indo.net.id

Coral bleaching is considered as a loss or reduction in the

population density of zooxanthellae, loss or reduction of

photosynthetic pigment, or a combination of both as a response

to environmental stress. Increases in sea temperature have

been reported worldwide as one factor, which causes coral

bleaching. Mass bleaching might have resulted in significant

lost of live corals in many parts of the world. Mass coral

bleaching was reported in 1997/98 in Indonesia (for example

North Sulawesi, Lampung-South Sumatera, Karimun Jawa,

Bali and Taka Bonerate-south Sulawesi). However, there was

no comprehensive study conducted to document the ecological

and socio-economic impact of this event. The purpose of this

study is to evaluate the ecological impact of bleaching in terms

of changes in percent coral cover and mortality in Amed Coast,

Bali. The observations were carried out at three-stations, i.e.

Reef Checkpoint, Tebing and Kebun Coral. The results of the

1998 monitoring activities show that coral cover in Amed's

reef decreased by 50 % to 80 % in 6 months. This loss

corresponds to increases in dead coral by as much as 60 % and

of other biotic components by as much as 50%. These 1998

findings will be compared with results from 1999 and 2000

monitoring studies at the conference.

FIELD STUDIES ON GREAT BARRIER REEF

BIOERODING SPONGES.

Schönberg. CHL* *Carl von Ossietzky University

Oldenburg, Dept. of Zoosystematics & Morphology, FB 7 -.9ICRS

NEW ORAL PRESENTATIONS

382

Biology, Geo- & Environmental Sciences, D-26111

Oldenburg, christine.schoenberg@mail.uni-oldenburg.de.

Some bioeroding sponges appear to be good

bioindicators. Their densities can greatly increase in

eutrophicated waters. However, natural levels of

abundance are understudied. Considerable difficulties with

field work are: 1. overlooking because of their cryptic life

style; 2. problems with in situ species identification; 3.

intrusion by removal of reef framework, and 4. complex

laboratory studies necessary. An extensive small-scale

survey was conducted on the Central Great Barrier Reef.

The distribution of Cliona orientalis and Aka mucosa is

presented as example. Both species are very common and

can invade live coral. Whereas A. mucosa colonies is

common on the sand flat, C. orientalis requires uncovered

substrates and cannot tolerate smothering. C. orientalis is

dominant near the reef edge, where it can benefit from

high light levels and flow. Both species can withstand

exposure to air but have developed different strategies. A.

mucosa is specialised to occur in fragments or blocks

buried in sediments. C. orientalis small, porous erosion

patterns retain water and are likely to protect it better

than sponges producing larger chambers. C. orientalis

endolithic tissue can be estimated from the surface. This

may be a common phenomenon in bioeroding sponges.

Minisymposium A11, Rm 6,

Tuesday 24/10, 16:00hrs

THE FATE OF BLEACHED CORALS: PATTERNS AND

DYNAMICS OF ALGAL RECRUITMENT.

Diaz-Pulido Guillermo* & McCook Laurence J. * Dept.

Tropical Plant Sciences, James Cook University,

Townsville, Qld 4811, Australia. Email:

Guillermo.Diaz@jcu.edu.au.

The massive bleaching of corals which occurred on the Great

Barrier Reef (GBR) in early 1998 was one of the most severe

on record. Bleached corals may either regain their

zooxanthellae and recover, or may die, in which case they

generally become overgrown by algae. However, very little is

known about the dynamics of this overgrowth, its effect on the

corals, the composition and nature of the overgrowing algae, or

the consequences for reef recovery. The present study

monitored the trajectory and composition of algal recruitment

for 2 years on massive corals Porites lobata with different

conditions or degrees of bleaching. P. lobata were

significantly affected by the bleaching event and were almost

universally overgrown by turf algae. The trajectory and the

abundance of algal turf recruitment were affected by the

degree of bleaching but only quantitatively: the more coral

bleaching the more algal turf overgrowth. It is difficult to

determine if the algae actually contributed to mortality of the

bleached corals. It is clear that the algae were not the initial

cause of coral mortality, but potentially contributed to the

failure of corals to recover. The species composition of the

algal turfs that colonised the bleached corals is described.

Members of all major groups of benthic algae were common,

but were quickly dominated by two species of the brown

filamentous alga Sphacelaria, which also dominate algal turfs

throughout the study area.

Minisymposium A22, Rm 13, Thurs 26/10, 15:20 hrs..9ICRS

NEW ORAL PRESENTATIONS

383

REGIONAL STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE RED

SEA AND THE GULF OF ADEN – MIDDLE EAST- 2000

Pilcher, Nicolas *& Alsuhaibany, Abdullah * Institute of

Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti

Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak,

Malaysia Email: nick@tualang.unimas.my

The status of coral reefs in Egypt, Sudan, Djibouti, Somalia,

Yemen, Saudi Arabia and Jordan are presented. These

countries all belong to the Regional Organisation for the

Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of

Aden (PERSGA), which commissioned this report. Corals in

this region are primarily found on fringing reefs along the

mainland and island coastlines, barrier reefs, pinnacles and

atolls. A wide range of other habitats contain corals, including

submerged patch reefs, coralline red algal beds, relic reef

formation and volcanic rock flows. In general reef health was

considered good, with 30 % to 50 % live coral cover at most

locations, and > 50 % total cover on average. Coral bleaching

caused extensive die-offs in the Arabian Gulf and the northern

– central Red Sea in 1998, and on the Sudanese coasts a red

algal film was present over most shallow reefs. Coral diversity

and reef-associated fauna was considered among the highest in

the Indian Ocean region. Major threats to coral reefs include

landfilling and dredging for coastal expansion; destructive

fishing methods; damage by the recreational SCUBAdiving

industry, shipping and maritime activities, sewage and

otherpollution discharges; lack of public awareness, and

insufficientimplementation of legal instruments that affect reef

conservation. A number of international, regional, bilateral and

multilateral agreementsand other legal instruments have been

adopted by the States, and eachpossesses a relatively complete

set of national Laws and Regulations. However, the

implementation of these remains generally poor and in

somecases there is no implementation and enforcement

whatsoever. For coral reef conservation to improve and be

effective in the Region, there is a need for increased public

awareness, increased enforcement andimplementation of

national and international legal instruments, and

theimplementation of coastal management plans that integrate

coastal development, industrial effluents, and tourism with the

maintenance of environmental quality in marine habitats.

Minisymposium D1, Rm 6, Mon 23/10, 16:30 hrs..9ICRS

NEW ORAL PRESENTATIONS

384

CAN FLUCTUATING ASYMMETRY (FA) BE USED AS

AN INDICATOR OF STRESS ON REEF-BUILDING

CORALS?

Todd, P.A.*, Sanderson, P.G., Chou, L.M. *Dept

Geography, National University of Singapore, 1 Arts Link,

Kent Ridge, Singapore, 117576. Email:

artp8501@nus.edu.sg

Fluctuating asymmetry (FA) is a term used to describe

small, non-directional, random deviations from perfect

symmetry. These deviations are thought to be a result of

minor developmental ‘accidents’, possibly reflecting the

developmental instability of an organism and the influence

the environment has upon it. Thus, it has been argued that

FA is a reliable and sensitive indicator of environmental

stress. FA has mostly been used as a gauge of

developmental instability in bilaterally symmetrical

animals and plants with only a few studies of radial

organisms published. To test for FA in coral polyps, a

photographic method was used to collect samples of the

Montastrea annularis complex from three sites around

Utila Island, Honduras, and Diploastrea heliopora and

Favia speciosa from three sites around Singapore.

Measurements were taken from the projected images and

analysed for symmetry. Although many polyps appear to

be radially symmetrical, the application of FA methods to

the above coral species revealed that generally their polyps

were in fact antisymmetrical and therefore not suitable

subjects for this technique.

Minisymposium A19, Rm 5, Fri 27/10, 09:50 hrs.

THE STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE NORTHERN

CARIBBEAN & WESTERN ATLANTIC.

Woodley, Jeremy * , Pedro M. Alcolado, Timothy Austin,

Rodolfo Claro-Madruga, Gina Ebanks-Petrie, Reynaldo

Estrada, Francisco X. Geraldes, Floyd Homer, Eleanor

Phillips, David Shim, Kathleen Sullivan, Monica B. Vega,

Jean Wiener. Centre for Marine Sciences, University of the

West Indies (Mona), Kingston 7, Jamaica W.I.

<woodley@uwimona.edu.jm>

Deterioration of reef resources is reported from all countries.

The most extensive direct human impact is over-fishing; acute

in Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic, where narrow

fringing reefs are easily accessible. Reef fish stocks dispersed

over broad shelves are less depleted, as in Cuba and,

especially, in the Bahamas and the Turks & Caicos Islands.

Higher standards of living in the Cayman Islands and Bermuda

result in less fishing pressure. Mass mortality of the sea-urchin

Diadema antillarum, throughout the region in 1983, resulted in

excessive growth of macroalgae, especially where over-fishing

had already depleted herbivores. This, and white-band disease

in the Acropora spp, led to catastrophic declines in coral cover;

notably in Jamaica, but there has been some recovery in recent

years. In 1998, coral bleaching was severe in Cayman and

Cuba, but mortality seems to have been low. Sediment run-off

and nutrient pollution are especially prevalent in the three high

islands. Careless coastal development for tourism has

impacted reefs in most countries, while increasing pressures of

diving tourism are apparent in Cayman and the Turks &

Caicos Islands. There is increasing local awareness of the need

for coastal conservation, and all countries, except Haiti, have

declared Marine Protected Areas. There is generally little

enforcement of conservation laws, and most agencies need

more resources, trained personnel and political support.

Minisymposium D1, Rm 6, Mon 23/10, 11:30 hrs..9ICRS Session A; State of Knowledge

NEW POSTERS

THE ARK SHELL, ARCA VENTRICOSA, A

POTENTIAL COMPETITOR OF THE MOTHER-OF-PEARL

OYSTER, PINCTADA MARGARITIFERA IN

THE LAGOON OF TAKAPOTO ATOLL (TUAMOTU,

FRENCH POLYNESIA).

Addessi L.* & F. Bourdelin *Laboratory of Marine

Ecology, University of French Polynesia BP 6570 Faa'a

Tahiti French Polynesia Email: bourdeli@ufp.pf

The General Research Programme (PGRN) on Pinctada

margaritifera was developed to study the pearl oyster and

its environment. As a second step, particular interest was

granted to investigate potential competitors of P.

margaritifera. A study assessing stocks of the principal

bivalves in the Takapoto lagoon shows numerical

dominance by Arca ventricosa. We are considering A.

ventricosa a potential competitor as this species represents

75% of the population of sessile bivalves in this area. It is

necessary to determine the impact of the ark shells on

spatial and trophic resources, and the competitive role this

species has on P. margaritifera. A. ventricosa is not a well

known species, and as a starting point, shell growth rates

according to depth and filtration rates are being investigated.

Results indicate very slow growth rates varying with

settlement depth. The ark shell is able to adapt to different

environmental conditions, explaining its profusion

throughout all lagoon areas. From the point of view of

trophic competition, the consumption of the ark shell is

restricted to a level below those of the other competitor

species.

LABORATORY CULTIVATION OF CORAL

JUVENILES.

Bausoch K. J.*, S. Leota, S. Victor, and R. Richmond.

University of Guam Marine Laboratory, UOG Station,

Mangilao, GU 96923 USA. Email: ililau@hotmail.com

Coral reefs depend on successful reproduction and

recruitment of corals. Three Acropora species (surculosa,

humilis, danai) and two Faviids (Goniastrea retiformis,

Leptoria phrygia) were grown from larvae in the laboratory.

On June 1999, adult colonies were collected from four

different reefs around Guam a week before spawning which

started four days after the June full moon. For each species,

eggs and sperm collected from different colonies were

mixed in 14L containers and fertilization started within 24

hrs. Four to five days after fertilization, substrata, consisting

of coral rubble covered with coralline algae, were placed in

containers. Substrata were collected from a nearby reef flat,

cleaned and kept in flowing seawater tank before use. After

five days, substrata with newly settled larvae were moved

into tanks in the shade for further growth and observations.

Tanks were maintained at least twice a week. Algae on

substrata were removed using a small nylon brush and

tweezers. An initial count of substrata with juveniles was

made in December followed by measurements made in

January and April. The number of polyps in each colony

was counted and the longest dimension was measured under

a microscope. Survivorship for all species between

December and April ranged from 18-100% with a mean of

57%. Colony size of Acropora species in April was

102.8um/polyp. Colony size of Goniastrea retiformis was

24.8um/polyp and, Leptoria phrygia was 22.3um/polyp.

Maintenance of juveniles was very important for

survivorship and growth. Algal competition appeared to

have an important affect on growth and survivorship of

colonies.

REEFAL SEDIMENTATION IN THE GULF OF

AQABA, RED SEA EGYPT.

El-Sammak, Amr * Mahmoud Kh. El-Sayed, Mahmoud

Kh. Alexandria University, Faculty of Science,

Oceanography Dept. Egypt.

*United Arab Emirates University, Faculty of Science,

Geology Department, Al-Ain P.O. Box 17551, United Arab

Emirates. E-mail: a.elsammak@uaeu.ae.ae

A total of 68 sediment samples were collected from five

profiles covering the Ras Muhammad National Park area (3

profiles), Nabp and bu Qalum Protected Areas. Texture,

Mineralogical (XRD), geochemical (AAS) and

petrographical (thin section and SEM) analysis were done

on the collected sediments. Description of samples indicates

that samples were range from coarse to fine sand, mostly

composed from biogenous constituents. Terrigenous grains

are mostly quartz and feldspars. Aragonite is the most

abundant carbonate minerals, represents about 50-60% from

the total carbonate minerals, followed by Mg-calcite, calcite

and tracers of dolomite. Most of the carbonate grains are

fresh. SEM indicates that the fundamental unit of the

scleratinian corals consists of aragonite ibers, qabout 15 _m

long and 0.5 to 1.0 _m wide. Nabq area is characterized by

the omnipresence of terrigenous sand. Abu Qalum

sediments also contain terrigenous grain associated with

carbonate grains, however the percentage of

Terrigenous/carbonate grain decrease as follows: Nabq/Abu

Qalum/Ras Muhammad. For chemical analysis, Mg, Fe, Cr,

Cu, Mn, Co, Zn, Cd, Pb and Ni were analyzed. The results

of different profiles were compared with each other as well

as with similar areas. Results were statistically treatment in

order to develop a model for reef sedimentation in the Gulf

of Aqaba, Red Sea, Egypt.

HOLOCENE SEA LEVEL IN INDONESIAN ISLAND

ARC DEDUCED FROM EMERGED CORAL REEFS

AND SEA NOTCHES

HANTORO Wahyoe Soepri*, Gagan Michael Kevin;

Lafont Raymond, Bieda Sophie, Yudawati Sri

Cahyarini, Soeprapto Tjoek Aziz, *RDCG-LIPI,

Sangkuriang, Bandung 40135, Indonesia, 002503654

Email: hantoro@geotek.lipi.go.id

Emerged reef fossils are found in almost consistently 2-3

m above mean spring low tide at any coast along active arc

of Indonesian Island. Some dating method ( 14 C, Th/U and

ESR) give the age ranges under the Holocene time. Those

reveal that Holocene sea level was relatively higher 2-3 m

above present sea level in that area. Slight difference

position of the reef from place to the other place in the

archipelago can be explained due to the local rheological

and tectonic setting. To the west, where the plate

convergence give a continuous down slab of Indian -Australian

plate beneath SEA plate, the outer non volcanic

arc tends to be under the negative tectonic pulse, then the

Holocene reef is found at a lower position than the normal

one. To the east, the witness of Holocene sea level had been

found at higher position than to the west due to the uplift,

produced by the tectonic collision between Australian crust

that move to the north against the island arc. In the

relatively stable zone e.g. from inner basin to epicontinental

sea and cratonic island, there are few emerged coral reefs as

witnesses of Holocene highstand sea level can be found.

This can be explained as the stable zone is less sensitive to

rheological reaction as well as the sea around the island is

quite shallow. Relatively high Holocene sea level in the

stable area can be seen as the presence of an extensive of

wetland that covered large coastal plain of the stable island

and the thick Holocene peat that found in the relatively high

position above sea level (5 - 10 m) upstream the estuary.

Isotopic data from Porites sp. from Sumba island showed an

enrichment of about 0.55‰ on 18 O that reveals the SST

slightly was warmer about 0.5 Cº than to day..9ICRS Session A; State of Knowledge

NEW POSTERS

SST RECORDS FROM CORAL BANDING PORITES

SP MICRO ATOLLS: BASELINE DATA FOR

PALEO-OCEANOLOGY AND PALEO-SEISMICITY

RESEARCH IN INDONESIA

Hantoro W.S,* Gagan M.K., Widoyoko B., Mutholib A.,

Nganro N., Harsono, Shofiyah S., Handayani L.,

Sebowo E., Widoyoko B., Narulita I., Indarto S., Sanyoto

A., Prayudi D., dan Suyatno.

* Research and Development Center for Geotechnology-Indonesian

Institute of Sciences RDCG-LIPI,

Sangkuriang, Bandung 40135, Indonesia, 002503654,

hantoro@geotek.lipi.go.id

Some Porites sp. micro atolls can be found abundantly in

shelter coast of Indonesian Sea e.g. at Mentawai Island west

off Sumatra. Its rapid growth of 1-2 cm/yr. allows producing

a massif micro-atoll of 4 to 6 meters big. Living and dead

Porites sp. micro atolls usually show outside and or inside-stepping

morphology that reveals an interruption in vertical

growth during their life. This unique stepping had been

produced by relative vertical changes of coral position to sea

level due to vertical land movement and perhaps climatic

deterioration too. The movement is syncontemporaneus to

the big seismic shock related to the subduction under

Sumatra, take place in the plate boundary. 14 C and Thorium

dates of the emerged micro atolls reveal that the vertical

movement is active continuously since the Holocene. Two

centimetres thick of repeated density banding on living and

fossil’s coral may allow following annual record within

more than 75 years. Absence in fluorescence banding on

living Porites sp. may be due to high flood of organic acid

in a whole year. Abrupt change on 13 C variations reveal a

sudden uplift due to coseismic event while drop on its

density may be related to the decrease of albedo related to

big Tambora eruption.

TECTONIC AND CLIMATIC INFLUENCES TO THE

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL DEVELOPMENT OF

CORAL REEF LIMESTONE IN INDONESIAN

MARITIME ISLAND: ASSESSEMENT ON

TERTIARY TO QUATERNARYCOASTAL

EVOLUTION TO LONGTERM CARBON STOK IN

EPICONTINENTAL SHELF

Hantoro W.S.* Handayani L.; Narulita I; Suprijanto D;

Soeprapto T.A.; Sri Yudawati Cahyarini; Masduki A.

Research and Development Center for Geotechnology-Indonesian

Institute of Sciences RDCG-LIPI,

Sangkuriang, Bandung 40135, Indonesia, 002503654,

Email: hantoro@geotek.lipi.go.id

The Indonesian Maritime Continent phisiographically

belongs to shallow continental platform and deep sea, there

physiographically consists a stable cratonic island, inner

volcanic island arc and outer non volcanic ridge, which

coastal evolution patterns are slightly different. Situated

between two continents and oceans, these islands may be

called "the maritime continent". It has the largest coastal

plain in the world which extensive lowland area is subject to

eustatic and tectonic sea level change, as well as two

important large, shallow and stable continental platforms

(Sunda and Sahul) that cover more than one third of the

archipelagic area. Owing to the geological setting of the

junction of three plate movements, Indonesian island arc

shows a unique geodynamic evolution. Convergence of the

Indian-Australian crust to north produces the subduction

plate to the western part and collision in the eastern part of

the South East Asian epicontinental island arc. Vertical

deformation in subduction zone produces mainly the

subsidence of the outer arc before the uplift while the

continous uplift process is produced in the collision zone.

Tertiary reefal carbonate is reported by some oil

explorations, had developed since lower Tertiary along

marginal basin, starting from shallow clastic carbonat to the

reefal limestone.

CORAL COMMUNITIES AND CORAL REEFS OF

THE SEYCHELLES ISLANDS.

Kosmynin V*. *Institute of Paleontology Russian

Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia. Email:

kosmyninv@cofc.edu

Coral reefs of the Seychelles Republic spread over the vast

area in the Western part of the Indian Ocean between 3º30´S

and 10º30´S, and 46ºE and 58ºE. The study of this area was

conducted in several expeditions of the USSR Academy of

Sciences and Moscow State University in the 1970s and

80s. Reefs in this region develop in the environment close

to optimal for reef building corals. Coral reefs of northern

area develop in the moderate wave energy condition, while

southern groups of reefs are exposed to waves of high

energy and lie in the area of hurricane tracks. Most of major

morphological types of reefs, including atolls, fringing

reefs, variety of uplifted and submerged reefs, can be found

around the Seychelles. The zonation of reefs is

characterized by asymmetry. In the open oceanic reefs and

atolls, windward slopes are gentle and lack almost all coral

growth. Leeward sides are steep and have high projective

cover by reef building corals. Some atolls like Farquhar

possess well-developed algal ridge and reef-flat on

windward side, though others do not have these relief

features. The development of rhodolithes fields in outer

terraces or on the flat of submerged reefs is another

characteristic feature of Seychelles reefs. Numerous

submerged wave-cut forms demonstrate inheritance of

major morphological features from Pleistocene growth. The

total list of reef building corals in Seychelles comes close to

200 species, which is considerably more than the number

listed before.

ASSEMBLAGE PATTERNS OF SOFT CORALS IN

INDIAN OCEAN REEFS – A CASE STUDY FROM

THE CHAGOS ARCHIPELAGO.

G.B. Reinicke*. German Oceanographic Museum,

Katharinenberg 14, 18439 Stralsund, Germany. E-mail:

Goetz.Reinicke@meeresmuseum.de

Soft corals and gorgonian corals, together with the

scleractinian stony corals and calcareous algae, represent the

major components in the benthic shallow water reef

communities of the Chagos Archipelago. The 1996

expedition yielded a collection of c. 70 octocoral species,

including 5 species new to science. Alcyonacean corals were

regularly observed in various reef sites at Peros Banhos,

Salomons and the Great Chagos Bank, from atoll or backreef.9ICRS Session A; State of Knowledge

NEW POSTERS

lagoons and reef flats to shallow and deep reef slopes at 40-

50 m depth. They can provide large proportions of benthic

communities - in some sites only few soft coral species

monopolise the living coral coverage (overall cover < 1-5%).

Distribution patterns are related to predominant

environmental conditions (viz. current energy regime, light,

sedimentation). In sites with high soft coral abundance,

characteristic species assemblages could be identified.

Examples from strong current regime habitats on shallow and

deep seaward slopes, and from moderate current regime

habitats and lagoon slope habitats were surveyed and related

to the predominant ‘stress gradient’ of environmental

conditions (after Rosen 1981). The combined observation and

interpretation of soft and scleractinian coral assemblages

provides a more complex, but more distinctive view reef

coral community structures. A more complex, but more dis-tinctive

view on distribution patterns of reef coral community

structures can be achieved from synchronous observations of

soft and scleractinian coral assemblages..9ICRS Session A; State of Knowledge

NEW POSTERS

GENETIC POPULATION STRUCTURE OF THE

OCTOCORAL BRIAREUM STECHEI (KÜKTH.)

ALONG THE GREAT BARRIER REEF

(ALCYONACEA).

G.B. Reinicke*, J.A.H. Benzie, K.E. Fabricius. German

Oceanographic Museum, Katharinenberg 14, D-18439

Stralsund, Germany. E-mail:

Goetz.Reinicke@meeresmuseum.de

Nine populations of the briareid octocoral Briareum

stechei were sampled during August and December 1999,

and in February 2000 over about 1300 km along the Great

Barrier Reef from the Torres Strait to the Whitsundays

group. Allozyme electrophoresis was applied to test six

polymorphic loci for genetic population differentiation. The

lack of significant deviation from Hardy-Weinberg

expectations indicated the predominant mode of

reproduction in these populations was sexual. There was

significant differentiation among populations (F st £ 0.0468,

p = 0.05), but no indication of isolation by distance. The

lack of spatial pattern in the genetic differentiation of

populations suggest stochastic influences on recruitment to

give rise to localised differentiation of some populations.

STUDIES ON THE CHEMICAL ECOLOGY AND

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF SARCOPHYTON

TROCHELIOPHORUM VON MARENZELLER

(COELENTERATA: ALCYONACEA) ON GUAM,

MARIANA ISLANDS.

Starmer, John A.* *University of Guam Marine

Laboratory: P.O. Box 3035: Koror: PW: 96940: Palau.

Email: jstarmer@yahoo.com

Sarcophyton trocheliophorum colonies collected in Guam

were found to contain organic chemicals and calcium

carbonate spicules which deterred predation by sympatric

reef fishes. Bioassay guided fractionation identified the

compound isosarcophytoxide B and a multicompound

fraction to be responsible for the chemical deterrence. The

effectiveness of either sclerites or chemistry was found to

vary among different reef fish species tested in the

laboratory. Observations on the spawning and egg and larval

development of S. trocheliophourm showed many

similarities with previously studied alcyonarian corals.

9icrs Session C: Socio Economic Issues

NEW POSTERS

CORAL REEF FISHES AND REEF RELATED

FISHERIES IN ANDAMAN N NICOBAR ISLANDS

Rajan Pt*, Zoological Survey Of India - Haddo, Port

Blair 744102 - India. Email: rajan08in@yahoo.com

The Andaman and Nicobar islands consists of about 348

islands having a total Geographical area of 8249 Sq Km,

surrounded by coral reefs, rocky, sandy areas and mangrove

swamps. Of the 324 islands of the Andaman district 27 are

inhabited and 13 of the 24 Islands in the Nicobar district are

inhabited. The coastline of this union territory extends to

1962 Km, which is _th of mainland India. The exclusive

economic Zone (EEZ) is about 0.6 million Sq Km. The

coastline supports the coral reef fishers and several groups

of animals of commercial importance. The Reef shark

fishery, Grouper fishery, Sea cucumber fishery, Lobster

fishery and Molluscan fishery are some of the major

fisheries that occupy a significant position in the socio-economic

fabric of these islands, by providing the

population not only the nutritious food but also income and

employment opportunities. The regions around these Islands

is the least studied for potential fisheries resources around

the country there is hardly any intensive fishing at the reefs.

Only poaching by Burmese, Indonesians and Thailanders

for Trochus spp and other valuable reef organisms is seen as

a serious problem. One common problem associated with all

these fisheries was inadequate monitoring of the fishery.

Catch and effort data were not collected regularly in any of

the fisheries. Limited management measures are in place for

the most of the fisheries...9ICRS Session D: Assessment Monitoring

NEW POSTERS

CORAL REEF MAPPING USING REMOTE SENSING

AND GIS IN INDONESIA: AN OVERVIEW OF FIRST

RESULT

Hantoro W.S.*, Soeprapto T.A., Suprijanto D.

*Research and Development Center for Geotechnology-Indonesian

Institute of Sciences RDCG-LIPI,

Sangkuriang, Bandung 40135, Indonesia, 002503654,

Email: hantoro@geotek.lipi.go.id

Now days, there have been available enough data and

information about reef in Indonesia, but it has not been

spatially covered the whole area neither continuously

updated, and it is sparsely and is not well documented under

the standard format. So that, the present status of reef in

Indonesia is not really known. To manage data and

information of reef and its environment; data of physical

reef it self and other related information (social, economy,

etc.), are necessarily needed and it must be produced and

managed under the standard format so that the output

information can be accepted and optimally applied to the

program of the reef management and rehabilitation, and

other program related to reef environment (spatial planning,

coastal management, tourism, etc,). To build a standard

format of spatial data, one to be prepared; is the good base

map, produced by using and under the GIS format. To have

a national reference of Indonesian reef map, COREMAP

(Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Program)

launched a reef-mapping program. This work, to covered the

whole region of Indonesia, the reef base map has to be ready

in just short time (2 years since May 1999), so it has been

agreed to support the rapid mapping, by choosing remote

sensing method and using TM satellite data as the raw

material. Available bathimetric and other physiographic

map are used to be referred as the geometric standard. This

product will inform the coverage of reef ecosystem in

Indonesia, and as the basic map it will be implemented as

the standard reference to any information related to the reef

management in Coremap program.

STATUS AND TRENDS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE

FLORIDA KEYS NATIONAL MARINE

SANCTUARY: 1996-1999: USEPA CORAL REEF

MONITORING PROJECT.

Kosmynin, Vladimir*, Phillip Dustan, James W. Porter,

Walter C. Jaap; Jennifer Wheaton, Matt Patterson.

*Department of Biology, University of Charleston,

Charleston, SC 29412. Email: kosmyninv@cofc.edu

The Florida Keys Coral/Hardbottom Monitoring Project

(CRMP) has identified significant losses in species richness

and coral cover between 1996 and 1998 at 40 sites

distributed from Key Largo to Key West. Since 1996:

Thirty-four of forty sites (88%) exhibited losses in

scleractinian coral taxa; there has been an epidemic of coral

diseases as evidenced by increases in spatial and habitat

distribution of diseases, more types of diseases, and more

coral species infected. Between 1996 and 1998, percent

cover of living coral decreased 19.4% across all 40 sites in

the Florida Reef Tract (Wilcoxin Matched Pairs Test

p=0.000001). Losses in coral diversity and percent coral

cover occurred throughout the Reef Tract although it was

more pronounced in the Middle Keys. The Lower Keys had

net loss at 17 of 20 sites, the Upper Keys had net loss at 12

of 13 sites, and loss at the Middle Keys occurred at 6 of 7

sites. It is expected that the 1999 and 2000 sampling, which

occurred after Hurricane Georges, will demonstrate further

losses. It is important, however, to point out that these

hurricane losses only exacerbate the downward trend in

coral coverage, they are not the cause of it. Continued

monitoring and directed studies are needed to further

elucidate the causes of decreased coral vitality and loss of

biomass..9ICRS Session D: Assessment Monitoring

NEW POSTERS

9ICRS Session E: the Future of Coral Reefs.9ICRS POSTERS Posters E2: Bleaching

8

DATABASE ON ISOLATED CARBONATE BANKS

Vecsei A.*. Geologisches Institut der Universität, Albertstr.

23B, 79104 Freiburg i. Br., Germany. Email:

adam@perm.geologie.uni-freiburg.de

Isolated offshore banks are important for carbonate

production and for physical and chemical oceanography. I

present a new database on the geographic and depth

distribution of low-latitude isolated carbonate banks. Banks >

170 km 2 in summit area were mapped at a 10' x 10' scale from

sea charts. There are ca. 197 isolated low-latitude carbonate

banks in 0-200 m depth. Their total size is 534000 km 2 . The

banks cluster in the Caribbean, SW Indian Ocean, N Indian

Ocean, SE Asia, the Carolines, between the Coral Sea and

New Caledonia, the Melanesian Borderland, and the Hawaii

chain. Many banks have elevated rims, suggesting they are

drowned rimmed carbonate platforms. The distribution of the

bank summit areas shows a steady increase of the number of

banks with decreasing size, suggesting that there may be 600

banks in the 10 to ca. 170 km 2 range (75% of a new total of

797 banks). Most bank summits are in 0-70 m depth. The 0 to

10 m depth interval is most common because of the great size

of the Bahama Banks. Summit depths > 70 m are only

common in SE Asia. The 0-70 m depth window shows that

most banks grew up to -70 m or higher during the course of

their Pleistocene history. The area of shallow reefs on the

isolated banks is around 24500 km 2 . This is approximately

10% of the world's reef area (ca. 255000 km 2 , Spalding &

Grenfell 1997). Around 10% of the reefs on banks are on the

Little and Great Bahama Banks. 32% of all bank reefs are in

the Maldives.

ARE VIRUSES INVOLVED IN CORAL BLEACHING

PROCESSES?

Wilson W.H.*, I. Francis, K. Ryan & S.K. Davy *Marine

Biological Association, Citadel Hill, Plymouth, PL1 2PB,

UK. Email: whw@mba.ac.uk

Coral bleaching is the loss of symbiotic dinoflagellates

(zooxanthellae) and/or photosynthetic pigments from corals, as

a result of environmental stress. Temperature-induced, large-scale

bleaching episodes have been frequent in recent years

and have potentially catastrophic ecological and socio-economic

impacts. However, the precise mechanisms of

bleaching are still poorly understood. Viruses are present in

large concentrations in seawater and it is likely that all aquatic

microbial organisms have specific viruses that infect them.

Viral attack has yet to be considered as a coral bleaching

mechanism. We will present preliminary evidence that reveals

virus-like particles are induced following heat shock of

zooxanthellae isolated from the temperate sea anemone

Anemonia viridis . Furthermore, the filtered infectious agent is

transferable and can re-infect isolated zooxanthellae without

prior heat shock, thus fulfilling Koch’s postulates. The

implication of these results will be discussed.